Misplaced Pages

#770229

125-533: The Bow Street Runners were the law enforcement officers of the Bow Street Magistrates' Court in the City of Westminster . They have been called London 's first professional police force . The force originally numbered six men and was founded in 1749 by magistrate Henry Fielding , who was also well known as an author. His assistant, brother, and successor as magistrate, John Fielding , moulded

250-567: A Secretary of State continuously for 30 years and dominated British foreign policy. After Henry's death, Newcastle was prime minister for six years in two separate periods. While his first premiership was not particularly notable, Newcastle precipitated the Seven Years' War , and his weak diplomacy cost him his premiership. After his second term, he served briefly in Lord Rockingham 's ministry, before he retired from government. He

375-693: A colonial raid against Louisbourg in 1745 , which was successful. Along with the defeat of a Spanish Invasion of Georgia in 1742, this strengthened the British position in North America. In 1745, the Jacobite Rising broke out in Scotland and soon spread to northern England . Newcastle feared an attack from the north by Bonnie Prince Charlie , who had already gathered 5,000 men in Derby , and

500-612: A French invasion of southern England. In the panic, a number of false rumours circulated around London, including news that Newcastle had fled to the Continent for fear that all was lost. He was forced to show himself to a crowd that had gathered outside Newcastle House to prove that he was still there. Nonetheless, his position was threatened since if the Jacobites were triumphant his estates would likely have been confiscated and he would have been forced into exile. Newcastle awoke to

625-745: A coalition with the ' New Whigs ', previous opponents of the Walpole government. However, there remained a strident opposition, led vocally by men like William Pitt and Lord Sandwich . In 1740, shortly after the declaration of war with Spain, a separate war had broken out simultaneously in Europe into which the War of Jenkins' Ear soon became submerged. In a dispute over the throne of Austria, both France and Prussia had invaded Austria and planned to remove Empress Maria Theresa and replace her with their own claimant. Austria's longstanding alliance with Britain required

750-541: A few assistants. During John Fielding's time as a magistrate, the Bow Street office seems to have been open for most of the day and for most days of the week, even when Fielding was not himself in the office, and there was always a so-called 'ordinary' to whom one could report offences also during the night-time. One of the main activities carried out by clerks and assistants in the office was to collect and record information about offences and offenders, therefore creating

875-657: A lasting peace that would be built around a strong and stable British alliance with Austria. Like many Whigs he saw maintaining the European balance of power, as essential. He described the process as "restoring the Old System", but it was popularly known as the Newcastle System. He came under continuous attack from Pitt and the Patriot Whigs , who despised his European policy because of their belief that

1000-602: A major overhaul of public buildings, many of which had fallen into very poor repair. In 1724, Newcastle was chosen by Walpole to be Secretary of State for the Southern Department in place of Lord Carteret , a move largely engineered by Townshend. He had been for some time considered the third most important man in the government, behind Walpole and Townshend, which was confirmed by his new position. Newcastle had for several years been growing increasingly interested in foreign affairs and had been educating himself on

1125-701: A messenger who wanted to report a crime. This was encouraged by the promise of a reward to the messenger (usually a shilling) and of a paid advertisement in one or more papers of the stolen goods. Fielding believed strongly in the importance of a rapid spread of information and therefore advertising was very important to his policing strategy. Of course, this included also the advertising of the activity carried out in Bow Street, as well as exhortations to victims to report offences and any kind of information on criminals and stolen goods. In case of robbery or other serious offences, Bow Street officers were immediately involved and dispatched. The success of their detection work and of

1250-471: A policy and became a target for unprecedented attacks. Newcastle too came under intense pressure but initially considered the demands for Britain to declare war with Spain a dangerous step, and in spite of his increasingly bellicose statements, he still considered the idea of an Anglo-Spanish alliance as late as 1739. He tried to negotiate a solution to the crisis with the Convention of Pardo , which agreed

1375-530: A royal favourite, but by 1743, Newcastle and his brother were firmly in control of British policy until 1756. Newcastle now set about drawing up a fresh scheme to enhance British power on the continent, including an attempt to persuade the Dutch Republic into the anti-French alliance and mediating the dispute between Austria and Prussia, which led to the Treaty of Dresden in 1745. He also approved plans for

SECTION 10

#1732765899771

1500-449: A search. Otherwise, they would have had to seek such assistance, although in practice there was not any impediment to their working wherever their enquiries took them, as some accounts from 1756 show that they pursued suspects into Hertfordshire , Bedfordshire and even to Bristol . Fielding's policing system relied very much on the information provided by informants, to whom were directed the many pamphlets and advertisements published by

1625-436: A sort of criminal database that could turn useful to officers in their investigating activities. Fielding believed that a national system of criminal information circulating throughout not only the metropolis of London but also the entire country would ensure that offenders would be arrested and brought to justice; moreover, anyone contemplating an offence would be deterred from doing so. In addition, he introduced innovations at

1750-514: A sum of compensation to be paid to British merchants, but British public opinion had shifted, and Walpole felt that there was no option but to declare war in December 1739. The British opened the war with a victory, capturing Porto Bello in Panama. That led to an outbreak of patriotic fervour, and further increased the pressure on Walpole and Newcastle for their perceived unwilling prosecution of

1875-586: A wide variety of non-criminal violations of rules and norms, effected through the imposition of less severe consequences such as probation. Law enforcement organizations existed in ancient times, such as prefects in ancient China , paqūdus in Babylonia , curaca in the Inca Empire , vigiles in the Roman Empire , and Medjay in ancient Egypt . Who law enforcers were and reported to depended on

