A subsonic aircraft is an aircraft with a maximum speed less than the speed of sound ( Mach 1). The term technically describes an aircraft that flies below its critical Mach number , typically around Mach 0.8. All current civil aircraft, including airliners , helicopters , future passenger drones , personal air vehicles and airships , as well as many military types, are subsonic.
146-572: The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is an American long-range, subsonic , jet-powered strategic bomber . The B-52 was designed and built by Boeing , which has continued to provide support and upgrades. It has been operated by the United States Air Force (USAF) since the 1950s, and NASA for nearly 50 years. The bomber can carry up to 70,000 pounds (32,000 kg) of weapons and has a typical combat range of around 8,800 miles (14,200 km) without aerial refueling . Beginning with
292-406: A Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress , he helped locate the battleship Utah despite being given the wrong coordinates by Navy personnel, in exercises held in misty conditions off California, after which the group of B-17s bombed it with water bombs. In March 1938, LeMay as a member of the 2nd Bombardment Group participated in a good will flight to Buenos Aires. For this flight, the 2nd Bombardment Group
438-1001: A bachelor's degree in civil engineering. While at Ohio State he was a member of the National Society of Pershing Rifles and the Professional Engineering Fraternity Theta Tau . LeMay was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Air Corps Reserve in October 1929. He received a regular commission in the United States Army Air Corps in January 1930. While finishing at Ohio State, he took flight training at Norton Field in Columbus, in 1931–32. On June 9, 1934, he married Helen Maitland. LeMay became
584-533: A pursuit pilot with his first duty station at Selfridge Field with the 27th Pursuit Squadron . After having served in various assignments in fighter operations, LeMay transferred to bomber aircraft in 1937. While stationed in Hawaii , he became one of the first members of the Air Corps to receive specialized training in aerial navigation. In August 1937, as navigator under pilot and commander Caleb V. Haynes on
730-418: A 2,000-hour service life extension to select airframes in 1966–1968, and the extensive Pacer Plank reskinning, completed in 1977. The wet wing introduced on G and H models was even more susceptible to fatigue, experiencing 60% more stress during a flight than the old wing. The wings were modified by 1964 under ECP 1050 . This was followed by a fuselage skin and longeron replacement ( ECP 1185 ) in 1966, and
876-666: A 50/50 blend of Fischer–Tropsch process (FT) synthetic fuel and conventional JP-8 jet fuel, which burned in two of the eight engines. On 15 December 2006, a B-52 took off from Edwards with the synthetic fuel powering all eight engines, the first time a USAF aircraft was entirely powered by the blend. The seven-hour flight was considered a success. This program is part of the Department of Defense Assured Fuel Initiative , which aimed to reduce crude oil usage and obtain half of its aviation fuel from alternative sources by 2016. On 8 August 2007, Air Force Secretary Michael Wynne certified
1022-515: A B-52 to carry twenty-four GBU-38 500-pound guided bombs or twenty GBU-31 2,000-pound bombs, with later phases accommodating the JASSM and MALD family of missiles. In addition to carrying more smart bombs, moving them internally from the wings reduces drag and achieves a 15 percent reduction in fuel consumption. The US Air Force Research Lab is investigating defensive laser weapons for the B-52. The B-52
1168-544: A SAC hangar full of US nuclear strategic bombers, LeMay found a single Air Force sentry on duty, unarmed. After ordering a mock bombing exercise on Dayton, Ohio , LeMay was shocked to learn that most of the strategic bombers assigned to the mission missed their targets by one mile or more. "We didn't have one crew, not one crew, in the entire command who could do a professional job", noted LeMay. A meeting in November 1948, with Air Force Chief of Staff Hoyt Vandenberg , found
1314-527: A conventional mechanized offensive that was by its nature more reliant on industrial output and traditional logistics. In effect, Johnson and Nixon were waging two different wars. Because of his unrelenting opposition to the Johnson administration's Vietnam policy and what was widely perceived as his hostility to McNamara, LeMay was essentially forced into retirement in February 1965. Moving to California, he
1460-476: A digital interface ( MIL-STD-1760 ) and rotary launcher. IWBU is expected to cost roughly US$ 313 million. The 1760 IWBU will allow the B-52 to carry eight JDAM 2,000-pound (910 kg) bombs, AGM-158B JASSM-ER cruise missile and the ADM-160C MALD-J decoy missiles internally. All 1760 IWBUs should be operational by October 2017. Two bombers will have the ability to carry 40 weapons in place of
1606-578: A dry thrust of 10,000 pounds-force (44 kN) which could be increased for short periods to 11,000 pounds-force (49 kN) with water injection . The water was carried in a 360 US gallons (1,400 L) tank in the rear fuselage. B-52B, C, D and E models were equipped with Pratt & Whitney J57-P-29W, J57-P-29WA, or J57-P-19W series engines all rated at 10,500 lbf (47 kN). The B-52F and G models were powered by Pratt & Whitney J57-P-43WB turbojets, each rated at 13,750 pounds-force (61.2 kN) static thrust with water injection. On 9 May 1961,
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#17327827655481752-411: A final attempt to increase range, Boeing created the larger 464-67, stating that once in production, the range could be further increased in subsequent modifications. Following several direct interventions by LeMay, Boeing was awarded a production contract for thirteen B-52As and seventeen detachable reconnaissance pods on 14 February 1951. The last major design change—also at General LeMay's insistence—was
1898-556: A full-pressure test; the resulting explosion severely damaged the trailing edge of the wing, necessitating considerable repairs. The YB-52, the second XB-52 modified with more operational equipment, first flew on 15 April 1952 with "Tex" Johnston as the pilot. A 2-hour, 21-minute proving flight from Boeing Field , near Seattle , Washington, to Larson Air Force Base was undertaken with Boeing test pilot Johnston and USAF Lieutenant Colonel Guy M. Townsend . The XB-52 followed on 2 October 1952. The thorough development, including 670 days in
2044-451: A high priority by assigning the entire 313th Bombardment Wing (four groups, about 160 airplanes) to the task. Aerial mining supplemented a tight Allied submarine blockade of the home islands, drastically reducing Japan's ability to supply its overseas forces to the point that postwar analysis concluded that it could have defeated Japan on its own had it begun earlier. LeMay piloted one of three specially modified B-29s flying from Japan to
2190-513: A job longer than a few months. His mother, Arizona Dove ( née Carpenter) LeMay, did her best to hold her family together. With very limited income, his family moved around the country as his father looked for work, going as far as Montana and California . Eventually they returned to his native city of Columbus. LeMay attended Columbus public schools, graduating from Columbus South High School, and studied civil engineering at Ohio State University . Working his way through college, he graduated with
2336-512: A liability due to his controversial stance promoting the use of nuclear weapons. After the election, LeMay retired to Newport Beach, California , and he died in 1990 at age 83. LeMay was born in Columbus, Ohio , on November 15, 1906. LeMay was of English and distant French Huguenot heritage. His father, Erving Edwin LeMay, was at times an ironworker and general handyman, but he never held
2482-525: A modern, efficient, all-jet force. LeMay's tenure was the longest over an American military command in nearly 100 years. LeMay was instrumental in SAC's acquisition of a large fleet of new strategic bombers , establishment of a vast aerial refueling system, the formation of many new units and bases, development of a strategic ballistic missile force, and establishment of a strict command and control system with an unprecedented readiness capability. All of this
