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177-742: The process of German expansion was known as Ostsiedlung ("Settling of the East"). The name "Sudeten Germans" was adopted during rising nationalism after the fall of Austria-Hungary after the First World War . After the Munich Agreement , the so-called Sudetenland became part of Germany . After the Second World War , most of the German-speaking population (mostly Roman Catholic with relatively few Protestants)

354-639: A parish church system only took place after the settlement of German colonists, beginning in the 2nd half of the 12th century. Control over areas that had already been conquered was repeatedly lost. The Slavic revolt of 983 and an uprising of the Obotrites in 1066 had particularly serious consequences. In 983, the Polabian Slavs in the Billung and Northern Marches , stretching from the Elbe river to

531-657: A centre of the Hussite movement, and the chief doctrinal authority of the Utraquists . No degrees were given in the years 1417–30; at times there were only eight or nine professors. Emperor Sigismund , son of Charles IV, took what was left into his personal property and some progress was made. The emperor Ferdinand I called the Jesuits to Prague and in 1562 they opened an academy—the Clementinum . From 1541 till 1558

708-646: A demonstration, Jan Opletal was shot. His burial on 15 November 1939 became another demonstration. On 17 November 1939 (now marked as International Students' Day ) the Czech University and all other Czech institutions of higher learning were closed, remaining closed until the end of the War. Nine student leaders were executed and about 1,200 Czech students were interned in Sachsenhausen and not released until 1943. About 20 or 35 interned students died in

885-662: A fair plebiscite, a majority of the Sudetenland population would have voted to remain in Czechoslovakia. The municipal elections of May 1938 were marred with voter intimidation and street fighting - officially the SdP won about 90 percent of the Sudeten vote, but about a third of Sudeten Germans were prevented from casting a free vote. The table below shows the number of seats German parties and German–Hungarian lists gained in

1062-829: A faithful appeaser , to Czechoslovakia to see if he could obtain a settlement between the Czechoslovak government and the Sudeten Germans. His mission failed because Henlein refused all conciliating proposals under secret orders by Hitler. The Runciman Report to the British government stated this on Czechoslovakia's policy towards the German minority during the preceding decades: Czech officials and Czech police, speaking little or no German, were appointed in large numbers to purely German districts; Czech agricultural colonists were encouraged to settle on land confiscated under

1239-455: A few decades, especially in agriculture and crafts. These included: The amount of cultivated land increased as large forested areas were cleared. The extent of land increase differed by region. In Silesia it had doubled (16% of the total area) by the beginning of the 11th century, 30% in the 16th century and the highest increase rates in the 14th century, the total area of arable land increased seven – to twentyfold in many Silesian regions during

1416-721: A large number of Flemish people. With the formation of the Hanseatic League , which allowed further German settlement in coastal towns due to it being the dominant trade republic in the Baltic and North seas. After the Wendish crusade, Albert the Bear was able to establish and expand the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157 on approximately the territory of the former Northern March , which since 983 had been controlled by

1593-438: A large part of this number, accounts of the loss varying from 5000 to 20,000 including 46 professors. In the autumn of 1409, Hus was elected rector of the now Czech-dominated rump university. The university became a bastion of the Hussite movement and mostly a regional institution. Soon, in 1419, the faculties of theology and law disappeared, and only the faculty of arts remained in existence. The faculty of arts became

1770-858: A line from the Eastern Alps and Bohemia to the Saale and Elbe rivers. As the East Frankish kingdom expanded, various Wendish tribes, that were conquered or allied with the Eastern Franks, such as the Obotrites , aided the Franks in defeating the West Germanic Saxons . The Carolingian tradition of setting up marches at the periphery of the empire would be continued by the East Frankish and Holy Roman Empire's kings during

1947-475: A lot of people and let them live in the castles and villages of the Slavs." The Slavs used ploughs and agricultural implements before the arrival of German settlers. The oldest meaningful reference to this can be found in a Slavic chronicle, in which the use of a plough as an areal measurement is mentioned. Although heavier and useful ploughs were brought by the settlers. In the 12th and 13th century documents,