2000-767: Is a national police agency, which supervises the police agencies for each individual prefecture ; and in Niger , there is a national police for urban areas and a gendarmerie for rural areas, both technically national-level. In some cases, there may be multiple agencies at the same level but with different focuses: for example, in the United States, the Drug Enforcement Administration and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives are both national-level federal law enforcement agencies, but

2125-459: Is autonomous or dependent on other organizations for its operations, the governing body that funds and oversees the agency may decide to dissolve or consolidate its operations. Dissolution of an agency may occur when the governing body or the agent itself decides to end operations. This can occur due to multiple reasons, including criminal justice reform , a lack of population in the jurisdiction, mass resignations , efforts to deter corruption , or

2250-542: The Despard Plot . In 1792, Parliament did pass legislation that introduced some reform to the system, the Middlesex Justices Act 1792 ( 32 Geo. 3 . c. 53) which contained two elements of the 1785 bill: one was the establishment of public offices where magistrates monopolized the administration of criminal law throughout the metropolis, and the other was the increase in the powers of the police. The Act

2375-515: The Duke of Bedford by engineering his resignation and the dismissal of Lord Sandwich, whom Newcastle had now begun to consider a dangerously ambitious rival. The ease with which he did so demonstrated his total control of British politics, as Bedford led a strong faction. He had, however, made a significant enemy, who would later try to undermine Newcastle. In 1752 he made a rare trip abroad by accompanying George II on his annual trip to Hanover . During

2500-556: The Home Department in 1782, therefore allowing the administration of criminal law to receive more focused attention than before. In time, this office would provide a centre to deal with all the aspects of criminal administration. In 1782 it also supported the new Bow Street Foot Patrols . Eventually, in 1785, the Home Department attempted to introduce and pass ' A Bill for the further Prevention of Crimes, and for

2625-580: The Royal Academy of Music . The Duke ordered Handel in May 1719 to go to the Continent to contract singers for as long as possible. He held the post for seven years and performed well enough to be considered for further promotion. Despite his youth, he had demonstrated his strength in several general elections when he had been able to get as many as 20 MPs elected to seats that he controlled through his family's wealth and political patronage. He survived in

SECTION 20

#1732765899771

2750-415: The last major European war , Britain had been an ally of France, a strong reversal in policy, as France had previously been considered the premier enemy of Britain. The reasons for the alliance were complex, and many had doubted the détente could last long, but when Newcastle became Secretary of State, they had been allies for nearly a decade. By 1719, they had become part of a wider Quadruple Alliance, which

2875-656: The s hurta , and the Maréchaussée provided services ranging from law enforcement and personal protection to customs enforcement and waste collection. In England , a complex law enforcement system emerged, where tithings , groups of ten families, were responsible for ensuring good behavior and apprehending criminals; groups of ten tithings ("hundreds") were overseen by a reeve ; hundreds were governed by administrative divisions known as shires ; and shires were overseen by shire-reeves . In feudal Japan , samurai were responsible for enforcing laws. The concept of police as

3000-681: The 1660s in the Province of New York . The Province of Carolina established slave-catcher patrols in the 1700s, and by 1785, the Charleston Guard and Watch was reported to have the duties and organization of a modern police force. The first municipal police department in the United States was the Philadelphia Police Department , while the first American state police , federal law enforcement agency

3125-887: The 1749 establishment of the London Bow Street Runners , the first formal police force in Britain. In 1800, Napoleon reorganized French law enforcement to form the Paris Police Prefecture ; the British government passed the Glasgow Police Act , establishing the City of Glasgow Police ; and the Thames River Police was formed in England to combat theft on the River Thames . In September 1829, Robert Peel merged

3250-644: The 19th century, improvements in technology, greater global connections, and changes in the sociopolitical order led to the establishment of police forces worldwide. National, regional, and municipal civilian law enforcement agencies exist in practically all countries; to promote their international cooperation, the International Criminal Police Organization , also known as Interpol, was formed in September 1923. Technology has made an immense impact on law enforcement, leading to

3375-588: The American colony of Georgia in 1733. The longstanding peace policy was now beginning to look extremely fragile. He also acted as a mediator in the War of the Polish Succession , helping to bring the conflict to an end in 1738. The growing tension between Britain and Spain came to a head in 1731 during an incident known as Jenkins' Ear , when a British merchant captain was captured for illegal trading off

3500-619: The Austrian Alliance. He spent several years trying to secure the election of Maria Theresa's son, the future Emperor Joseph II , as King of the Romans , a title of the Holy Roman Empire that carried enormous prestige but little real power, only to see the scheme fail because of Austrian indifference. There were a number of warning signs that all was not well with the alliance, but Newcastle ignored most of them since he

3625-889: The Bow Street Runners and the Thames River Police to form the Metropolitan Police . The title of the "first modern police force" has still been claimed by the modern successors to these organizations. Following European colonization of the Americas , the first law enforcement agencies in the Thirteen Colonies were the New York Sheriff's Office and the Albany County Sheriff's Department , both formed in

3750-534: The Bow Street Runners. His Runners were not dissimilar to the thief-takers, but differed from them in their formal attachment to the Bow Street magistrates ' office and in being paid by the magistrate with funds from central government. They worked out of Fielding's office and court at No. 4 Bow Street, and did not patrol but served writs and arrested offenders on the authority of the magistrates, travelling nationwide to apprehend criminals. Henry Fielding's work

3875-490: The Bow Street office that would have a great effect on the first procedures of criminal prosecution. Fielding created a court-like setting that could attract and accommodate a large audience for his examinations of suspected offenders, opened and available for the public for long and regular hours. In doing so, he turned the office from being the mere house of a magistrate to being the Bow Street Magistrates' Court in which several justices were employed in rotation in order to keep