2628-680: A neatly bound 33-page proposal and a 14-inch (36 cm) scale model. The aircraft was projected to exceed all design specifications. Although the full-size mock-up inspection in April 1949 was generally favorable, range again became a concern since the J40s and early model J57s had excessive fuel consumption. Despite talk of another revision of specifications or even a full design competition among aircraft manufacturers, General LeMay, now in charge of Strategic Air Command, insisted that performance should not be compromised due to delays in engine development. In
2774-702: A proposal for a four-engine turbojet bomber. Joined by Ed Wells, Boeing's vice president of engineering, the engineers worked that night in The Hotel Van Cleve in Dayton, Ohio, redesigning Boeing's proposal as a four-engine turbojet bomber. On Friday, Colonel Warden looked over the information and asked for a better design. Returning to the hotel, the Boeing team was joined by Bob Withington and Maynard Pennell, two top Boeing engineers who were in town on other business. By late Friday night, they had laid out what
2920-496: A rapid increase in drag. The wings of fast subsonic craft such as jet airliners tend to be swept in order to delay the onset of these shock waves. In theory, induced drag is at its minimum when the span wise distribution of lift is elliptical. A number of factors influence induced drag, however, and as a practical matter a wing of elliptical planform, like that of the Supermarine Spitfire fighter of World War II,
3066-424: A shorter span and, consequently a less efficient wing. Small, low-altitude general aviation planes typically have aspect ratios of six or seven; airliners of 12 or more; and high-performance sailplanes of 30 or more. At speeds above the critical Mach number, the airflow begins to become transonic , with local airflow in some places causing small sonic shock waves to form. This soon leads to the shock stall , causing
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#17327827655483212-405: A single day, the attack will have served its purpose". The argument was that it was his duty to carry out the attacks in order to end the war as quickly as possible, sparing further loss of life. He also remarked regarding the morality of the air effort against Japan, "I suppose if I had lost the war, I would have been tried as a war criminal ." This opinion was also reported by Robert McNamara in
3358-416: A straight-wing aircraft powered by six Wright T35 turboprops with a gross weight of 360,000 pounds (160,000 kg) and a combat radius of 3,110 miles (2,700 nmi; 5,010 km), was declared the winner. On 28 June 1946, Boeing was issued a letter of contract for US$ 1.7 million to build a full-scale mockup of the new XB-52 and do preliminary engineering and testing. However, by October 1946,
3504-497: A switch from the B-47 style tandem seating to a more conventional side-by-side cockpit, which increased the effectiveness of the copilot and reduced crew fatigue. Both XB-52 prototypes featured the original tandem seating arrangement with a framed bubble-type canopy (see above images). Tex Johnston noted, "The B-52, like the B-47, utilized a flexible wing. I saw the wingtip of the B-52 static test airplane travel 32 feet (9.8 m), from
3650-526: A tactic senior commanders had been preparing for some time, manufacturing and stockpiling incendiary bombs for this purpose. Japanese cities were largely constructed of combustible materials such as wood and paper. Precision high-altitude daylight bombing was ordered to proceed only when weather permitted or when specific critical targets were not vulnerable to area bombing . LeMay commanded subsequent B-29 Superfortress combat operations against Japan, including massive incendiary attacks on 67 Japanese cities and
3796-639: A top speed of 500 miles per hour (430 kn; 800 km/h) and an 8,000-mile (7,000 nmi; 13,000 km) range, far beyond the capabilities of the 464-29. The outright cancellation of the Boeing contract on 11 December 1947 was staved off by a plea from its president William McPherson Allen to the Secretary of the Air Force Stuart Symington . Allen reasoned that the design was capable of being adapted to new aviation technology and more stringent requirements. In January 1948, Boeing
3942-450: A top speed of 513 miles per hour (446 kn; 826 km/h) at 35,000 feet (11,000 m), a range of 6,909 miles (6,004 nmi; 11,119 km), and a 280,000-pound (130,000 kg) gross weight, which included 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) of bombs and 19,875 US gallons (75,240 L) of fuel. In May 1948, Air Materiel Command asked Boeing to incorporate the previously discarded jet engine, with improvements in fuel efficiency , into
4088-595: A war with the Soviets and their industry would quickly recover. This committee had been specifically created by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to study the effects of a massive nuclear strike against the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, within weeks, an ad hoc Joint Chiefs committee recommended tripling America's nuclear arsenal, and Air Force Chief of Staff Vandenberg called for enough bombs to attack 220 targets, up from
4234-600: A war." Towards this aim, LeMay delivered the first SAC Emergency War Plan in March 1949 which called for dropping 133 atomic bombs on 70 cities in the USSR within 30 days. LeMay predicted that World War III would last no longer than 30 days. Air power strategists called this type of pre-emptive strike "killing a nation". However, the Harmon committee released their unanimous report two months later stating such an attack would not end
4380-533: Is best for aeroplanes of less than 6,000 pounds gross weight. Curtis LeMay Curtis Emerson LeMay (November 15, 1906 – October 1, 1990) was a US Air Force general who implemented an effective but controversial strategic bombing campaign in the Pacific theater of World War II . He later served as Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force , from 1961 to 1965. LeMay joined
4526-440: Is due to receive a range of upgrades alongside a planned engine retrofit. These upgrades aim to modernize the sensors and displays of the B-52. They include the new APG-79B4 Active electronically scanned array radar, replacing older mechanically scanned arrays, the streamlining of the nose and deletion of blisters housing the forward-looking infrared/electro-optical viewing system. In October 2022 Boeing released new images of what
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4672-401: Is important to recognize, however, that ballistic missile forces represent both the U.S. and Soviet potential for strategic nuclear warfare at the highest, most indiscriminate level, and at a level least susceptible to control. The employment of these weapons in lower level conflict would be likely to escalate the situation, uncontrollably, to an intensity which could be vastly disproportionate to
4818-436: Is important". Aircraft losses on tactical attack missions soared, and Air Force commanders soon realized that their large, missile-armed jet fighters were exceedingly vulnerable not only to antiaircraft shells and missiles but also to cannon-armed, maneuverable Soviet fighters. LeMay advocated a sustained strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnamese cities, harbors, ports, shipping, and other strategic targets. His advice
4964-431: Is not necessarily the most efficient. The wings of jet airliners, which are highly optimized for efficiency, are far from elliptical in shape. The ratio of tip chord to root chord is called the taper ratio. Taper has the desirable effect of reducing the root bending stress by shifting the lift inboard, but it has been argued by some noted designers, including John Thorp and Karl Bergey, that an untapered rectangular planform
5110-474: Is officially listed as 50,000 feet (15,000 m), but operational experience shows this is difficult to reach when fully laden with bombs. According to one source: "The optimal altitude for a combat mission was around 43,000 feet (13,000 m), because to exceed that height would rapidly degrade the plane's range." In September 2006, the B-52 became one of the first US military aircraft to fly using alternative fuel. It took off from Edwards Air Force Base with