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2124-664: A military conflict with the German King Henry III , and in the end, Bretislav had to renounce his conquests in Poland and recognize Henry as his sovereign. After this, Bohemia remained loyal to Germany because of fears of another invasion, and Polish and Hungarian expansionism to the North and South . On the epoch of the war of investiture in Germany , Henry IV decisively fixed German-Bohemian relationship by playing off

2301-572: A party conference in Teplitz in 1919, the provincial Social Democratic Parties of Bohemia, Moravia and Sudeten-Silesia united to form the Deutsche Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei (DSAP) and elected Josef Seliger as chairman. After Seliger's untimely death in 1920, Ludwig Czech became party chairman, who was succeeded in 1938 by Wenzel Jaksch . Already in 1936, Jaksch, together with Hans Schütz of

2478-532: A plan, known as the United States of Greater Austria , in 1909. German Bohemia, as it was to be called, was going to be separated from the Czech areas around it in the plan. That would create ethnically homogenous self-governing provinces that would hopefully end the ethnic conflict. However, Franz Ferdinand was assassinated , and the First World War destroyed all hopes for a redrawn Cisleithania. The end of

2655-510: A possible Nazi takeover. Of some 80,000 social democrats in Czechoslovakia, only about 5,000 would manage to flee the Nazis. The rest were incarcerated, and many of them were executed. Many of those who survived the Nazi persecution were later expelled, together with other Sudeten Germans, on the basis of Beneš decrees . By 1929, only a small number of Sudeten German deputies, most of them members of

2832-414: A single operation. The different modes of operation of the two devices also had an impact on the shape and size of the cultivation areas. The fields worked with the ard had about the same field length and width and a square base. Long fields with a rectangular base were much more suitable for the mouldboard plough, as the heavy implements had to be turned less often. Planting and cultivation of oats and rye

3009-802: Is Karolinum Press and the university also operates several museums. The Botanical Garden of Charles University , maintained by its Faculty of Science , is located in the New Town . Among the four original faculties of Charles University were: the faculty of law, medicine, art (philosophy) and theology (now catholic theology). Today, Charles University consists of 17 faculties, based primarily in Prague , two houses in Hradec Králové and one in Plzeň . Charles University ranks 1st in Eastern Europe in

3186-565: Is also found. The term "Sudeten Germans" ( Sudetendeutsche ) came about during rising ethnic nationalism in the early 20th century, after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the First World War . It coincided with the rise of another new term, "the Sudetenland ", which referred only to the parts of the former Kingdom of Bohemia that were inhabited predominantly by ethnic Germans. These names were derived from

3363-678: Is situated in the Old Town of Prague and constitutes the university's center. It is the seat of the rector and of the Academic Senate of Charles university. Carolinum is also the venue for official academic ceremonies such as matriculations or graduations . It was dedicated to the University by the Czech King Wenceslas IV in 1386 and has been serving the University ever since. Its academic publishing house

3540-549: Is the term for the Early Medieval and High Medieval migration of ethnic Germans and Germanization of the areas populated by Slavic , Baltic and Uralic peoples; the most settled area was known as Germania Slavica . Germanization efforts included eastern parts of Francia , East Francia , and the Holy Roman Empire and beyond; and the consequences for settlement development and social structures in

3717-847: The Bereitschaft . The Sudeten German nationalists, particularly the Nazis, expanded their activities after the Depression started. On 30 January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor of Germany. The Czechoslovak government prepared to suppress the Sudeten Nazi Party. In the autumn of 1933, the Sudeten Nazis dissolved their organization, and the German Nationals were pressured to do likewise. The government expelled German Nationals and Sudeten Nazis from local government positions. The Sudeten German population

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3894-542: The Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin , which has been renewed annually. On 23 February 1654, emperor Ferdinand III merged Carolinum and Clementinum and created a single university with four faculties: Charles-Ferdinand University ( Latin : Universitatis Carolinae Ferdinandeae ). Carolinum had at that time only the faculty of arts , as the only faculty surviving the period of

4071-508: The Ard without a mouldboard is mentioned. It tear opens the soil and spreads the soil to both sides without turning it. It is therefore particularly suitable for light and sandy subsoil. In the mid 13th century, the Three-field system was introduced east of the Elbe. This new cultivation method required the use of the heavy mouldboard plough that digs up the earth deeply and turns it around in