Bow Street Runners - Misplaced Pages Continue

4000-448: The Bow Street office. Turnpike gatekeepers and publicans were therefore encouraged to report crimes and offences as soon as possible to Bow Street, in order to allow Fielding's men to presently seek out and apprehend the offenders. Law enforcement The concept of law enforcement dates back to ancient times, and forms of law enforcement and police have existed in various forms across many human societies. Modern state legal codes use

4125-728: The DEA focuses on narcotics crimes, while the ATF focuses on weapon regulation violations. Various segments of society may have their own specialist law enforcement agency , such as the military having military police , schools having school police or campus police , or airports having airport police . Private police may exist in some jurisdictions, often to provide dedicated law enforcement for privately-owned property or infrastructure, such as railroad police for private railways or hospital police for privately-owned hospital campuses. Depending on various factors, such as whether an agency

4250-536: The Dutch Republic to make peace with the French. The Dutch feared that the French would soon launch a devastating onslaught and overrun their country. Newcastle considered that any peace that would be made would be extremely disadvantageous to Britain, and he tried to keep the anti-French coalition strong through constant diplomacy and offers of financial subsidies . Talks for a peace settlement were convened in

4375-481: The Fielding brothers had a financial interest. In late 1753, the government approved Fielding's proposal and established an annual subvention of £200, that allowed Fielding not only to support the advertisement and the Bow Street officers but also to maintain a stable group of clerks who kept detailed records of their activities. A new kind of magistrate's office and policing activity was therefore established; after

4500-625: The Home Office and to the financial resources at their disposal, regulated by an informal agreement with the Treasury rather than by legislation, therefore increasing the policing resources available. This made it possible for the government to use the Runners and the patrolmen as they thought necessary, increasing their range of investigation, that now included more engagement with threats to national security and social disorder, as can be seen by

4625-682: The Household and was given the responsibility of overseeing theatres. Plays were often extremely political, and Newcastle was tasked with suppressing any plays or playwrights that he believed to be too critical of the Hanoverian succession or the Whig government. Newcastle clashed repeatedly with Sir Richard Steele , a leading playwright. In 1719, he was one of the three main investors in George Frideric Handel 's new opera company,

4750-712: The Jacobite James Stuart , known later as the 'old pretender'. This issue dominated British politics during the last few years of Queen Anne's reign, leading up to her death in 1714, and had a profound impact on the future career of the young Duke of Newcastle. He joined the Hannover Club and the Kit Kat Club , both leading centres of Whig thinking and organisation. Newcastle House in London became his premier residence. Newcastle vigorously sustained

4875-534: The Metropolitan Police as soon as possible and, although this report was not enforced, their conclusions were taken up and expanded by another committee in 1837. The reports of these committees were enacted into law as a renewal of the Police Act in 1839 and, in doing so, made the Runners at Bow Street redundant. Bow Street's involvement in a case began quite simply with the arrival of a victim or

5000-558: The Netherlands. Orange wanted to continue the war with the French but soon had to apply to the British for a massive loan. Newcastle, now aware of how close the Dutch were to collapsing altogether, reluctantly turned towards seeking a peaceful accommodation with France. He berated himself for his "ignorance, obstinacy and credulity" and half expected his misjudgment in putting so much faith in the Dutch to result in his dismissal, but both

5125-583: The Whigs at Queen Anne's death and had much influence in making the Londoners accept King George I , even organising so-called 'Newcastle mobs' to fight with rival Jacobites in the street. His services were too great to be neglected by the new Hanoverian king, and in 1714, he was created Earl of Clare , and in 1715 Marquess of Clare and Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, two titles previously held by his late uncle John Holles. He also became Lord-Lieutenant of

Bow Street Runners - Misplaced Pages Continue

5250-500: The Whigs, and he was granted unprecedented powers, effectively making him the first prime minister of Great Britain . During his time in the office, Newcastle and his wife had become famous for throwing lavish parties that were attended by much of London society including many of his political opponents. He was also prodigiously fond of fox hunting and often went down to Bishopstone , one of his Sussex properties, expressly for that purpose. During his time as Lord Chamberlain he oversaw

5375-523: The Whigs. Following their victory, the Whigs split with one group forming the government for George I, and the other dissident Whigs became the effective opposition in Parliament. After a period of political manoeuvring, he was for a while associated with a Whig faction led by James Stanhope , but from 1720, Newcastle began to identify strongly with the government Whigs, who had quickly come to be dominated by Sir Robert Walpole . Walpole gladly welcomed

5500-495: The alliance were not to end in defeat. In the same year, 16,000 British troops were sent to the continent. Newcastle was a staunch Austrophile and strongly supported aid to the Austrians. He had long thought that the only way Britain could defeat France was in alliance with Austria, a view sharply at odds with many other leading politicians such as Walpole and Pitt. Newcastle's position had briefly been threatened by Carteret ,

5625-473: The appointment of bishops and lucrative positions in the Church of England. Newcastle's growing independence from Walpole was helped by the support of his brother and his best friend, Hardwicke , who had become Lord Chancellor. During the latter half of the decade, his job was increasingly dominated by managing relations with Spain, which included trade disputes and objections to the controversial founding of

5750-449: The apprehension of offenders relied on the rapid collection and communication of information about the crime committed and on the descriptions of the offenders. Officers could go out on their own initiative to investigate an offence, as essentially they were hired by the victims to give them help. Most victims were expected to pay the expenses of the investigation and to offer a small reward for information as well. They would also have to face

