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72-407: In 2017, Azbakiya diatrict/qism had 19,763 residents in its eight shiakhas : The district of Azbakeya was built upon a place of an old Coptic village, Tiandonias ( Coptic : ϯⲁⲛⲧⲱⲛⲓⲁⲥ ) or Umm Dunayn ( Arabic : ام دنين ) which was also called al-Maks ( Arabic : المكس "customs") in latter sources and Ottoman documents. By the time of Barquq , the first Burji Mamluk sultan (1382-1399),

144-511: A centralized system of local government officially called local administration as it is a branch of the Executive . The top-level of the hierarchy are 27 governorates (singular: محافظة muḥāfẓa , plural: محافظات muḥāfẓat ). A governorate is administered by a governor , who is appointed by the President of Egypt and serves at the president's discretion. Governors have

216-525: A military coup . On 9 October of the same year, the Peace and Security Council of the African Union lifted the suspension imposed on Mali, citing progress made to return to democracy. The country was again suspended on 1 June 2021, following its second military coup within nine months. Guinea's membership was also suspended by the African Union on 10 September 2021, after a military coup deposed

288-411: A military coup in late July that deposed democratically elected president Mohamed Bazoum ; this has since also led to the 2023 Nigerien crisis . Gabon's membership was suspended by the African Union on 31 August 2023 following a military coup that deposed president Ali Bongo Ondimba . The African Union has a number of official bodies: These institutions have not yet been established; however,

360-419: A certain peasant political activism and coopted the local notables — in particular the village headmen — and checked their independence from the regime. State penetration did not retreat under Sadat and Mubarak . The earlier effort to mobilize peasants and deliver services disappeared as the local party and cooperative withered, but administrative controls over the peasants remained intact. The local power of

432-621: A governor, who is appointed by the President of Egypt and serves at the president's discretion. Most governorates have a population density of more than one thousand per km , while the three largest have a population density of less than two per km . The governorates of Egypt are: At the municipal-level are markaz, kism, police-administered areas, and new cities. Generally, rural areas are divided into markaz whereas urban areas are divided into kism. As of 2013, there were 351 subdivisions, of which 177 were kism, 162 markaz, 9 new cities, and 3 police-administered areas. There are also unorganized areas in

504-728: A heated debate in Accra, the Assembly of Heads of State and Government agreed in the form of a declaration to review the state of affairs of the AU with a view to determining its readiness towards a Union Government. In particular, the Assembly agreed to: The declaration lastly noted the "importance of involving the African peoples, including Africans in the Diaspora , in the processes leading to

576-530: A lack of democracy and leaders who refuse to step down, discrimination against minorities (including LGBT people, religious groups and ethnicities) and corruption. He suggested an intensified democratization and free trade to significantly increase living quality for Africans. Member states of the African Union cover almost the entirety of continental Africa, except for several territories held by Spain ( Ceuta , Melilla , and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera ). In addition, European countries have dependencies among

648-720: A lesser extent Portuguese and Arabic are used. The Constitutive Act , for example, is written in English, French and Arabic, while the protocol amending the Constitutive Act is written in English, French and Portuguese. As of 2020, the AU website is available in its entirety in English, partially in French and minimally in Arabic. Portuguese and Swahili versions were added as "coming soon" ( em breve ) in April 2019. According to

720-640: A lot of reconstruction needed to be done within the walls of the city to repair the damages incurred as a result of the Black Death . In 1384, when Barquq started his madrasa in Bayn al-Qasrayn , markets were rebuilt, and Khan al-Khalili , the most famous touristic market in Cairo, was established. Al-Maqrizi showed that the northern cemetery, founded by al-Nasir Muhammad, contained no building at all before his third reign. When al-Nasir Muhammad in 1320 abandoned

792-831: A member state was the May 2003 deployment of a peacekeeping force of soldiers from South Africa, Ethiopia , and Mozambique to oversee the implementation of the various agreements in Burundi . AU troops were also deployed in the Sudan for peacekeeping during the Darfur Conflict , before the mission was handed over to the United Nations on 1 January 2008 via UNAMID . The AU has a peacekeeping mission in Somalia , consisting of troops from Uganda and Burundi. The AU has adopted