5256-489: Is related to the production of lift , and the profile drag , largely due to skin friction which is contributed to by the whole wing area. It is therefore desirable for a wing to have the least area compatible with the desired lift characteristics. This is best achieved with a high aspect ratio, and high-performance types often have this kind of wing. But other considerations such as light weight, structural stiffness, manoeuvrability, ground handling and so on often benefit from
5402-629: The AGM-154 glide bomb and the AGM-158 JASSM missile. The CEM program also introduced new radios, integrated Global Positioning System into the aircraft's navigation system, and replaced the under-nose FLIR with a more modern unit. Forty-seven B-52Hs were modified under the CEM program by 1996, with 19 more by the end of 1999. By around 2010, U.S. Strategic Command stopped assigning B61 and B83 nuclear gravity bombs to B-52, and later listed only
5548-466: The B-2 as tasked with delivering strategic nuclear bombs in budget requests. Nuclear gravity bombs were removed from the B-52's capabilities because it is no longer considered survivable enough to penetrate modern air defenses, instead relying on nuclear cruise missiles and focusing on expanding its conventional strike role. The 2019 "Safety Rules for U.S. Strategic Bomber Aircraft" manual subsequently confirmed
5694-517: The B-52 Stability Augmentation and Flight Control program ( ECP 1195 ) in 1967. Fuel leaks due to deteriorating Marman clamps continued to plague all variants of the B-52. To this end, all aircraft variants were subjected to Blue Band (1957), Hard Shell (1958), and finally QuickClip (1958) programs. The latter fitted safety straps that prevented catastrophic loss of fuel in case of clamp failure. The B-52's service ceiling
5840-693: The Berlin Airlift in 1948 in the face of a blockade by the Soviet Union and its satellite states that threatened to starve the civilian population of the Western occupation zones of Berlin. Under his direction, Douglas C-54 Skymasters that could each carry 10 tons of cargo began supplying the city on July 1. By late 1948, the airlift was bringing in an average of 5,000 tons of supplies a day with 500 daily flights. The airlift continued for 11 months, with 213,000 flights operated by six countries bringing in 1.7 million tons of food and fuel to Berlin. Faced with
5986-644: The Berlin Airlift . He served as commander of the Strategic Air Command (SAC) from 1948 to 1957, where he presided over the transition to an all– jet aircraft force that had a strong emphasis on the delivery of nuclear weapons in the event of war. As Chief of Staff of the Air Force, he called for the bombing of Cuban missile sites during the Cuban Missile Crisis and sought a sustained bombing campaign against North Vietnam during
Boeing B-52 Stratofortress - Misplaced Pages Continue
6132-634: The Davis-Monthan AFB Boneyard . The bombers flew under the Strategic Air Command (SAC) until it was disestablished in 1992 and its aircraft absorbed into the Air Combat Command (ACC); in 2010, all B-52 Stratofortresses were transferred from the ACC to the new Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC). The B-52 completed 60 years of continuous service with its original operator in 2015. After being upgraded between 2013 and 2015,
6278-626: The European theatre of World War II until August 1944, when he was transferred to the China Burma India Theater . He was then placed in command of strategic bombing operations against Japan, planning and executing a massive fire bombing campaign against Japanese cities, and Operation Starvation , a crippling minelaying campaign in Japan's internal waterways. After the war, he was assigned to command USAF Europe and coordinated
6424-802: The McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet , the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and the McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II . The ability to carry up to 20 AGM-69 SRAM nuclear missiles was added to G and H models, starting in 1971. To further improve its offensive ability, air-launched cruise missiles (ALCMs) were fitted. After testing of both the USAF-backed Boeing AGM-86 Air Launched Cruise Missile and
6570-605: The Rapid Eight program. The Conventional Enhancement Modification (CEM) program gave the B-52H a more comprehensive conventional weapons capability, adding the modified underwing weapon pylons used by conventional-armed B-52Gs, Harpoon and Have Nap, and the capability to carry new-generation weapons including the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) and Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser guided bombs,
6716-550: The Space Shuttle , was the B-52's main computer. In 2007, the LITENING targeting pod was fitted, which increased the effectiveness of the aircraft in the attack of ground targets with a variety of standoff weapons, using laser guidance , a high-resolution forward-looking infrared sensor ( FLIR ), and a CCD camera used to obtain target imagery. LITENING pods have been fitted to a wide variety of other US aircraft, such as
6862-534: The United States Army Air Corps , the precursor to the United States Air Force, in 1929 while studying civil engineering at Ohio State University . He had risen to the rank of major by the time of Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 and the United States's entry into World War II. He commanded the 305th Bombardment Group from October 1942 until September 1943, and the 3rd Air Division in
7008-554: The United States Strategic Bombing Survey put the figures at 220,000 people killed. Some 40% of the built-up areas of 66 cities were destroyed, including much of Japan's war industry. LeMay was aware of the implication of his orders. The New York Times reported at the time, "Maj. Gen. Curtis E. LeMay, commander of the B-29s of the entire Marianas area, declared that if the war is shortened by
7154-541: The Vietnam War . After retiring from the Air Force in 1965, LeMay agreed to serve as pro- segregation Alabama Governor George Wallace 's running mate on the far-right American Independent Party ticket in the 1968 United States presidential election . The ticket won 46 electoral votes, 5 states, and 13.5% of the popular vote, a strong tally for a third party campaign, but the Wallace campaign came to see LeMay as
7300-476: The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . This included the firebombing of Tokyo —known in official documents as the "Operation Meetinghouse" air raid on the night of March 9–10, 1945—which proved to be the single most destructive bombing raid of the war. For this first attack, LeMay ordered the defensive guns removed from 325 B-29s, loaded each plane with Model M-47 incendiary clusters , magnesium bombs, white phosphorus bombs, and napalm , and ordered
7446-488: The elevator is also very narrow chord and the B-52 suffers from limited elevator control authority. For long-term pitch trim and airspeed changes the aircraft uses a stabilator (or all-moving tail) with the elevator used for small adjustments within a stabilizer setting. The stabilizer is adjustable through 13 degrees of movement (nine up, four down) and is crucial to operations during takeoff and landing due to large pitch changes induced by flap application. B-52s prior to
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#17327827655487592-517: The wind tunnel and 130 days of aerodynamic and aeroelastic testing, paid off with smooth flight testing. Encouraged, the USAF increased its order to 282 B-52s. Only three of the 13 B-52As ordered were built. All were returned to Boeing and used in their test program. On 9 June 1952, the February 1951 contract was updated to order the aircraft under new specifications. The final 10, the first aircraft to enter active service, were completed as B-52Bs. At
7738-623: The 2003 documentary The Fog of War , although after the war the Allies did not prosecute any German or Japanese military personnel for bombing civilian targets. Presidents Roosevelt and Truman supported LeMay's strategy, referring to an estimate of one million Allied casualties if Japan had to be invaded . Japan had intentionally decentralized 90% of its war-related production into small subcontractor workshops in civilian districts, making remaining Japanese war industry largely immune to conventional precision bombing with high explosives . As