5875-479: The arrest. As a result, the state set a reward to encourage citizens to arrest and prosecute offenders. The first of such rewards was established in 1692 of the amount of £40 for the conviction of a highwayman and in the following years it was extended to burglars , coiners and other forms of offence. The reward was to be increased in 1720 when, after the end of the War of the Spanish Succession and

6000-439: The authority over the activity of the Runners and was mainly concerned to bring Bow Street's finances under control. The Bow Street magistrates' effective loss of authority over the activity of the Runners and the government's concern to control costs meant that the funds for the office were much diminished in the 1830s. In 1834, a parliamentary committee recommended that the Bow Street men and constables should be incorporated with

6125-401: The city of Breda in 1746. Newcastle was instrumental in securing the appointment of Lord Sandwich as the British representative at the talks, as his views were very close to his own. Sandwich's principal instructions were to delay the talks until a significant British victory allowed them to negotiate from a position of strength. The Congress of Breda did not progress well initially because

6250-548: The civilization and often changed over time, but they were typically enslaved people , soldiers , officers of a judge , or hired by settlements and households. Aside from their duties to enforce laws, many ancient law enforcers also served as slave catchers , firefighters , watchmen , city guards , and bodyguards . By the post-classical period and the Middle Ages , forces such as the Santa Hermandades ,

6375-418: The coast of Cuba by a Spanish privateer, and in punishment for his alleged breach of the strict laws forbidding foreign commerce with Spanish colonies, he had an ear cut off. The incident shocked Britain not so much because of its brutality but because many saw it as an outrage that Spain should have the temerity to harm a British subject simply for trading, which many held to be a legitimate occupation despite

SECTION 50

#1732765899771

6500-499: The commitment of felons to trial continued to erode with the expansion of the patrol and the creation of new police offices from 1792. By the early 1820s, Bow Street was responsible for just over 10% of the accused felons being committed to trial at the Old Bailey. After 1815, the Runners' most regular employment was to respond to help requests from prosecutors outside London. These were likely cases in which their skill and experience

6625-644: The consequent rise of criminal offences, the government offered £100 for the conviction of a highwayman. Although the offer of such a reward was conceived as an incentive for the victims of an offence to proceed to the prosecution and to bring criminals to justice, the efforts of the government also increased the number of private and unofficial thief-takers , who would solve petty crime for a fee. Thief-takers became infamously known not so much for what they were supposed to do, catching real criminals and prosecuting them, as for "setting themselves up as intermediaries between victims and their attackers, extracting payments for

6750-455: The constables into a professional and effective force. Bow Street Runners was the public's nickname for the officers although the officers did not use the term themselves and considered it derogatory. The group was disbanded in 1839 and its personnel merged with the Metropolitan Police , which had been formed ten years earlier but the London metropolitan detective bureau trace their origins back from there. The Bow Street Runners are considered

6875-405: The continent were full of praise on how he had overturned such a disadvantageous situation. Following the peace, Newcastle began to put into practice a policy that he had been developing for a very long time. He believed that the stately quadrille , which had seen states continually shifting alliances, had been unstable and led to repeated wars. He wanted instead to use vigorous diplomacy to create

7000-421: The continent. Notably, Britain did not become embroiled in the War of the Polish Succession and indeed tried to prevent it from breaking out. Newcastle attempted to throw both the French and Austrians off-guard by being cagey about Britain's response if war broke out, but that did not stop the conflict. Once the war had started, George II tried to push for Britain to honour its commitment to assist Austria, but he

7125-488: The counties of Middlesex and Nottingham and a Knight of the Garter . In his new position, he was in charge of suppressing Jacobitism in the counties under his control. In Middlesex, he arrested and questioned 800 people and drew up a Voluntary Defence Association to defend the county. In 1715, he became involved in a riot that ended with two men being killed, and Newcastle fleeing along rooftops. The succession of George I

7250-413: The death of Henry Fielding in 1754, it was carried on by his brother John, who had overseen the whole project and was to further expand and develop it over the following years. When Henry Fielding died in 1754, he was succeeded as Magistrate by his brother Sir John Fielding , who had previously been his assistant for four years. Known as the "Blind Beak of Bow Street", John Fielding refined the patrol into

7375-575: The development and regular use of police cars , police radio systems, police aviation , police tactical units , and police body cameras . Most law enforcement is conducted by some law enforcement agency , typically a police force. Civilians generally staff police agencies, which are typically not a military branch . However, some militaries do have branches that enforce laws among the civilian populace, often called gendarmerie , security forces , or internal troops . Social investment in enforcement through such organizations can be massive in terms of

7500-470: The direction of Britain's foreign policy. Townshend was convinced that Britain's principal enemy was now Austria . Walpole and Newcastle saw Spain as the main threat to British power because of its large navy and colonial interests. Eventually, Walpole had his way, forcing Townshend from office, and replacing him with Lord Harrington . From then on, Newcastle served as the senior Secretary of State and largely controlled British foreign policy himself. Newcastle

7625-641: The end of a period of war (in this case the American Revolution ) and the consequent return in the country of many soldiers and sailors, who were now out of a job. The second factor was directly linked to the first and concerned the issue of transportation to the American colonies, which had been established in 1718 and begun the principal sanction imposed on convicted felons. The loss of the American territories resulted in convicts piling up in inadequate jails, as they continued to be sentenced to transportation, without an actual destination. The government

SECTION 60

#1732765899771

7750-404: The end, he was later accused by many of Walpole's supporters of having undermined him. Horace Walpole , his son, continued to attack Newcastle's behaviour for years to come. Newcastle continued in office after Walpole's fall and became more powerful on his younger brother Henry Pelham becoming prime minister in 1743. Together, the two brothers and their supporters known as the 'Old Whigs' made