4248-848: The Collegium Adalbertinum , and in 1638, Emperor Ferdinand III limited the teaching monopoly enjoyed by the Jesuits. He took from them the rights, properties and archives of the Carolinum making the university once more independent under an imperial protector. During the last years of the Thirty Years' War the Charles Bridge in Prague was courageously defended by students of the Carolinum and Clementinum . Since 1650, those who received any degrees took an oath to maintain

4425-783: The East Frankish King Arnulf of Carinthia at the Imperial Diet ( Reichstag ) in Regensburg in 895. In 973, when the Bishopric of Prague was created, it was made subject to the Archbishopric of Mainz , which increased German influence. In the 11th century, Bretislav I led a campaign against Poland, reconquering Silesia and transferring the relics of Saint Adalbert to Prague, hoping to have Prague elevated to archbishopric status. This resulted in

4602-668: The Egerland to the Braunau region along the border with the German Empire. In South Bohemia the administrative unit of Böhmerwaldgau emerged, which was to be part of Upper Austria . German Bohemia in the Eagle Mountains and in the area of Landskron merged with the so-called "Province of the Sudetenland", which had radically different borders than the later understanding of the term. The Bohemian district of Neubistritz

4779-614: The Eider river, followed by the conquest of the land of the Wagri in 1139, the founding of Lübeck in 1143 and the call by Count Adolf II of Schauenburg to settle in Eastern Holstein , and Pomerania in the same year. Weakened by ongoing internal conflicts and constant warfare, the independent Wendish territories finally lost the capacity to provide effective military resistance. From 1119 to 1123, Pomerania invaded and subdued

4956-916: The German Christian Social People's Party ( Deutsche Christlich-Soziale Volkspartei ) and Gustav Hacker of the Farmers' Association ( Bund der Landwirte , formed the Jungaktivisten (Young Activists). They sought agreement with the Czechoslovak government on a policy that could withstand the Nazi onslaught from within and from outside Czechoslovakia. At simultaneous mass rallies in Tetschen-Bodenbach/Děčín , Saaz/Žatec and Olešnice v Orlických horách/Gießhübl im Adlergebirge on April 26, 1936, they demanded equal opportunities in civil service for Germans, financial assistance for German businesses, official acceptance of

5133-535: The German language for public servants in the Sudetenland and measures to reduce unemployment in the Sudetenland. (At the time, one in three was unemployed in the Sudetenland, compared to one in five in the rest of the country.) Improving the quality of life of the Sudeten Germans was not the only motivation of the Jungaktivists. For Jaksch and his social democratic compatriots, it was a question of survival after

5310-740: The Habsburg monarchy . With the rise of the Habsburgs in Bohemia after the 1620 Battle of White Mountain , the old Bohemian nobility became virtually meaningless. Increasingly, the Bohemian crown lands were ruled from the Austrian capital, Vienna , which favoured the dominance of the German language and German culture . On the other hand, the 18th-century Silesian Wars started by Prussian King Frederick II of Prussia against Austria resulted in

5487-700: The Hevelli and Lutici tribes. The Bishopric of Havelberg , that had been occupied by revolting Lutici tribes was reestablished to Christianize the Wends. In 1164, after Saxon duke Henry the Lion finally defeated rebellious Obotrites and Pomeranian dukes in the Battle of Verchen . The Pomeranian duchies of Demmin and Stettin became Saxon fiefs, as well as the Obodrite territories, which became Mecklenburg , named after

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5664-414: The Hussite Wars , the occupation of Bohemia by the Czech Brethren , the Thirty Years' War , when the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were severely affected, which caused the immigration of further German settlers. After the death of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia in the 1526 Battle of Mohács , the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand of Austria became King of Bohemia, which became a constituent state of

5841-442: The Hussite Wars . The dilapidated Carolinum was rebuilt in 1718 at the expense of the state. The rebuilding and the bureaucratic reforms of universities in the Habsburg monarchy in 1752 and 1754 deprived the university of many of its former privileges. In 1757 a Dominican and an Augustinian were appointed to give theological instruction. However, there was a gradual introduction of enlightened reforms, and this process culminated at

6018-416: The Margravate of Meissen , Thuringia , Upper and Lower Saxony, Denmark, and Sweden. Ethnically Czech students made 16–20% of all students. Archbishop Arnošt of Pardubice took an active part in the foundation by obliging the clergy to contribute and became a chancellor of the university (i.e., director or manager). The first graduate was promoted in 1359. The lectures were held in the colleges, of which