7884-412: The 36 that three B-52s can carry. The 1760 IWBU allows precision-guided missiles or bombs to be deployed from inside the weapons bay; the previous aircraft carried these munitions externally on the wing hardpoints . This increases the number of guided weapons ( Joint Direct Attack Munition or JDAM) a B-52 can carry and reduces the need for guided bombs to be carried on the wings. The first phase will allow
8030-575: The AN/ASQ-151 Electro-Optical Viewing System (EVS), which consisted of a low light level television (LLLTV) and a forward looking infrared (FLIR) system mounted in blisters under the noses of B-52Gs and Hs between 1972 and 1976. The navigational capabilities of the B-52 were later augmented with the addition of GPS in the 1980s. The IBM AP-101 , also used on the Rockwell B-1 Lancer bomber and
8176-572: The AN/ASQ-38 bombing navigational computer and the terrain computer. The MADREC (Malfunction Detection and Recording) upgrade fitted to most aircraft by 1965 could detect failures in avionics and weapons computer systems and was essential in monitoring the AGM-28 Hound Dog missiles. The electronic countermeasures capability of the B-52 was expanded with Rivet Rambler (1971) and Rivet Ace (1973). To improve operations at low altitudes,
8322-620: The B-47 came to an end, the Wichita factory was phased in for B-52D production, with Seattle responsible for 101 D-models and Wichita 69. Both plants continued to build the B-52E, with 42 built at Seattle and 58 at Wichita, and the B-52F (44 from Seattle and 45 from Wichita). For the B-52G, Boeing decided in 1957 to transfer all production to Wichita, which freed up Seattle for other tasks, in particular,
8468-646: The B-52 Stratofortress replaced the Convair B-36 Peacemaker . Superior performance at high subsonic speeds and relatively low operating costs have kept them in service despite the development of more advanced strategic bombers, such as the Mach 2+ Convair B-58 Hustler , the canceled Mach 3 North American XB-70 Valkyrie , the variable-geometry Rockwell B-1 Lancer , and the stealth Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit . A veteran of several wars,
8614-470: The B-52 has dropped only conventional munitions in combat. The B-52's official name Stratofortress is rarely used; informally, the aircraft has become commonly referred to as the BUFF ( Big Ugly Fat Fucker / Fella ). There are 76 aircraft in inventory as of 2024; 58 operated by active forces ( 2nd Bomb Wing and 5th Bomb Wing ), 18 by reserve forces ( 307th Bomb Wing ), and about 12 in long-term storage at
8760-449: The B-52's 70,000 pounds (32,000 kg), the bombers are rarely able to carry their full loads. The most the B-52 carries is a full load of AGM-86Bs totaling 62,660 pounds (28,420 kg). The B-1 has the internal weapons bay space to carry more GBU-31 JDAMs and JASSMs, but the B-52 upgraded with the conventional rotary launcher can carry more of other JDAM variants. The AGM-183A Air-Launched Rapid Response (ARRW) hypersonic missile and
8906-463: The B-52H as fully approved to use the FT blend. Because of the B-52's mission parameters, only modest maneuvers would be required with no need for spin recovery. The aircraft has a relatively small, narrow chord rudder , giving it limited yaw control authority. Originally an all-moving vertical stabilizer was to be used but was abandoned because of doubts about hydraulic actuator reliability. Because
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#17327827655489052-593: The B-52H began to be delivered to the USAF with cleaner burning and quieter Pratt & Whitney TF33-P-3 turbofans with a maximum thrust of 17,100 pounds-force (76 kN). In a study for the USAF in the mid-1970s, Boeing investigated replacing the engines, changing to a new wing, and other improvements to upgrade B-52G/H aircraft as an alternative to the B-1A, then in development. In 1996, Rolls-Royce and Boeing jointly proposed fitting each B-52 with four leased Rolls-Royce RB211 engines. This would have involved replacing
9198-454: The G models had very small ailerons with a short span that was approximately equal to their chord. These "feeler ailerons" were used to provide feedback forces to the pilot's control yoke and to fine-tune the roll axes during delicate maneuvers such as aerial refueling. Due to twisting of the thin main wing, conventional outboard flap-type ailerons would lose authority and therefore could not be used. In other words, aileron activation would cause
9344-511: The Galapagos islands. By the end of 1940, he was stationed at Westover Air Reserve Base , as the operations officer of the 34th Bombardment Group . War brought rapid promotion and increased responsibility. When his crews were not flying missions, they were subjected to relentless training, as LeMay believed that training was the key to saving their lives. "You fight as you train" was one of his cardinal rules. It expressed his belief that, in
9490-565: The LeMay legend, and remains widely attributed to him ever after. Some military historians have argued that LeMay's theories were eventually proven correct. Near the war's end in December 1972, President Richard Nixon ordered Operation Linebacker II , a high-intensity Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps aerial bombing campaign, which included hundreds of B-52 bombers that struck previously untouched North Vietnamese strategic targets, including heavy populated areas in Hanoi and Haiphong. Linebacker II
9636-707: The Navy-backed General Dynamics AGM-109 Tomahawk , the AGM-86B was selected for operation by the B-52 (and ultimately by the B-1 Lancer). A total of 194 B-52Gs and Hs were modified to carry AGM-86s, carrying 12 missiles on underwing pylons, with 82 B-52Hs further modified to carry another eight missiles on a rotary launcher fitted in the bomb bay. To conform with SALT II Treaty requirements that cruise missile-capable aircraft be readily identifiable by reconnaissance satellites,
9782-574: The Soviets and Chinese more directly into the war. In his 1965 autobiography (co-written with MacKinlay Kantor ), LeMay is quoted as saying his response to North Vietnam would be to demand that "they've got to draw in their horns and stop their aggression, or we're going to bomb them back into the Stone Age . And we would shove them back into the Stone Age with Air power or Naval power—not with ground forces". LeMay subsequently rejected misquotes of
9928-518: The U.S. Army had even reorganized its combat divisions to fight land wars on irradiated nuclear battlefields, developing short-range atomic cannon and mortars in order to win appropriations . The United States Navy in turn proposed delivering strategic nuclear weapons from supercarriers intended to sail into range of the Soviet air defense forces. Of all these various schemes, only LeMay's command structure of SAC survived complete reorganization in
10074-462: The U.S. in September 1945 , in the process breaking several aviation records, including the greatest USAAF takeoff weight, the longest USAAF non-stop flight, and the first ever non-stop Japan–Chicago flight. One of the pilots was of higher rank: Lieutenant General Barney M. Giles . The other two aircraft used up more fuel than LeMay's in fighting headwinds, and they could not fly to Washington, D.C.,
10220-593: The USAAF began to express concern about the sheer size of the new aircraft and its inability to meet the specified design requirements. In response, Boeing produced the Model 464, a smaller four-engine version with a 230,000-pound (100,000 kg) gross weight, which was briefly deemed acceptable. Subsequently, in November 1946, the Deputy Chief of Air Staff for Research and Development, General Curtis LeMay , expressed
10366-604: The USAF released its request for proposals for 608 commercial engines plus spares and support equipment, with the plan to award the contract in May 2021. This Commercial Engine Reengining Program (CERP) saw General Electric propose its CF34-10 and Passport turbofans, Pratt & Whitney its PW800 , and the Rolls-Royce BR725 to be designated F130 . On 24 September 2021, the USAF selected the Rolls-Royce F130 as
10512-406: The air cause the air to flow away from areas of high dynamic pressure to areas of lower dynamic pressure, leaving the static pressure and density of the surrounding air constant. At high subsonic speeds, compressibility effects begin to appear. The propeller is one of the most efficient sources of thrust available and is common on subsonic aeroplanes and airships . Sometimes it is enclosed in