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864-677: A number of important new documents establishing norms at continental level, to supplement those already in force when it was created. These include the African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption (2003), the African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance (2007), the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and its associated Declaration on Democracy, Political, Economic and Corporate Governance. The historical foundations of

936-434: A part of Asia), accounting for slightly less than 2% of the total area. The total population of the African Union, as of 2017 , is estimated at more than 1.25 billion, with a growth rate of more than 2.5% p.a. The official languages of the African Union are Arabic, English, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Swahili , and "any other African language". The primary working languages of the African Union are English and French. To

1008-527: A residence of his own and excavated Birkat al-Azbakeya, which was fed from the Cairo Citadel Aqueduct . With the Arab's Gulf always serving as the western boundary of the city and feeding nearby ponds, flooding would occur during the summer. After each flooding, surrounding lands would be transformed into lush green areas with vegetation. These beauty of the land in these areas were exquisite and

1080-646: A unit in itself or to integration of the sub-regions. The 1980 Lagos Plan of Action for the Development of Africa and the 1991 treaty to establish the African Economic Community (also referred to as the Abuja Treaty), proposed the creation of Regional Economic Communities (RECs) as the basis for African integration, with a timetable for regional and then continental integration to follow. Currently, there are eight RECs recognised by

1152-578: Is composed of districts (singular: حي ḥay , plural: أحياء aḥya' ) and villages (singular: قرية qarya , plural: قرى qura ). There is a governing structure at each of these levels. Districts may be further divided into sub-districts as a fourth level. There are also seven economic regions used for planning purposes, defined by the General Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP). Egypt generally has three tiers of local administration units as per Article 1 of

1224-801: Is in km . African Union The African Union ( AU ) is a continental union of 55 member states located on the continent of Africa . The AU was announced in the Sirte Declaration in Sirte, Libya , on 9 September 1999, calling for the establishment of the African Union. The bloc was launched on 9 July 2002 in Durban , South Africa . The intention of the AU was to replace the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), established on 25 May 1963 in Addis Ababa by 32 signatory governments;

1296-473: Is intended to facilitate the harmonisation of policies and ensure compliance with the Abuja Treaty and Lagos Plan of Action time frames. In 2006, the AU decided to create a Committee "to consider the implementation of a rotation system between the regions" in relation to the presidency. Controversy arose at the 2006 summit when Sudan announced its candidacy for the AU's chairmanship, as a representative of

1368-522: Is legally obliged to transfer these communities to mainstream local administration once they are developed, none have been since its inception in 1979. The other exception are new villages built by the Ministry of Agriculture's General Authority for Rehabilitation Projects and Agricultural Development (GARPAD) in its desert land reclamation schemes, which are initially under its jurisdiction and should eventually be transferred to local authorities. At

1440-462: The Minister of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities issues planning permits and oversees the communities, while the appointed city agency heads issue building permits and run the day-to-day affairs of functioning towns. These 'cities' are represented in the local administration hierarchy as qisms affiliated to the nearest city proper (See for example Badr , Shorouk and New Cairo ). While NUCA

1512-425: The Ministry of Interior through the governors' executive organs to the district police station and the village headman. Sadat took several measures to administratively decentralize power to the provinces and towns, with limited fiscal and almost no political decentralisation. Governors acquired more authority under Law 43/1979, which reduced the administrative and budgetary controls of the central government over

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1584-468: The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) was also established. The African Union was launched in Durban on 9 July 2002 by its first chairperson, former South African head of state Thabo Mbeki , at the first session of the Assembly of the African Union. The second session of the Assembly was held in Maputo in 2003 and the third session in Addis Ababa was held on 6 July 2004. Since 2010,

1656-773: The Sahara and the Nile . The primary working languages are Arabic , English , French , Portuguese , Spanish , and Swahili . Within the African Union, there are official bodies, such as the Peace and Security Council and the Pan-African Parliament . At a G20 (Group of 20) meeting held in Delhi , India in 2023, the African Union was admitted as a member to the G20 like the European Union . The objectives of

1728-677: The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR). Morocco , which claims sovereignty over the Western Sahara , withdrew from the Organisation of African Unity in 1984 due to the admission of the SADR as a member. On 30 January 2017, the AU readmitted Morocco as a member state. Somaliland 's 2005 application to join the AU is still pending. Mali was suspended from the African Union on 19 August 2020 following