7875-401: The entire metropolis, and also beyond London itself. To facilitate the reach of the office, Fielding was named in the commissions of the peace of Kent , Essex and Surrey , in addition to those of Middlesex and Westminster. That meant that the Bow Street officers did not have to seek the assistance of local magistrates in the counties surrounding London in order to make an arrest or carry out

8000-403: The estate with his Aunt was finally settled in 1714. He increasingly identified with Whig politics, like his father and uncle, but whereas they had been moderate in their views, he grew increasingly more partisan and militant in his views. Britain was very divided between Whigs who favoured the succession of George of Hanover after Queen Anne 's death and Tories who supported the return of

8125-403: The excessive costs. Nevertheless, two 'pursuit horses' were maintained to send officers to patrol roads from time to time. The patrol activity of the Bow Street officers is an indicator of a fundamental characteristic of the Bow Street policing system, which is its undefined geographical range. In fact, the officers were not restricted to a particular area of the city but were able to operate across

8250-458: The expenses of an eventual trial, even though if the offender was convicted they would have had the right to receive financial compensation from the court. Later, as a response to the numerous reports of attacks by footpads and highwaymen, Fielding decided to send some men to patrol the squares of Westminster and the highways leading into the city, also on horseback from 1756, though by 1766–67 horseback patrolling had been sharply curtailed, due to

8375-433: The fewer and fewer accounts of Runners giving evidence in trials at the Old Bailey. In the new century, crime rates diminished in the metropolis, therefore the contribution of the Runners to the policing of property offences decreased considerably; they continued to investigate offences in London, but not as actively as they had before. Their incomes from London crime diminished as the position that Bow Street had once held in

8500-578: The first British police force. Before the force was founded, the law enforcing system was in the hands of private citizens and single individuals with very little intervention from the state. A police force like the Maréchaussée already present in France would have been ill-suited to Britain, which saw examples such as the French one as a threat to their liberty and balanced constitution in favour of an arbitrary and tyrannical government. The enforcement of

8625-403: The first truly effective police force for the capital, later adding officers mounted on horseback , and remained chief magistrate of Westminster until his death in 1780. As soon as he was appointed, John Fielding examined the activity of the Bow Street office and the issues that needed to be addressed; the financial contribution from the state was still in place, so his pamphlet focused mainly on

8750-482: The governing body contracting with a different agency that renders the original agency redundant or obsolete. According to the International Association of Chiefs of Police , agency consolidation can occur to improve efficiency, consolidate resources, or when forming a new type of government. Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne and 1st Duke of Newcastle-under-Lyne , (21 July 1693 – 17 November 1768)

8875-521: The government, the men at Fielding's service were left relying on the rewards issued by the state after an offender's conviction and by private citizens in order to retrieve their stolen goods. It is also true that many of the original Runners were also serving constables, so they were financially supported by the state. Nevertheless, the problem persisted and, in 1753, Fielding's initiative came close to failing when his men had stopped their thief-taking activity for some time. A way out of this situation came in

9000-576: The initial £200 to £400 in 1757 and to £600 by 1765, as Fielding managed to persuade the Duke of Newcastle, now First Lord of the Treasury , of the increasing costs of an active policing and advertising, as well as of the need of recruiting a permanent clerical staff for the office. The administration of the funds was left largely in Fielding's hands. He provided payments to six officers, for investigating and attempting to apprehend offenders, and occasionally to

9125-456: The king and the rest of the cabinet retained their faith in him. To oversee the peace settlement, Newcastle switched across to the position of Northern Secretary . He secured Sandwich's promotion to the Admiralty although he had wanted Sandwich to succeed him as Southern Secretary . During the summer of 1748, Newcastle made his first ever trip outside Britain when he visited Hanover and

9250-419: The latter to declare war. It was also considered by many that a French victory would leave the French too strong in Europe. However, Britain soon found itself dragged into this wider war despite the reluctance of its government. Initially, Britain's involvement was limited to financial subsidies and diplomacy in support of Austria, but by 1742, it was apparent that a more substantial commitment would be needed if

9375-415: The latter. Therefore, Fielding wrote a number of pamphlets to justify the activity of thief-taking; he argued that the legitimacy of this activity had been undermined by the actions of a few (see for example Jonathan Wild ) and that, in fact, thief-takers performed a public service where the civil authorities were weaker. Another step towards the legitimation of the activity of the Bow Street Runners concerned

9500-445: The law then was mostly up to the private citizens, who had the right and duty to prosecute crimes in which they were involved or in which they were not. At the cry of 'murder!' or 'stop thief!' everyone was entitled and obliged to join the pursuit. Once the criminal had been apprehended, the parish constables and night watchmen , who were the only public figures provided by the state and who were typically part-time and local, would make

9625-437: The lawfulness of an arrest made by an ordinary citizen. Fielding made clear that constables were not the only ones to have the right to make an arrest, but under special circumstances – such as with a warrant issued by a magistrate – also private citizens could act against a suspected criminal and arrest them. Another problem that Fielding had to face was that of the economic support of the Runners; without any direct funding from

9750-504: The legacy of his predecessor, Sir Thomas de Veil , Fielding turned Bow Street into a court-like setting in which to conduct examinations. However, his reformed method was not limited to his magisterial activity in Bow Street; it was also extended outside of the magistrate's office. In fact, since 1749–50 Henry Fielding had begun organising a group of men with the task of apprehending offenders and taking them to Bow Street for examination and commitment to trial . Such an organised intervention