10658-416: The aircraft could weigh up to 480,000 pounds (220,000 kg). Boeing responded with two models powered by T35 turboprops. The Model 464-16 was a "nuclear only" bomber with a 10,000-pound (4,500 kg) payload, while the Model 464-17 was a general purpose bomber with a 9,000-pound (4,100 kg) payload. Due to the cost associated with purchasing two specialized aircraft, the USAAF selected Model 464–17 with
10804-409: The aircraft has eight engines, asymmetrical thrust due to the loss of an engine in flight would be minimal and correctable with the narrow rudder. To assist with crosswind takeoffs and landings the main landing gear can be pivoted 20 degrees to either side from neutral. The crew would preset the yaw adjustable crosswind landing gear according to wind observations made on the ground. Like the rudder,
10950-413: The aircraft to "crab" or roll with a sideways slip angle down the runway). After a trip to a hobby shop for supplies, Schairer set to work building a model. The rest of the team focused on weight and performance data. Wells, who was also a skilled artist, completed the aircraft drawings. On Sunday, a stenographer was hired to type a clean copy of the proposal. On Monday, Schairer presented Colonel Warden with
11096-475: The aircraft's systems and control surfaces (particularly the rudder), thereby increasing the time, cost, and complexity of the project. B-52Hs upgraded with Rolls Royce F130 engines will be redesignated as "B-52Js". Subsonic aircraft Although high speeds are usually desirable in an aircraft, supersonic flight requires much bigger engines, higher fuel consumption and more advanced materials than subsonic flight. A subsonic type therefore costs far less than
11242-429: The arrival of the B-52. The aircraft will be able to receive information through Link-16 . CONECT upgrades will cost US$ 1.1 billion overall and take several years. Funding has been secured for 30 B-52s; the USAF hopes for 10 CONECT upgrades per year, but the rate has yet to be decided. Weapons upgrades include the 1760 Internal Weapons Bay Upgrade (IWBU), which gives a 66 percent increase in weapons payload using
11388-599: The autumn of 1943 led the Eighth Air Force to limit missions to targets within escort range. Finally, with the deployment in the European theater of the P-51 Mustang in January 1944, the Eighth Air Force gained an escort fighter with range to match the bombers. In a discussion of a report into high abort rates in bomber missions during World War II, which Robert McNamara suspected was because of pilot cowardice, McNamara described LeMay's character: One of
11534-499: The basis for the "It wouldn't dare" comment. Sweeney stated that a similar incident occurred in 1944 when a B-29 crew chief reminded General LeMay of his lit cigar while LeMay was undergoing B-29 familiarization with (then-Colonel) Paul Tibbets ' 509th Composite Group . Despite his uncompromising attitude regarding performance of duty, LeMay was also known for his concern for the physical well-being and comfort of his men. LeMay found ways to encourage morale, individual performance, and
11680-593: The bombers to fly in streams at 5,000 to 9,000 feet (1,500 to 2,700 m) over Tokyo. LeMay described Operation Meetinghouse by saying "the US had finally stopped swatting at flies and gone after the manure pile". The first pathfinder airplanes arrived over Tokyo just after midnight on March 10 and marked the target area with a flaming "X". In a three-hour period, the main bombing force dropped 1,665 tons of incendiary bombs, killing 100,000 civilians, destroying 250,000 buildings, and incinerating 16 square miles (41 km ) of
11826-473: The cabin included the crew ejection systems. On the B-52D, the pilots and electronic countermeasures (ECM) operator ejected upwards, while the lower deck crew ejected downwards; until the B-52G, the gunner had to jettison the tail gun to bail out . The tail gunner in early model B-52s was located in the traditional location in the tail of the plane, with both visual and radar gun laying systems; in later models,
11972-463: The chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Army General Maxwell Taylor . At the time, budget constraints and successive nuclear war fighting strategies had left the armed forces in a state of flux. Each of the armed forces had gradually jettisoned realistic appraisals of future conflicts in favor of developing its own separate nuclear and nonnuclear capabilities. At the height of this struggle,
12118-704: The changing reality of Cold War -era conflicts. LeMay was not an enthusiast of the ICBM program, considering ballistic missiles to be little more than toys and no substitute for the strategic nuclear bomber force. Though LeMay lost significant appropriation battles for the Skybolt ALBM and the proposed Boeing B-52 Stratofortress replacement, the North American XB-70 Valkyrie , he was largely successful at expanding Air Force budgets. Despite LeMay's disdain for missiles, he did strongly support
12264-499: The chaos, stress, and confusion of combat (aerial or otherwise), troops or airmen would perform successfully only if their individual acts were second nature, performed nearly instinctively due to repetitive training. Throughout his career, LeMay was widely and fondly known among his troops as "Old Iron Pants", and the "Big Cigar". When the U.S. entered World War II in December 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , LeMay
12410-530: The city. Aircrews at the tail end of the bomber stream reported that the stench of burned human flesh permeated the aircraft over the target. Precise figures are not available, but the strategic bombing campaign against Japan, directed by LeMay between March 1945 and the Japanese surrender in August 1945, may have killed more than 500,000 Japanese civilians and left five million homeless. Official estimates from
12556-453: The commanders was Curtis LeMay—Colonel in command of a B-24 [ sic ] group. He was the finest combat commander of any service I came across in war. But he was extraordinarily belligerent, many thought brutal. He got the report. He issued an order. He said, 'I will be in the lead plane on every mission. Any plane that takes off will go over the target, or the crew will be court-martialed.' The abort rate dropped overnight. Now that's
12702-489: The conclusions of a separate Congress-funded study conducted in 2003. Criticizing the USAF cost analysis, the DSB found that among other things, the USAF failed to account for the cost of aerial refueling; the DSB estimated that aerial refueling cost $ 17.50 per US gallon ($ 4.62/L), whereas the USAF had failed to account for the cost of delivering the fuel and so had only priced fuel at $ 1.20 per US gallon ($ 0.32/L). On 23 April 2020,
12848-581: The crew. One update is the AN/ARC-210 Warrior beyond-line-of-sight software programmable radio able to transmit voice, data, and information in-flight between B-52s and ground command and control centers, allowing the transmission and reception of data with updated intelligence, mapping, and targeting information; previous in-flight target changes required copying down coordinates. The ARC-210 allows machine-to-machine transfer of data, useful on long-endurance missions where targets may have moved before
12994-522: The cruise missile-armed B-52Gs were modified with a distinctive wing root fairing . As all B-52Hs were assumed modified, no visual modification of these aircraft was required. In 1990, the stealthy AGM-129 ACM cruise missile entered service; although intended to replace the AGM-86, the high cost and the Cold War's end led to only 450 being produced; unlike the AGM-86, no conventional, non-nuclear version
13140-460: The day, and directed Boeing to use the turboprop-powered Model 464–35 as the basis for the XB-52. Although he agreed that turbojet propulsion was the future, General Howard A. Craig, Deputy Chief of Staff for Materiel, was not very enthusiastic about a jet-powered B-52 since he felt that the jet engine had not yet progressed sufficiently to permit skipping an intermediate turboprop stage. However, Boeing
13286-458: The design. That resulted in the development of yet another revision—in July 1948, Model 464-40 substituted Westinghouse J40 turbojets for the turboprops. The USAF project officer who reviewed the Model 464-40 was favorably impressed, especially since he had already been thinking along similar lines. Nevertheless, the government was concerned about the high fuel consumption rate of the jet engines of