1800-520: The 18th AU summit. The complex was built by China State Construction Engineering Corporation as a gift from the Chinese government , and accommodates, among other facilities, a 2,500-seat plenary hall and a 20-story office tower. The tower is 99.9 meters high to signify the date 9 September 1999, when the Organisation of African Unity voted to become the African Union. The building cost US$ 200 million to construct. On 26 January 2018, five years after

1872-516: The 6th of October and Helwan governorates were again incorporated into the Giza and Cairo Governorates, respectively. Luxor was created in December 2009, to be the 29th governorate of Egypt, but with the abolition of the 6th of October and Helwan governorates, the number of governorates has decreased to 27. Before the 1952 Egyptian revolution , state penetration of the rural areas was limited by

1944-547: The AU, each established under a separate regional treaty. They are: The membership of many of the communities overlaps, and their rationalisation has been under discussion for several years—and formed the theme of the 2006 Banjul summit. At the July 2007 Accra summit the Assembly finally decided to adopt a Protocol on Relations between the African Union and the Regional Economic Communities. This protocol

2016-550: The AU—over thirty states have ratified the Kampala Convention , the only continental treaty focusing on internally displaced persons in the world. Beginning in 2016, the African Union introduced continent-wide passports. The individual member states of the African Union coordinate foreign policy through this agency, in addition to conducting their own international relations on a state-by-state basis. The AU represents

2088-581: The African Union are: The African Union is made up of both political and administrative bodies. The highest decision-making organ is the Assembly of the African Union , made up of all the heads of state or government of member states of the AU. The Assembly is chaired by Félix Tshisekedi , President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . The AU also has a representative body, the Pan-African Parliament , which consists of 265 members elected by

2160-506: The African Union eyes the establishment of a joint African space agency . Barack Obama was the first-ever sitting United States president to speak in front of the African Union in Addis Ababa on 29 July 2015. During his speech, he encouraged the world to increase economic ties via investments and trade with the continent and lauded the signs of progress made in education , infrastructure and economy . However, he also criticized

2232-538: The African Union originated in the First Congress of Independent African States , held in Accra , Ghana from 15 to 22 April 1958. The conference was aimed at establishing Africa Day to annually mark the liberation movement concerning the willingness of the African people to free themselves from colonial rule, as well as subsequent attempts to unite Africa, including the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), which

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2304-512: The African Union project. There are divisions among African states on the proposals, with some (notably Libya ) following a maximalist view leading to a common government with an AU army; and others (especially the southern African states) supporting rather a strengthening of the existing structures, with some reforms to deal with administrative and political challenges in making the AU Commission and other bodies truly effective. Following

2376-491: The Alexandria, Aswan, Asyut, Beheira, Beni Suef, Cairo, Dakahlia, Damietta, Faiyum, Giza, Ismailia, Kafr El Sheikh, Luxor, Minya, Port Said, Qalyubia, Qena, Sharqia, Sohag, and Suez governorates. The village is the smallest local unit in rural communities, and is the equivalent of a district in urban areas. However, villages differ from each other in terms of legal status. The heads of villages or districts are appointed by

2448-475: The Constitutive Act of the African Union, The working languages of the Union and all its institutions shall be, if possible, African languages, Arabic, English, French and Portuguese. A protocol amending the Constitutive Act was adopted in 2003 and as of April 2020 has been ratified by 30 of the 37 member states needed for a two-thirds majority. It would change the above wording to, 1. The official languages of

2520-576: The East African region. Several member states refused to support Sudan because of tensions over Darfur (see also below). Sudan ultimately withdrew its candidacy and President Denis Sassou-Nguesso of the Republic of the Congo was elected to a one-year term. At the January 2007 summit, Sassou-Nguesso was replaced by President John Agyekum Kufuor of Ghana, despite another attempt by Sudan to gain

2592-640: The Free Movement Protocol. This protocol allows for free movement of people between countries that are part of the African Union. Article 14 of the Protocol to the treaty establishing the African economic community relating to the free movement of persons, right of residence, and the right of establishment discusses the free movement of workers. The African Union also has a Migration Policy Framework for Africa (MPFA). Forced displacement of people and groups has also been an area of focus for