9875-468: The legal prohibition in force. In 1738, Jenkins appeared in Parliament to testify about his treatment. Other merchants sent petitions, and the powerful South Sea Company mobilised popular opinion. To many, the Spanish Empire was crumbling, and its South American possessions were ripe for the picking. A vociferous group in Parliament demanded war with Spain. Walpole was adamantly opposed to such

10000-516: The main British campaign against Spain was a combined amphibious attack on the South American city of Cartagena , which had experienced considerable delays. Command was awarded to Admiral Edward Vernon , the victor of Porto Bello, who was given a force of 31,000 soldiers and sailors to take the city. The siege proved to be a total disaster for the British, who lost thousands of men before being forced to withdraw. Although Newcastle had issued

10125-401: The metropolis as a unified district and a central command overseeing many policing divisions was completely new. In addition to the reform of the structure of the London policing forces, the bill included clauses aimed at the prevention of crime, such as giving police preventive powers to search and arrested on suspicion. An example is when they arrest Colonel Edward Despard , for provoking

10250-625: The more speedy Detection and Punishment of Offenders against the Peace, in the Cities of London and Westminster, the Borough of Southwark, and certain Parts adjacent to them ' , which was meant to provide a measure of central control over the many police forces across the metropolis but failed to do so. Some elements were derived from the existing institutions, particularly Bow Street, but the concept of

10375-407: The nation's profit ... Many modern historians have depicted him as the epitome of unredeemed mediocrity and as a veritable buffoon in office. Thomas Pelham was born in London on 21 July 1693 the eldest son of Thomas Pelham, 1st Baron Pelham , by his second wife, the former Lady Grace Holles, younger sister of John Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne . He studied at Westminster School and

10500-415: The need to tackle violence and highway robbery in particular. At the beginning, Fielding shared his office with Saunders Welch , an energetic former grocer elected High Constable of Holborn. Eventually, the government agreed to establish a separate magistrate office from which Welch could operate, leaving Fielding as the dominant presence in Bow Street. Over the years, the government subvention raised from

10625-480: The next 21 years. He was related to Walpole's leading ally, Charles Townshend , strengthening his bond with the leader of the new administration. On 2 April 1717, he increased his Whig connections by marrying Lady Henrietta Godolphin , the granddaughter of the Duke of Marlborough , a national hero following his victories in the recent European war who was considered a Whig icon. In 1717, at 23, Newcastle first attained high political office as Lord Chamberlain of

10750-468: The office during the turmoil in the Whigs between 1717 and 1721, and his switch of allegiance to Walpole secured his influence thereafter. Walpole had overseen a brief end to the rift between the Whig factions after the collapse of the South Sea Company , which had left thousands ruined. Newcastle himself had lost £4,000. Walpole was then seen as the only man to bring stability to the country and

10875-416: The office open for long hours every day. This process of transformation was further amplified by Fielding's success in encouraging the London press to attend and provide their readers with a weekly report on his activity. Just after John Fielding's death in 1780, the crisis of the administration of criminal law renewed itself, primarily for three different factors. The first was the rise in crime rates because

11000-493: The officers working in Bow Street, which would have allowed these men to extend their policing activities well beyond the simple thief-taking. The other purpose was to advertise the activity of the Bow Street office and to encourage private citizens to report crimes and provide information about offenders; the advertisements would be published in the Public Advertiser , a paper in which, as some critics have pointed out,

11125-550: The orders and overseen the organisation of the expedition, much of the blame for the disaster fell on the shoulders of the ailing prime minister, Walpole. In the wake of the Cartagena disaster, Britain held a general election . The result reduced Walpole's former dominance of the House to an unworkable majority. Within months, he had been forced out of office and succeeded by Lord Wilmington . Though Newcastle stayed with Walpole to

11250-465: The participants were not yet fully committed to peace. The Allies continued to do badly by suffering severe defeats at Bergen op Zoom and Lauffeld . Newcastle's brother, Henry, was now strongly advocating peace, but Newcastle firmly rejected that since he was still convinced a major Allied victory was imminent. In 1747, Newcastle was involved in organising a coup to put the Prince of Orange in power in

11375-454: The previous war had shown that North America was increasingly the most important theatre of war. They mocked Newcastle for his perceived lack of vision and ignored the complex nature of European politics and Britain's relationship with Hanover and the fact that as early as 1740 Newcastle had been aware of the expanding power of the American colonies . Newcastle remained extremely attentive to

11500-612: The primary law enforcement organization originated in Europe in the early modern period ; the first statutory police force was the High Constables of Edinburgh in 1611, while the first organized police force was the Paris lieutenant général de police in 1667. Until the 18th century, law enforcement in England was mostly the responsibility of private citizens and thief-takers , albeit also including constables and watchmen. This system gradually shifted to government control following

11625-742: The resources invested in the activity and the number of people professionally engaged to perform those functions. Law enforcement agencies are limited to operating within a specified jurisdiction . These are typically organized into three basic levels: national, regional, and municipal. However, depending on certain factors, there may be more or less levels, or they may be merged: in the United States, there are federal , state , and local police and sheriff agencies; in Canada, some territories may only have national-level law enforcement, while some provinces have national, provincial, and municipal; in Japan , there

11750-412: The return of stolen goods and using the threat of prosecution to keep offenders in thrall". Some of them, such as Jonathan Wild , became infamous at the time for staging robberies in order to receive the reward. Magistrate Henry Fielding decided to regulate, regularise, formalise and legalise the thief-takers' activity due to high rates of corruption and mistaken or malicious arrests, therefore creating