6195-472: The Oder , Bober , Kwisa and Vltava rivers in the east were conquered (see also: Battle on the Raxa ), and border marches were established in these areas. Fortifications were occupied and new castles built, reinforced by military units to exert military control and collect tributes. No civilian settlers occupied these lands. Christianization was limited to the establishment of mission dioceses such as Lübeck , Brandenburg or Havelberg . The development of

6372-429: The Old Town ( Faculty of Arts , Faculty of Humanities ), the New Town ( First Faculty of Medicine , Faculty of Science , Faculty of Mathematics and Physics ), Břevnov (halls of residence), Veleslavín (Faculty of Physical Education and Sport), Libeň (Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, halls of residence), and Hostivař (halls of residence, sports centre). The oldest building at Charles University Karolinum

6549-466: The Ostsiedlung . Parallel to agricultural innovations new forms of farm layout and settlement structuring (division and classification of land) were introduced. Farmland was divided into Hufen , (English hides ) and larger villages replaced the previously dominant type of small villages consisting of four to eight farms as a complete transformation of the previous settlement structure occurred. The cultural landscape of East Central Europe formed by

6726-418: The Ottonian and Salian emperors during the 11th and 12th centuries do not form part of the Ostsiedlung , as these actions didn't result in any noteworthy settlement establishment east of the Elbe and Saale rivers. The Ostsiedlung is considered to have been a purely Medieval event as it ended in the beginning of the 14th century. The legal, cultural, linguistic, religious and economic changes caused by

6903-406: The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia under German governors and the German Army. Almost all the Germans in these Czech territories were subsequently granted German citizenship, while most of the Germans in Slovakia obtained citizenship of the Slovak state . Ostsiedlung Ostsiedlung ( German pronunciation: [ˈɔstˌziːdlʊŋ] , lit.   ' East settlement ' )

7080-414: The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . Reichsprotektor Konstantin von Neurath handed the historical insigniae to the German University, which was officially renamed Deutsche Karls-Universität in Prag . On 1 September 1939 the German University was subordinated to the Reich Ministry of Education in Berlin and on 4 November 1939 it was proclaimed to be Reichsuniversität . On 28 October 1939, during

7257-409: The Přemyslid rulers promoted the colonisation of certain areas of their lands by German settlers from the adjacent lands of Bavaria , Franconia , Upper Saxony and Austria during the Ostsiedlung migration. In 1348, the Luxembourg king Charles I , also King of the Romans and Holy Roman Emperor (as Charles IV) from 1355, founded the Charles University in Prague ( Alma Mater Carolina ),

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7434-536: The QS Subject Ranking , Charles University is among the 150 best universities in the world in geography and linguistics . Charles University is a founding member of the 4EU+European University Alliance along with the University of Heidelberg , Sorbonne University and the University of Warsaw and a member of the Coimbra Group , the International Association of Universities and the International Forum of Public Universities . It participates on Erasmus Programme and has numerous inter-university agreements with

7611-462: The QS World University Rankings and 246 globally. It was ranked in 2013 as 201–300 best in the World among 500 universities evaluated by Academic Ranking of World Universities , 351–400 among 400 universities in Times Higher Education World University Rankings and 485th in CWTS Leiden Ranking of 500 universities. Earlier rankings are presented in following table. According to Academic Ranking of World Universities , Charles University ranked in

7788-410: The Sudeten Mountains , which form the northern border of the Bohemian lands . As these terms were heavily used by the Nazi German regime to push forward the creation of a Greater Germanic Reich , many contemporary Germans avoid them in favour of the traditional names. There have been ethnic Germans living in the Bohemian crown lands since the Middle Ages . In the late 12th and in the 13th century

7965-409: The Thirty Years' War , which was started in Prague by anti-Catholic and anti-Imperial Bohemians. By 1622, the Jesuits had a predominant influence over the emperor. An Imperial decree of 19 September 1622 gave the Jesuits supreme control over the entire school system of Bohemia, Moravia , and Silesia . The last four professors at the Carolinum resigned, and all of the Carolinum and nine colleges went to