2664-537: The French media report. Moussa Faki Mahamat , head of the African Union Commission, said the allegations in the Le Monde ' s report were false. "These are totally false allegations and I believe that we are completely disregarding them." The African Union replaced its Chinese-supplied servers and started encrypting its communications following the event. In 2018, the African Union adopted

2736-478: The Local Administration Law where each unit has an appointed head, and one economic level that does not have any administrative duties: 0. Economic regions (non administrative, comprising governorates) In addition to these tiers are New Urban Communities , which are satellite cities that are built and operated by the national level New Urban Communities Authority (NUCA). Its chairman,

2808-534: The OAU issued the Sirte Declaration (named after Sirte, Libya) on 9 September 1999, calling for the establishment of an African Union. The Declaration was followed by summits at Lomé in 2000, when the Constitutive Act of the African Union was adopted, and at Lusaka in 2001, when the plan for the implementation of the African Union was adopted. During the same period, the initiative for the establishment of

2880-642: The OAU was disbanded on 9 July 2002. The most important decisions of the AU are made by the Assembly of the African Union , a semi-annual meeting of the heads of state and government of its member states. The AU's secretariat, the African Union Commission , is based in Addis Ababa . The largest city in the AU is Lagos, Nigeria while the largest urban agglomeration is Cairo, Egypt . The African Union has more than 1.3 billion people and an area of around 30 million km (12 million sq mi) and includes world landmarks such as

2952-615: The Steering Committees working on their founding have been constituted. Eventually, the AU aims to have a single currency (the Afro ). The principal topic for debate at the July 2007 AU summit held in Accra , Ghana, was the creation of a Union Government, with the aim of moving towards a United States of Africa . A study on the Union Government was adopted in late 2006, and proposes various options for "completing"

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3024-545: The Union and all its institutions shall be Arabic, English, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Kiswahili and any other African language. 2. The Executive Council shall determine the process and practical modalities for the use of official languages as working languages. Founded in 2001 under the auspices of the AU, the African Academy of Languages promotes the usage and perpetuation of African languages among African people. In 2004 Joaquim Chissano of Mozambique addressed

3096-567: The area between Bab al-Nasr cemetery and the Muqattam , a small number of buildings started to be built in the northern cemetery. Under the Burji Mamluks, northern cemetery became the new area targeted for the any new city expansion, since no ideological oppositions were found preventing the construction of dwelling within cemeteries. The lack of opposition allowed for the construction of striking religious buildings of monumental scale in

3168-512: The artifacts. In the 1850s, the area was renovated during the rule of Isma'il Pasha in his plan to build a modern Cairo. Currently the well known Soor Elazbakeya (meaning the fence of Azbakeya) is a used books market that originated by a gathering of used books traders by the fence of the Azbakeya garden in 1926. (The market relocated to El Darasa in 1991 while a Metro station was being built, but returned to its original location in 1998). By

3240-613: The assembly in Swahili, but had to translate his words himself. The AU declared 2006 the Year of African Languages. 2006 also marked Ghana's 55th anniversary since it founded the Bureau of Ghana Languages originally known as Gold Coast Vernacular Literature Bureau . All UN member states based in Africa and on African islands are members of the AU, as is the partially recognized state of

3312-462: The chair. The year 2007 was the 50th anniversary of Ghana's independence, a symbolic moment for the country to hold the chair of the AU—and to host the mid-year summit at which the proposed Union Government was also discussed. In January 2008, President Jakaya Kikwete of Tanzania took over as chair, representing the East African region and thus apparently ending Sudan's attempt to become chair—at least till

3384-459: The city. The parameters of the city had been unchanged for the past 300 years according to the map done by the French expedition in 1798. With Baibars 's conquest of Cyprus in 1428, Bulaq became the major port of Cairo. By the end of the 15th century, Bulaq was even able to take over the role as the major commercial port from Old Cairo . The Azbakeya district was developed when Amir Azbak al-Yusufi, one of Qaytbay's princes, established stables and

3456-538: The civilian rank of minister and report directly to the prime minister , who chairs the Board of Governors (maglis al-muhafzin) and meets with them on a regular basis. The Minister of Local Development coordinates the governors and their governorate's budgets. The second-level, beneath and within governorates, are marakiz (singular: مركز markaz , plural: مراكز marakiz ) or aqsam (singular: قسم qism , plural: أقسام aqsam ) . The third-level