11875-543: The same year, when the government lamented spending too much money on rewards with no apparent decrease in the crime rates. At this point, the Duke of Newcastle, the secretary of state at the time, asked Fielding for advice, which he presently gave. The document that Fielding presented to the government revolved around the activity of the Bow Street officers; Fielding's suggestion included that he be given more money in addition to his own magistrate's stipend for two main purposes. The first was, of course, to offer economic support to

12000-404: The shadow of Walpole and being more assertive. Newcastle was particularly annoyed both by what he saw as the abandonment of Austria and by the suggestion that Walpole no longer trusted him. By 1735, Newcastle had largely assumed control of colonial affairs, further increasing the amount of patronage he controlled. A devout Anglican, he was also given control over ecclesiastical matters, especially

12125-482: The subtle details of diplomacy and the European State System . However, his first few years in the office had him defer control of British foreign policy to the other Secretary of State, Townshend, and Newcastle effectively served as his deputy. Walpole was generally happy to allow Townshend to control foreign affairs, as he agreed with him on most issues. Since the Treaty of Utrecht , which had ended

12250-418: The term law enforcement officer or peace officer to include every person vested by the legislating state with police power or authority; traditionally, anyone sworn or badged who can arrest any person for a violation of criminal law is included under the umbrella term of law enforcement. Although law enforcement may be most concerned with the prevention and punishment of crimes, organizations exist to discourage

12375-430: The threat posed by the Jacobites much faster than George II and many of his colleagues, who dismissed the rebellion as a farce. Newcastle organised a response, and by late 1745, he had rallied all of the southern militias and regular forces. The Jacobites withdrew to northern Scotland where they were defeated at Culloden in 1746. On the Continent, the British continued the war effort, but they were now under pressure from

12500-507: The throne. The new king had previously had exceptionally bad relations with Walpole and Newcastle and, during one altercation between them, George's poor English had made Newcastle think that he had challenged him to a duel. Their relationship had not improved in recent years, and many anticipated the imminent replacement of the government. Instead, Walpole made himself extremely useful to George II, who soon became convinced of his competence and retained him in his post. The thawing of relations

12625-432: The visit, Newcastle made an attempt to cultivate Lord North , a future prime minister, as an ally into his political faction. He was unsuccessful although both became good friends, and North later spoke out in defence of Newcastle. On Henry Pelham's death on 6 March 1754, Newcastle succeeded him as prime minister. He had initially hoped to stay in his role as Northern Secretary as he much preferred foreign affairs, but he

12750-444: The war. Newcastle tried to combat that by cultivating a reputation as the leading "patriot" of the cabinet. He took on additional military responsibilities and, for the first two years of war, served as a de facto Minister of War. One of his most notable suggestions during the period was the recruitment of large numbers of troops drawn from the American colonies , whose growing manpower had previously gone largely untapped. In 1741,

12875-421: The young Newcastle into his coterie because Walpole believed that he could easily control Newcastle and because it would strengthen Walpole's hand against the rival Whig factions. Newcastle joined with Walpole because Newcastle, correctly, believed that Walpole was going to dominate British politics for a generation. In 1721, Walpole began to serve as Britain's first prime minister and would hold that position for

13000-449: Was Newcastle's poor handling of the family fortune, which was being constantly depleted through his out-of-control spending. Pelham was also considered by many to be the abler of the two brothers, but it was the Duke who was initially more successful in politics. In spite of their differences, they remained firm political allies. The administration faced a crisis in 1727, when George I died unexpectedly, and his son George II succeeded to

13125-424: Was a manifestation of the move towards increasing professionalisation and state control of street life, beginning in London. Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle turned to Henry Fielding for help. Fielding had become a Westminster magistrate in 1748 and in his house in Bow Street, Covent Garden , he had started a kind of magisterial work that was different from anything that had been done before. Taking up

13250-532: Was admitted as a fellow commoner at Clare College, Cambridge , in 1710. Pelham's uncle died in 1711, and his father the next year, both leaving their large estates to their nephew and son. When he came of age in 1714, Lord Pelham was one of the greatest landowners in the kingdom, enjoying enormous patronage in the county of Sussex . One stipulation of his uncle's will was that his nephew add Holles to his name, which he faithfully did, thereafter styling himself as Thomas Pelham-Holles. A long-standing legal dispute over

13375-399: Was an English Whig statesman who served as Prime Minister of Great Britain , and whose official life extended throughout the Whig supremacy of the 18th century. He is commonly known as the Duke of Newcastle . A protégé of Robert Walpole , he served under him for more than 20 years until 1742. He held power with his brother, prime minister Henry Pelham , until 1754. He had then served as

13500-899: Was blocked by Walpole, who insisted that Britain should not join the war. Newcastle broadly supported the same position as the king, but he accepted the decision. Newcastle's brother Henry Pelham had now attained the lucrative position of Paymaster General and had effectively replaced Townshend as the third man of the government. The three men continued what had become dubbed as the Norfolk Congress by meeting regularly at Houghton Hall , Sir Robert Walpole's country house in Norfolk. The three men would hold private meetings, draw up wide-ranging policies on foreign and domestic issues and then present them to parliament for their seal of approval, which their vast majority allowed them to do. Slowly, however, Newcastle and his brother were moving out of

13625-783: Was by far the most powerful force in European politics, as had been demonstrated during the War of the Quadruple Alliance , a largely-naval war in the Mediterranean by which the powers had defeated a Spanish attempt to reclaim lost territory in Italy. The alliance was unpopular, however, with many in Parliament and in the country, which continued to consider France to be Britain's natural enemy. Newcastle had been joined in government by his young brother, Henry Pelham . The two brothers got on well but were prone to have intractable disputes. One constant source of tension between them