8142-430: The University of Prague (Latin: Universitas Pragensis ), is the largest and best-ranked university in the Czech Republic . It is one of the oldest universities in the world in continuous operation, the first university north of the Alps and east of Paris . Today, the university consists of 17 faculties located in Prague , Hradec Králové , and Plzeň . The establishment of a medieval university in Prague

8319-427: The Western Schism , the Bohemian nation took the side of king Wenceslaus and supported the Council of Pisa (1409). The other nations of the university declared their support for the side of Pope Gregory XII , thus the vote was 1:3 against the Bohemians. Hus and other Bohemians, though, took advantage of Wenceslaus' opposition to Gregory. By the Decree of Kutná Hora ( German : Kuttenberg ) on 18 January 1409,

8496-413: The insigniae . These troubles of 1934 harmed relations between the two universities and nationalities. The tide turned in 1938 when, following the Munich Agreement , German troops entered the border areas of Czechoslovakia (the so-called Sudetenland ), as did Polish and Hungarian troops elsewhere. On 15 March 1939 Germans forced Czecho-Slovakia to split apart and the Czech lands were occupied by Nazis as

8673-419: The normalization period in the beginning of the 1970s. Only in the late 1980s did the situation start to improve; students organized various activities and several peaceful demonstrations in the wake of the Revolutions of 1989 abroad. This initiated the Velvet Revolution in 1989, in which both students and faculty of the university played a large role. Václav Havel , a writer, dramatist and philosopher,

8850-415: The Škoda Works ; near Pilsen , they had been Czechoslovakia's primary armaments factory. As a result, Bohemia and Moravia lost about 38 percent of their combined area, and 3.65 million inhabitants (2.82 million Germans and approximately 513,000 – 750,000 Czechs to Germany). Some 250,000 Germans remained on the Czech side of the border, which later became part of the Reich by the establishment of

9027-405: The 11th and 12th centuries. Under the rule of King Louis the German and Arnulf of Carinthia , the first groups of civilian Catholic settlers were led by Franks and Bavarii to the lands of Pannonia (present-day Burgenland , Hungary , Slovakia and Slovenia ). In a series of punitive actions, large territories in the northeast between the Elbe , Saale , Naab rivers in the west and

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9204-497: The 12th and 13th centuries, more Germans arrived in Hungary, living in dispersed villages known as Königsboden    [ de ] . By the mid-13th century, their importance in trade (especially in Pozsony , Pest and Nagyszombat ) and gold and silver mining (especially in Beszterce and Radna ) grew significant. When Stephen I married Gisela of Bavaria , many German knights came to Hungary, joining its military. They were often rewarded with large estates and entry into

9381-431: The 12th and 13th centuries, the population density increased considerably. The increase was due to the influx of settlers on the one hand and an increase in slavic populations after the settlement on the other hand. Settlement was the primary reason for the increase e.g. in the areas east of the Oder , the Duchy of Pomerania , western Greater Poland , Silesia , Austria , Moravia , Prussia and Transylvania , while in

9558-459: The 13th century, glazed ceramics were introduced and the import of stoneware increased. The transfer of technology and knowledge affected the way of life of old and new settlers in a variety of ways and, in addition to innovations in agriculture and handicrafts, also included other areas, such as weapons technology, documents and coins. The Slavic population (Sorbs), who lived east of the Elbe, primarily built log houses, which had proven suitable for

9735-507: The 4th and 5th centuries, in what is known as the Migration Period , Germanic peoples seized control of the decaying Western Roman Empire in the South and established new kingdoms within it. Meanwhile, formerly Germanic areas in Eastern Europe and present-day Eastern Germany, were settled by Slavs . Charlemagne , ruler of the Carolingian Empire of Francia , which was founded by Franks (a Germanic people), under whom most of Western and Central continental Europe had been united during

9912-414: The 8th and 9th centuries, created numerous border territories, so called marches ( German : Marken ), where a substantial portion of the Ostsiedlung would later take place. The territories (from north to south): This was the earliest recorded and planned "eastern policy" under Charlemagne, who wanted to protect the eastern border of the Frankish Empire, and also wanted to solidify his position in