13432-421: The desire for a cruising speed of 400 miles per hour (350 kn; 640 km/h), to which Boeing responded with a 300,000-pound (140,000 kg) aircraft. In December 1946, Boeing was asked to change their design to a four-engine bomber with a top speed of 400 miles per hour (350 kn; 640 km/h), range of 12,000 miles (10,000 nmi; 19,000 km), and the ability to carry a nuclear weapon ; in total,
13578-426: The eight Pratt & Whitney TF33 engines (total thrust 136,000 lbf (600 kN)) with four RB211-535E4 engines (total thrust 172,400 lbf (767 kN)), which would increase range and reduce fuel consumption. However, a USAF analysis in 1997 concluded that Boeing's estimated savings of US$ 4.7 billion would not be realized and that reengining would instead cost US$ 1.3 billion more than keeping
13724-515: The entire project was postponed for six months. During this time, Boeing continued to perfect the design, which resulted in the Model 464–29 with a top speed of 455 miles per hour (395 kn; 732 km/h) and a 5,000-mile (8,000 km) range. In September 1947, the Heavy Bombardment Committee was convened to ascertain performance requirements for a nuclear bomber. Formalized on 8 December 1947, these requirements called for
13870-410: The equivalent supersonic design, has greater range and causes less harm to the environment. The less harsh subsonic environment also allows a much wider range of aircraft types, such as balloons , airships and rotorcraft , allowing them to fill a much wider range of roles. Subsonic flight is characterised aerodynamically by incompressible flow, where dynamic pressure changes due to motion through
14016-452: The existing engines, citing significant up-front procurement and re-tooling expenditure. The USAF's 1997 rejection of reengining was subsequently disputed in a Defense Science Board (DSB) report in 2003. The DSB urged the USAF to re-engine the aircraft without delay, saying doing so would not only create significant cost savings but reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase aircraft range and endurance; these conclusions were in line with
14162-487: The external pylons could. Thirty B-52Gs were further modified to carry up to 12 AGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship missiles each, while 12 B-52Gs were fitted to carry the AGM-142 Have Nap stand-off air-to-ground missile. When the B-52G was retired in 1994, an urgent scheme was launched to restore an interim Harpoon and Have Nap capability, the four aircraft being modified to carry Harpoon and four to carry Have Nap under
14308-627: The failure of its blockade, the Soviet Union relented and reopened land corridors to the West. Though LeMay is sometimes publicly credited with the success of the Berlin Airlift, it was, in fact, instigated by General Lucius D. Clay when Clay called LeMay about the problem. LeMay initially started flying supplies into Berlin, but then decided that it was a job for a logistics expert and he found that person in Lt. General William H. Tunner , who took over
14454-402: The famous "Stone Age" quote. Later, in a Washington Post interview LeMay said that "I never said we should bomb them back to the Stone Age. I said we had the capability to do it. I want to save lives on both sides". Etymologyst Barry Popik cites multiple sources (including interviews with LeMay) for various versions of both quotes from LeMay. Nevertheless, the "should" quote remained part of
14600-452: The firebombing campaign took effect, Japanese war planners were forced to expend significant resources to relocate vital war industries to remote caves and mountain bunkers, reducing production of war material. LeMay also oversaw Operation Starvation , an aerial mining operation against Japanese waterways and ports that disrupted Japanese shipping and logistics . Although his superiors were unsupportive of this naval objective, LeMay gave it
14746-409: The form of a ducted fan . At higher subsonic speeds and at high altitudes , such as attained by most airliners , the turbojet or turbofan becomes necessary. Pure jets such as the turbojet and ramjet are inefficient at subsonic speeds and not often used. The span and area of a wing are both important to the lift characteristics. They are related by the aspect ratio , which is the ratio of
14892-646: The future Long Range Stand Off (LRSO) nuclear -armed air-launched cruise missile will join the B-52 inventory in the future. The eight engines of the B-52 are paired in pods and suspended by four pylons beneath and forward of the wings' leading edge . The careful arrangement of the pylons also allowed them to work as wing fences and delay the onset of stall . The first two prototypes, XB-52 and YB-52, were both powered by experimental Pratt & Whitney YJ57-P-3 turbojet engines with 8,700 pounds-force (39 kN) of static thrust each. The B-52A models were equipped with Pratt & Whitney J57-P-1W turbojets, providing
15038-686: The grounds that a third-party candidacy might hurt Nixon's chances at the polls. (By coincidence, Wallace had served as a sergeant in a unit commanded by LeMay during World War II before LeMay had Wallace transferred to the 477th Bombardment Group.) In 1968 LeMay threw his support to Wallace and became his vice-presidential running mate on the American Independent Party ticket. The campaign saw Wallace's record on racial segregation heavily scrutinized. Wallace's staff began to consider LeMay to be "politically tone-deaf" as LeMay made several comments at campaign events speculating about
15184-574: The gunner was moved to the front of the fuselage, with gun laying carried out by radar alone, much like the B-58 Hustler's tail gun system. Structural fatigue was accelerated by at least a factor of eight in a low-altitude flight profile over that of high-altitude flying, requiring costly repairs to extend service life. In the early 1960s, the three-phase High Stress program was launched to counter structural fatigue, enrolling aircraft at 2,000 flying hours. Follow-up programs were conducted, such as
15330-519: The huge production effort, with 41% of the airframe being built by subcontractors. The prototypes and all B-52A, B and C models (90 aircraft) were built at Seattle. Testing of aircraft built in Seattle caused problems due to jet noise, which led to the establishment of curfews for engine tests. Aircraft were ferried 150 miles (240 km) east on their maiden flights to Larson Air Force Base near Moses Lake , where they were fully tested. As production of
15476-973: The kind of commander he was. In August 1944, LeMay transferred to the China-Burma-India theater and directed first the XX Bomber Command in China and then the XXI Bomber Command in the Pacific. LeMay was later placed in charge of all strategic air operations against the Japanese home islands. LeMay soon concluded that the techniques and tactics developed for use in Europe against the Luftwaffe were unsuitable against Japan. His Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers flying from China were dropping their bombs near their targets only 5% of
15622-409: The last airplanes are expected to serve into the 2050s. On 23 November 1945, Air Materiel Command (AMC) issued desired performance characteristics for a new strategic bomber "capable of carrying out the strategic mission without dependence upon advanced and intermediate bases controlled by other countries". The aircraft was to have a crew of five or more turret gunners , and a six-man relief crew. It
15768-583: The merely unfortunate." Life magazine reported that LeMay once took the co-pilot's seat of a SAC bomber to observe the mission, complete with lit cigar. When asked by the pilot to put out the cigar, LeMay asked why. When the pilot explained that fumes inside the fuselage could explode, LeMay growled, "It wouldn't dare". The incident was used as the basis for a fictional scene in the 1955 film Strategic Air Command . In his controversial and factually disputed memoir War's End , Major General Charles Sweeney related an alleged 1944 incident that may have been
15914-411: The naval blockade and, after the end of the crisis, suggested that Cuba be invaded anyway, even after the Soviets agreed to withdraw their missiles. Kennedy refused LeMay's requests, and the naval blockade was successful. The memorandum from LeMay, Chief of Staff, USAF, to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, January 4, 1964, illustrates LeMay's reasons for keeping bomber forces alongside ballistic missiles: "It