3528-680: The completion of the building of the AU Headquarters, the French newspaper Le Monde published an article stating that the Chinese government had heavily bugged the building, installing listening devices in the walls and furniture and setting up the computer system to copy data to servers in Shanghai daily. The Chinese government denied that they bugged the building, stating that the accusations were "utterly groundless and ridiculous." Ethiopian Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn rejected

3600-418: The country's President Alpha Condé . Sudan's membership was suspended by the African Union on 27 October 2021, after a military coup deposed the civilian government led by Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok . Burkina Faso's membership was suspended by the African Union in the aftermath of a military coup on 31 January 2022. Niger's membership was suspended by the African Union on 22 August 2023 following

3672-410: The current 2014 version gave wider local power through more decentralization. However, till the end of 2022, it has not been implemented as the government has drawn out the process of drafting a new local administration law leaving LPC seats vacant for over a decade. Egypt is divided into 27 governorates (muhāfazāt) and each has a capital and at least one city. Each governorate is administered by

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3744-470: The formation of the Union Government." Following this decision, a panel of eminent persons was set up to conduct the "audit review". The review team began its work on 1 September 2007. The review was presented to the Assembly of Heads of State and Government at the January 2008 summit in Addis Ababa. No final decision was taken on the recommendations, however, and a committee of ten heads of state

3816-585: The gardens. 30°03′10″N 31°14′54″E  /  30.05278°N 31.24833°E  / 30.05278; 31.24833 Local Government in Egypt [REDACTED] Member State of the African Union [REDACTED] Member State of the Arab League Egypt is divided, for the purpose of public administration , according to a three-layer hierarchy and some districts are further subdivided, creating an occasional fourth layer. It has

3888-401: The highest tier, there are three city-state governorates, Cairo , Port Said , and Suez , where the governor is also head of the city and lower units are 100% urban . Alexandria is a quasi -city-state also with a merged city-governorate unit, though with one rural county ( markaz ). The other 23 governorates are formed of counties ( marakiz , sing. markaz ) composed of one city acting as

3960-414: The late 19th century, the area became a center of entertainment, with the openings of cafes, bars, gambling halls, hashish dens and at least thirteen large entertainment venues. The Azbakeya gardens theater was the stage to most of the monthly concerts held by the famous Arab singer, Umm Kulthum . The Azbakeya gardens is only partially present now as two multi-story car parks have been built on large areas of

4032-423: The local administrative capital, overseeing other smaller cities (actually towns) as well as rural units ( al-wihdat al-rifiyah ) that are villages . The county-city heads ( raies markaz wa madina ) are appointed by the governor, where one county-city serves as the governorate capital and seat of the governor. Two new governorates were created in April 2008: Helwan and 6th of October . In April 2011, however,

4104-506: The local departments. Elections of the LPCs have also been observed to be fraudulent where the ruling National Democratic Party NDP won 95 percent of local council seats during the last election in 2008, and 84 percent of the seats were walkovers. After Mubarak was deposed by the popular uprising of January 2011 , parliament and local councils were dissolved pending the writing of a new constitution . The short-lived 2012 constitution and

4176-522: The national legislatures of the AU member states. Its president is Roger Nkodo Dang . Other political institutions of the AU include: The AU Commission , the secretariat to the political structures, is chaired by Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma of South Africa. On 15 July 2012, Dlamini-Zuma won a tightly contested vote to become the first female head of the African Union Commission, replacing Jean Ping of Gabon . Other AU structures are hosted by different member states: The AU's first military intervention in

4248-706: The northern cemetery. Examples include the Khanqah of Faraj ibn Barquq , Madrasa of Al-Nasir Muhammad , the Emir Qurqumas Complex , the Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan al-Ashraf Barsbay and the Complex of Sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay . During the latter half of the 15th century, two final major transformations took place in Cairo: the port of Boulaq , and a district called Azbakeya in the northwest section of

4320-465: The offshore islands of Africa: Spain (the Canary Islands and the islands of the plazas de soberanía ); France ( Mayotte , Réunion , and the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean ); Portugal (the Azores , Madeira , and the Savage Islands ); and the United Kingdom ( Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ). The geography of the African Union is wildly diverse, including the world's largest hot desert (the Sahara ), huge jungles and savannas , and