10089-418: The Baltic Sea succeeded in a rebellion against the political rule and Christian mission of the recently established Holy Roman Empire . In spite of their new-won independence, the Obotrites , Rani , Liutizian and Hevelli tribes were soon faced with internal struggles and warfare as well as raids from the newly constituted and expanding Piast dynasty (the early Polish ) state from the east, Denmark from

10266-495: The Baltic coast. Large cities included Szczecin which reached 9,000 inhabitants, Kraków and Wrocław , major cities and centers of power of medieval Poland. However, they experienced substantial growth since the end of the 12th century through new settlers and expansion ( locatio civitatis ). The foundation of a bishopric, for example in Havelberg , would lead to the development of a town, although cities were also founded out of nowhere, such as Neubrandenburg . Characteristic of

10443-431: The Bavarian frontier to the poor agricultural areas of southern Bohemia . Moravia contained many patches of ethnic German settlement in the north and the south. Most typical in those areas were German "language islands", towns inhabited by German speakers but surrounded by rural Czechs. Extreme German nationalism was never prevalent in those areas. German nationalism in the coal-mining region of southern Silesia , which

10620-410: The Bear granted Dutch settlers the right to take possession of former Slavic settlements. The preacher Helmold of Bosau reported on this in his Slavic chronicle: "Finally, when the Slavs were gradually dispersing, he (Albrecht) sent to Utrecht and the Rhine region, and also to those who live by the ocean, who under the power of the sea had suffered, the Dutch, Zealanders and Flemings, where he attracted

10797-411: The Czech government and Czechs of atrocities on innocent Germans. The Czechoslovak public started to prepare for an inevitable war, such as by training with gas masks. On 20 May, Czechoslovakia initiated a so-called "partial mobilization" (literally "special military precaution") in response to rumours of German troop movements. The army moved into position on the border. Western powers tried to calm down

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10974-407: The Czech humanist Mattheus Collinus  [ de ] (1516–1566) was a professor of Greek language. Some progress was made again when the emperor Rudolph II took up residence in Prague. In 1609 the obligatory celibacy of the professors was abolished. In 1616 the Jesuit Academy became a university. (It could award academic degrees.) Jesuits were expelled 1618–1621 during the early stages of

11151-418: The Czech military, which started on 31 October 1918 and was completed on 28 January 1919. Fighting took place sporadically, resulting in the deaths of a few dozen Germans and Czechs. On 4 March 1919, almost the entire ethnic German population peacefully demonstrated for its right to self-determination. The demonstrations were accompanied by a one-day general strike. The German Social Democratic Workers Party in

11328-662: The Czech university was to be the successor to the original university. Dropping the Habsburg name Ferdinand , it designated itself Charles University , while the German university was not named in the document, and then became officially called the German University in Prague ( German : Deutsche Universität Prag ). In 1921, the German-speaking Bohemians considered moving their university to Liberec ( German : Reichenberg ), in northern Bohemia. In 1930, about 42,000 inhabitants of Prague spoke German as their native language, while millions lived in northern, southern and western Bohemia, in Czech Silesia and parts of Moravia near

11505-414: The Czechoslovak Chamber of Deputies between 1920 and 1935. Konrad Henlein met with Hitler in Berlin on 28 March 1938 and was told to raise demands that would be unacceptable to the Czechoslovak government. In the Carlsbad Decrees, issued on 24 April at the Carlsbad convention, the SdP demanded complete autonomy for the Sudetenland and freedom to profess Nazi ideology. If Henlein's demands had been granted,

11682-441: The Czechoslovak Republic , then the largest party, was responsible for the demonstration initiative, but it was also supported by other bourgeois German parties. The mass demonstrations were put down by the Czech military, involving 54 deaths and 84 wounded. American diplomat Archibald Coolidge insisted on respecting the Germans' right to self-determination and uniting all German-speaking areas with either Germany or Austria, with

11859-423: The Czechoslovak Republic was proclaimed on 28 October 1918, the German Bohemians, claiming the right to self-determination according to the tenth of US President Woodrow Wilson ’s Fourteen Points , demanded that their homeland areas remain with Austria, which by then had been reduced to the Republic of German Austria . The German Bohemians relied mostly on peaceful opposition to the occupation of their homeland by