16060-401: The negative 1-G load position to the positive 4-G load position." The flexible structure allowed "...the wing to flex during gust and maneuvering loads, thus relieving high-stress areas and providing a smoother ride." During a 3.5-G pullup, "The wingtips appeared about 35 degrees above level flight position." During ground testing on 29 November 1951, the XB-52's pneumatic system failed during
16206-649: The newly formed 3rd Air Division . He personally led several dangerous missions, including the Regensburg section of the Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission of August 17, 1943. In that mission, he led 146 B-17s to Regensburg , Germany , beyond the range of escorting fighters , and, after bombing, continued on to bases in North Africa , losing 24 bombers in the process. The heavy losses in veteran crews on this and subsequent deep penetration missions in
16352-483: The operational aspects of the Berlin Airlift. In 1948, he returned to the U.S. to head the Strategic Air Command (SAC) at Offutt Air Force Base , replacing Gen George Kenney . When LeMay took over command of SAC, it consisted of little more than a few understaffed B-29 bombardment groups left over from World War II. Less than half of the available aircraft were operational, and the crews were undertrained. Base and aircraft security standards were minimal. Upon inspecting
16498-402: The original aggravation. The use of ICBMs and SLBMs is not, therefore, a rational or credible response to provocations which, although serious, are still less than an immediate threat to national survival. For this reason, among others, I consider that the national security will continue to require the flexibility, responsiveness, and discrimination of manned strategic weapon systems throughout
16644-634: The original goal. Their pilots landed in Chicago to refuel. LeMay's aircraft had sufficient fuel to reach Washington, but he was directed by the War Department to join the others by refueling at Chicago. After World War II, LeMay was already thinking about deterrence theory and how the next war would be fought. He was briefly transferred to The Pentagon as deputy chief of Air Staff for Research & Development. In 1947, LeMay returned to Europe as commander of USAF Europe , heading operations for
16790-490: The perception that some American voters had of the Wallace-LeMay ticket. The "bomb them back to the stone age" comment received significant publicity, but LeMay disclaimed the comment, saying in a later interview: "I never said we should bomb them back to the Stone Age. I said we had the capability to do it". The Wallace-LeMay AIP ticket received 13.5% of the popular vote, higher than most third party candidacies in
16936-465: The possibility of nuclear war, including the press conference where Wallace introduced LeMay as his running mate, where LeMay voiced his belief that there were many situations where the use of nuclear weapons would be efficient and that dropping nuclear bombs would result in positive outcomes for the environment. LeMay's arguments that the American public had a "phobia" of atomic weapons failed to change
17082-500: The previous 70. Upon receiving his fourth star in 1951 at age 44, LeMay became the youngest American four-star general since Ulysses S. Grant . He would also become the longest serving person in that rank in American military history. In 1954 LeMay remarked to pilot Hal Austin, whose plane had been damaged by a MiG-17 while on a reconnaissance mission over the Soviet Union , "Well, maybe if we do this overflight right, we can get World War III started". Hal Austin assumed that LeMay
17228-537: The production of airliners. Production ended in 1962 with the B-52H, with 742 aircraft built, plus the original two prototypes. A proposed variant of the B-52H was the EB-52H, which would have consisted of 16 modified and augmented B-52H airframes with additional electronic jamming capabilities. This variant would have restored USAF airborne jamming capability that it lost on retiring the EF-111 Raven . The program
17374-413: The range of cold, limited, and general war". LeMay's dislike for tactical aircraft and training backfired in the low-intensity conflict of Vietnam , where existing Air Force fighter aircraft and standard attack profiles proved incapable of carrying out sustained tactical bombing campaigns in the face of hostile North Vietnamese antiaircraft defenses. LeMay said, "Flying fighters is fun. Flying bombers
17520-400: The reenlistment rate through a number of means: encouraging off-duty group recreational activities, instituting spot promotions based on performance, and authorizing special uniforms, training, equipment, and allowances for ground personnel as well as flight crews. On LeMay's departure, SAC was composed of 224,000 airmen, close to 2,000 heavy bombers, and nearly 800 tanker aircraft. LeMay
17666-526: The removal of B61-7 and B83-1 gravity bombs from the B-52H's approved weapons configuration. Starting in 2016, Boeing is to upgrade the internal rotary launchers to the MIL-STD-1760 interface to enable the internal carriage of smart bombs, which previously could be carried only on the wings. While the B-1 Lancer has a larger theoretical maximum payload of 75,000 pounds (34,000 kg) compared to
17812-508: The roll-out ceremony on 18 March 1954, Air Force Chief of Staff General Nathan Twining said: The long rifle was the great weapon of its day. ... today this B-52 is the long rifle of the air age. The B-52B was followed by progressively improved bomber and reconnaissance variants, culminating in the B-52G and turbofan B-52H. To allow rapid delivery, production lines were set up both at its main Seattle factory and at Boeing's Wichita facility. More than 5,000 companies were involved in
17958-412: The span, measured from tip to tip, to the average chord , measured from leading edge to trailing edge. The aerodynamic efficiency of a wing is described by its lift/drag ratio , with a wing giving high lift for little drag being the most efficient. A higher aspect ratio gives a higher lift/drag ratio and so is more efficient. The drag of a wing consists of two components: the induced drag , which
18104-468: The successful contract bid in June 1946, the B-52 design evolved from a straight wing aircraft powered by six turboprop engines to the final prototype YB-52 with eight turbojet engines and swept wings . The B-52 took its maiden flight in April 1952. The B-52 has been in service with the USAF since 1955, and NASA from 1959 to 2007. Built to carry nuclear weapons for Cold War –era deterrence missions,
18250-587: The time. Operational losses of aircraft and crews were unacceptably high owing to Japanese daylight air defenses and continuing mechanical problems with the B-29. In January 1945, LeMay was transferred from China to relieve Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell as commander of the XXI Bomber Command in the Marianas . He became convinced that high-altitude precision bombing would be ineffective, given
18396-479: The two men agreeing the primary mission of SAC should be the capability of delivering 80% of the nation's atomic bombs in one mission. At the Dualism Conference in December 1948, the Air Force leadership rallied behind LeMay's position that the service's highest priority was to deliver the SAC atomic offensive "in one fell swoop telescoping mass and time". "To LeMay, demolishing everything was how you win
18542-401: The understanding that it could be adapted for nuclear strikes. In June 1947, the military requirements were updated and the Model 464-17 met all of them except for the range. It was becoming obvious to the USAAF that, even with the updated performance, the XB-52 would be obsolete by the time it entered production and would offer little improvement over the Convair B-36 Peacemaker ; as a result,
18688-403: The upgrade would look like. The upgrades will also include improved communication systems, new pylons, new cockpit displays and the deletion of one crew station. The changes will carry the designation B-52J. The B-52 shared many technological similarities with the preceding B-47 Stratojet strategic bomber. The two aircraft used the same basic design, such as swept wings and podded jet engines, and