4392-543: The old families and the headmen revived but more at the expense of peasants than of the state. The district police station balanced the notables, and the system of local government (the mayor and council) integrated them into the regime. Until 1979, local government enjoyed limited power in Egypt's highly centralized state. Under the central government, there were twenty-six governorates (27 today), which were subdivided into counties (In Arabic : مركز markaz  "center", plural: مراكز marākiz ) , each of which

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4464-430: The power of local notables. Under Nasser , land reform reduced those notables' socioeconomic dominance, and the peasants were incorporated into cooperatives which transferred mass dependence from landlords to the government. The extension of officials into the countryside permitted the regime to bring development and services to the village. The local branches of the ruling party, the Arab Socialist Union (ASU), fostered

4536-430: The powerful Islamic movement there, while those in the port cities struck alliances with importers." However, others found local governance proved impotent, with parliamentarians reduced to the roles of local councillors , lobbying at the parliamentary level for basic local services, while the elected Local Popular Councils (LPC) had a parallel ceremonial role to the appointed Local Executive Councils (LEC) that managed

4608-438: The provinces. The elected councils acquired, at least formally, the right to approve or disapprove the local budget. In an effort to reduce local demands on the central treasury, local government was given wider powers to raise local taxes. Local representative councils became vehicles of pressure for government spending, and the soaring deficits of local government bodies had to be covered by the central government. Local government

4680-423: The respective governors. In addition to this, districts are occasionally further divided into sub-district neighborhoods called sheyakha in rural areas, or residential districts (singular: حي سكني ḥay sakani , plural: أحياء سكنية aḥya' sakaniya ) in urban areas. Data taken from CAPMAS: Data taken from CAPMAS:. Information for population is in thousands, pop density - persons/km and area

4752-419: The rotation returned to East Africa. The current chair is Mohamed Ould Ghazouani , President of Mauritania , whose term began on February 17, 2024. The main administrative capital of the African Union is in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , where the African Union Commission is headquartered. A new headquarters complex, the AU Conference Center and Office Complex (AUCC), was inaugurated on 28 January 2012, during

4824-411: The upper class fought over the each other for the first pick of the land to buy for the construction of their new palaces overlooking such bodies of water as Birkat al Fīl "Elephant Pond" and Azbakeya Pond. The Egyptian Museum was established by the Egyptian government in 1835 near the Azbakeya Gardens. The museum soon moved to Boulaq in 1858 because the original building was too small to hold all of

4896-429: The world's longest river (the Nile ). The AU has an area of 29,922,059 square kilometres (11,552,972 sq mi), with 24,165 kilometres (15,015 mi) of coastline. The vast majority of this area is on continental Africa, while the only significant territories off the mainland are the island of Madagascar (the world's largest microcontinent and fourth-largest island ) and the Sinai Peninsula (geographically

4968-406: Was appointed to consider the review and report back to the July 2008 summit to be held in Egypt. At the July 2008 summit, a decision was once again deferred, for a "final" debate at the January 2009 summit to be held in Addis Ababa. One of the key debates in relation to the achievement of greater continental integration is the relative priority that should be given to integration of the continent as

5040-453: Was encouraged to enter into joint ventures with private investors, and these ventures stimulated an alliance between government officials and the local rich that paralleled the infitah alliance at the national level. Under president Hosni Mubarak's rule (1981-2011), some scholars believed decentralization and local autonomy was achieved, and local policies often reflected special local conditions. Thus, officials in Upper Egypt often bowed to

5112-427: Was established on 25 May 1963, and the African Economic Community in 1991. Critics argued that the OAU in particular did little to protect the rights and liberties of African citizens from their own political leaders, often dubbing it the "Dictators' Club". The idea of creating the AU was revived in the mid-1990s under the leadership of Libyan head of state Muammar al-Gaddafi ; the heads of state and governments of

5184-407: Was further subdivided into towns or villages. At each level, there was a governing structure that combined representative councils and government-appointed executive organs headed by governors, district officers, and mayors, respectively. Governors were appointed by the president, and they, in turn, appointed subordinate executive officers. The coercive backbone of the state apparatus ran downward from

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