13750-415: Was carried on by his brother Justice John Fielding , who succeeded him as magistrate in the Bow Street office . Under John Fielding, the institution of the Bow Street Runners gained more and more recognition from the government, although the force was only funded intermittently in the years that followed. It served as the guiding principle for the way that policing developed over the next 80 years. Bow Street

13875-493: Was convinced that neither Austria or Britain had any other serious potential allies to turn to. Referring to the election, Newcastle believed that if his scheme failed, "France and Prussia will dictate to all the world". He managed to broker a compromise at a Congress of Hanover to secure the election of Joseph. His triumph at the Congress was soon undermined by his failure to secure Austrian backing. He managed to outmanoeuvre

14000-467: Was especially influential in the counties of Sussex, Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. His greatest triumph came in the 1754 election . Outside the electoral realm, his reputation has suffered. Historian Harry Dickinson says that he became [n]otorious for his fussiness and fretfulness, his petty jealousies, his reluctance to accept responsibility for his actions, and his inability to pursue any political objective to his own satisfaction or to

14125-532: Was forced to find either an alternative destination for convicts sentenced to transportation or an alternative sanction. The third factor concerned the events that took place in London in June 1780, known as the Gordon Riots during which the authorities lost control of the streets of the city. Those events highlighted the weakness of London policing and magisterial system. The government responded by establishing

14250-461: Was helped by the friendship between Newcastle and George's daughter Amelia , leading many to speculate, without substantive evidence, that they were having an affair. By November 1727, Walpole and Newcastle's positions were both safe once more, boosted by an election victory that saw them gain 430 seats to the opposition's 128 in the House of Commons . In 1729, a rift broke out in the government over

14375-408: Was mainly based on the model presented by the Bow Street office and on Fielding's conception of the magistrate and of how to deal with crime, therefore leading to the replication of the Bow Street structure throughout London. Under the new legislation, the Bow Street office maintained a privileged position among the other offices of the metropolis, due to the closer relationship of its magistrates with

14500-412: Was most effective as a deputy to a leader of greater ability, such as Walpole, his brother, or Pitt. Few politicians in British history matched his skills and industry in using patronage to maintain power over long stretches of time. His genius appeared as the chief party manager for the Whigs from 1715 to 1761. He used his energy and his money to select candidates, distribute patronage and win elections. He

14625-453: Was needed, according to Fielding, because of the difficulties and reluctance of private citizens to apprehend criminals, especially if those were part of a gang — reluctance largely caused by the fear of retaliation and by the extremely high costs of the prosecution that would have to be paid by the victim of the crime. This activity, however, was very similar to the thief-takers' enterprise and, as such, it could have been considered as corrupt as

14750-540: Was neither but France, which had been considered a close ally. The increasingly-confrontational actions of the French Chief Minister, Cardinal Fleury , soon convinced them that they had been wrong. This misjudgment was later used by the Patriot Whigs to castigate the ministry for their lack of preparation against the French threat. In general, Newcastle shared Walpole's abhorrence of war and wished to prevent Britain from getting dragged into major wars on

14875-425: Was not mentioned at all. Newcastle was immediately attacked by his opponents for giving up Louisbourg, but many of them failed to realise just how weak the British position on the Continent had become. Austria was also deeply unhappy as they felt the British had abandoned them and had not tried enough for Silesia to be returned. Nonetheless, Newcastle was happy with the terms that had been gained, and observers on

15000-613: Was persuaded there was no other serious candidate and accepted the seals of office from the king in March. Newcastle's first task was to select someone to represent the government in the Commons . To great surprise, he rejected the favourites, William Pitt and Henry Fox , and chose Sir Thomas Robinson , who had barely even been considered a candidate by most. Newcastle was largely instrumental in appointing men considered slightly weaker so that he could dominate them. Both Pitt and Fox bore

15125-527: Was received with a rapturous reception wherever he went. When the talks got underway, they went far more smoothly, and in October 1748, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was formally concluded. Britain would give back Louisbourg to France in exchange for the return of Madras and a full French withdrawal from the Low Countries. The issue of free trade for which Britain had gone to war with Spain in 1739

15250-432: Was saddened by the demise of his relative and former patron although their partnership had become increasingly strained and the new situation offered enormous possibilities to him personally. Together, Newcastle and Walpole managed to drive a wedge between Spain and Austria, making an ally of the latter and directing their future efforts against Spain. Subsequently, however, it turned out that Britain's long-term major rival

15375-807: Was secured in late 1715 by the defeat of a Jacobite army at the Battle of Preston and the subsequent flight of the Old Pretender . The victory of the Hanoverians over the Jacobites marked the beginning of the Whig Ascendancy which lasted for much of the 18th century. Because the Tory opposition had been tainted, in the eyes of George I, by their support of the Jacobite pretenders, he did not trust them and drew all of his ministers and officials from

15500-697: Was the United States Marshals Service , both formed in 1789. In the American frontier , law enforcement was the responsibility of county sheriffs , rangers , constables , and marshals . The first law enforcement agency in Canada was the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary , established in 1729, while the first Canadian national law enforcement agency was the Dominion Police , established in 1868. By

15625-485: Was thought to be useful in investigating offences in the provinces. After the Metropolitan Police Act 1829 , which established the Metropolitan Police , the policing responsibilities of the Bow Street magistrates were very considerably diminished. The Bow Street patrol was gradually absorbed into the new police force and Bow Street was left with only the Runners. Even then, the Home Office held much of

#770229