18834-570: The use of military space programs to perform satellite reconnaissance and gather electronic intelligence. For comparison, the US Army and Navy frequently suffered budgetary cutbacks and program cancellations by Congress and Secretary McNamara. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, LeMay clashed again with U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Defense Secretary McNamara, arguing that he should be allowed to bomb nuclear missile sites in Cuba . He opposed
18980-510: The usually cloudy weather over Japan. Furthermore, bombs dropped from the B-29s at high altitude (above 20,000 feet (6,100 m)) were often blown off of their trajectories by a consistently powerful jet stream over the Japanese home islands, which dramatically reduced the effectiveness of the high-altitude raids. Because Japanese air defenses made daytime bombing below jet stream-affected altitudes too perilous, LeMay finally switched to low-altitude nighttime incendiary attacks on Japanese targets,
19126-517: The wing to twist, undermining roll control. Six spoilerons on each wing are responsible for the majority of roll control. The late B-52G models eliminated the ailerons altogether and added an extra spoileron to each wing. Partly because of the lack of ailerons, the B-52G and H models were more susceptible to Dutch roll . Ongoing problems with avionics systems were addressed in the Jolly Well program, completed in 1964, which improved components of
19272-503: The winner and announced plans to purchase 650 engines (608 direct replacements and 42 spares), for US$ 2.6 billion. Unlike the previous re-engine proposal which also involved reducing the number of engines from eight to four, the F130 re-engine program maintains eight engines on the B-52. Although four-engine operation would be more efficient, retrofitting the airframe to operate with only four engines would involve additional changes to
19418-569: Was a major in the United States Army Air Forces (he had been a first lieutenant as recently as 1940), and the commander of a newly created B-17 Flying Fortress unit, the 305th Bomb Group . He took this unit to England in October 1942 as part of the Eighth Air Force , and led it in combat until May 1943, notably helping to develop the combat box formation. In September 1943, he became the first commander of
19564-479: Was an essentially new airplane. The new design (464-49) built upon the basic layout of the B-47 Stratojet with 35-degree swept wings , eight engines paired in four underwing pods , and bicycle landing gear with wingtip outrigger wheels. A notable feature was the ability to pivot both fore and aft main landing gear up to 20° from the aircraft centerline to increase safety during crosswind landings (allowing
19710-573: Was appointed Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force in July 1957, serving until 1961. Following service as USAF Vice Chief of Staff (1957–1961), LeMay was made the fifth Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force on the retirement of Gen Thomas White . His belief in the efficacy of strategic air campaigns over tactical strikes and ground support operations became Air Force policy during his tenure as chief of staff. As Chief of Staff, LeMay clashed repeatedly with Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, Air Force Secretary Eugene Zuckert , and
19856-479: Was approached by conservatives to challenge moderate Republican Thomas Kuchel for his seat in the United States Senate in 1968, but he declined. For the 1968 presidential election , LeMay originally supported former Republican Vice President Richard Nixon; he turned down two requests by former Alabama Governor George Wallace to join his newly formed American Independent Party , that year, on
20002-587: Was awarded the Mackay Trophy in 1939. For Haynes again, in May 1938 he navigated three B-17s 620 nmi (710 mi; 1,150 km) over the Atlantic Ocean to intercept the Italian liner SS Rex to illustrate the ability of land-based airpower to defend the American coasts. In 1940 he was navigator for Haynes on the prototype Boeing XB-15 heavy bomber, flying a survey from Panama over
20148-446: Was built. The B-52 was to have been modified to utilize Northrop Grumman 's AGM-137 TSSAM weapon; however, the missile was canceled due to development costs. Those B-52Gs not converted as cruise missile carriers underwent a series of modifications to improve conventional bombing. They were fitted with a new Integrated Conventional Stores Management System (ICSMS) and new underwing pylons that could hold larger bombs or other stores than
20294-522: Was canceled in 2005 following the removal of funds for the stand-off jammer. The program was revived in 2007 and cut again in early 2009. In July 2013, the USAF began a fleet-wide technological upgrade of its B-52 bombers called Combat Network Communications Technology (CONECT) to modernize electronics, communications technology, computing, and avionics on the flight deck. CONECT upgrades include software and hardware such as new computer servers, modems, radios, data-links, receivers, and digital workstations for
20440-412: Was encouraged to continue turbojet studies even without any expected commitment to jet propulsion. On Thursday, 21 October 1948, Boeing engineers George S. Schairer , Art Carlsen, and Vaughn Blumenthal presented the design of a four-engine turboprop bomber to the chief of bomber development, Colonel Pete Warden . Warden was disappointed by the projected aircraft and asked if the Boeing team could produce
20586-709: Was followed by renewed negotiations that led to the Paris Peace Agreement , appearing to support the claim. However, consideration must be given to significant differences in terms of both military objectives and geopolitical realities between 1968 and 1972, including the impact of Nixon's recognition and exploitation of the Sino-Soviet split to gain a "free hand" in Vietnam and the shift of Communist opposition from an organic insurgency (the Viet Cong ) to
20732-502: Was ignored. Instead, an incremental policy, Operation Rolling Thunder , was implemented that focused on limited interdiction bombing of fluid enemy supply corridors in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. This limited campaign failed to destroy significant quantities of enemy war supplies or diminish enemy ambitions. Bombing limitations were imposed by President Lyndon Johnson for geopolitical reasons, as he surmised that bombing Soviet and Chinese ships in port and killing Soviet advisers would bring
20878-515: Was instructed to thoroughly explore recent technological innovations, including aerial refueling and the flying wing . Noting stability and control problems Northrop Corporation was experiencing with their YB-35 and YB-49 flying wing bombers, Boeing insisted on a conventional aircraft, and in April 1948 presented a US$ 30 million (US$ 380 million today) proposal for design, construction, and testing of two Model 464-35 prototypes. Further revisions during 1948 resulted in an aircraft with
21024-520: Was joking, but years later, after LeMay retired, Austin saw him again and "brought up the subject of the mission we had flown. And he remembered it like it was yesterday. We chatted about it a little bit. His comment again was, 'Well, we'd have been a hell of a lot better off if we'd got World War III started in those days'". In 1956 and 1957 LeMay implemented tests of 24-hour bomber and tanker alerts, keeping some bomber forces ready at all times. LeMay headed SAC until 1957, overseeing its transformation into
21170-487: Was protected by a greatly enhanced and modernized security force, the Strategic Air Command Elite Guard . LeMay insisted on rigorous training and very high standards of performance for all SAC personnel, be they officers, enlisted men, aircrews, mechanics, or administrative staff, and reportedly commented, "I have neither the time nor the inclination to differentiate between the incompetent and
21316-610: Was required to cruise at 300 miles per hour (260 kn; 480 km/h) at 34,000 feet (10,000 m) with a combat radius of 5,000 miles (4,300 nmi; 8,000 km). The armament was to consist of an unspecified number of 20 mm cannons and 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) of bombs. On 13 February 1946, the USAAF issued bid invitations for these specifications, with Boeing, Consolidated Aircraft , and Glenn L. Martin Company submitting proposals. On 5 June 1946, Boeing's Model 462,
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