12036-423: The Czechoslovak State, whether he was speaking sincerely or not, he was expressing the wishes of a very considerable proportion of his followers". According to Ralf Gebel, "the majority had voted for a party that united the Sudeten Germans and aimed to improve their position within the Czechoslovak Republic — no more and no less". Johann Wolfgang Brügel also highlights that although Henlein became "Hitler's paladin",

12213-561: The Czechoslovak government, including the installation of exclusively Sudeten German officials in Sudeten German areas and the possible participation of the SdP in the cabinet, were rejected. Nevertheless, the party campaigned on autonomy for the Sudetenland and pledged allegiance to the Czechoslovak stance; a majority of SdP voters supported regional autonomy and did not desire to join the German state. Elizabeth Wiskemann remarked that "when Henlein repeated to his English friends in London as late as May 1938 that he still wished for autonomy within

12390-504: The Czechoslovak parliament. In 1926, however, German Chancellor Gustav Stresemann , adopting a policy of rapprochement with the West, advised the Sudeten Germans to co-operate actively with the Czechoslovak government. In consequence, most Sudeten German parties (including the German Agrarian Party, the German Social Democratic Party and the German Christian Socialist People's Party) changed their policy from negativism to activism, and several Sudeten politicians even accepted cabinet posts. At

12567-458: The Czechs from Germany, asking Henry II, Duke of Austria to renounce his claims to certain Bohemian lands, this was refused, and in the war that followed he was defeated. This made Soběslavs successors Frederick and Conrad II ruling during a period of unrest. This allowed for greater settlement during the 13th century, where even many Czech towns received so many German settlers they were practically Germanized and became majority Germany. Due to

12744-577: The Czechs wide-ranging autonomy within Imperial and Royal Austria. Also, Austria was no longer considered to be a major power by the victors of the war. On 14 October, Raphael Pacher succeeded, together with the social democrat, Josef Seliger, in uniting all German parties and members of parliament in Bohemia and Moravia into a coalition. In preparation for the foundation of the Republic of German Bohemia,

12921-490: The Czechs. The German University senate sent a delegation to Minister of Education Krčmář to protest the writ. At noon on 24 November 1934, several thousand students of the Czech University protested in front of the German university building. The Czech rector Karel Domin gave a speech urging the crowd to attack, while the outnumbered German students tried to resist. Under the threat of violence, on 25 November 1934 rector Otto Grosser  [ de ] (1873–1951) handed over

13098-472: The Elbe by the end of the 12th century. It was manufactured extensively in Pomerania by the 13th century, when more advanced manufacturing methods, such as the tunnel kiln, enabled the mass production of ceramic household goods. The demand for household goods such as pots, jugs, jugs and bowls, which had previously been made of wood, increased steadily and promoted the development of new sales markets. During

13275-590: The Empire, and successor kings led numerous, yet not always successful, military campaigns to maintain their authority. In 843, the Carolingian Empire was partitioned into three independent kingdoms as a result of dissent among Charlemagne's three grandsons over the continuation of the custom of partible inheritance or the introduction of primogeniture . Louis the German inherited the eastern territories, East Francia , that included all lands east of

13452-700: The German National Party, supported by the propertied classes, and the German National Socialist Workers' Party , remained opposed to the Czechoslovak government. Nationalist sentiment flourished, however, among Sudeten German youths, who had a variety of organizations, such as the older Deutsche Turnverband and Schutzvereine , the Kameradschaftsbund , the Nazi Volkssport (1929) and

13629-686: The German University was the era preceding the First World War, when it was home to world-renowned scientists such as physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach , Moritz Winternitz and Albert Einstein . In addition, the German-language students included prominent individuals such as future writers Max Brod , Franz Kafka , and Johannes Urzidil . The "Lese- und Redehalle der deutschen Studenten in Prag" ("Reading and Lecture Hall of

13806-680: The German government and the underground Nazi movement. In 1935, the Sudeten German Home Front became the Sudeten German Party ( Sudetendeutsche Partei ) (SdP) and embarked on an active propaganda campaign. In the May election, the SdP won more than 60% of the Sudeten German vote. The German Agrarians, Christian Socialists and Social Democrats each lost approximately half of their followers. The SdP became

13983-514: The German influence on the nobility, many castles and villages names were Germanized, such as Zvíkov Castle to Burg Klingenberg . Under the reign of Vladislaus II , various military orders, the most prominent of which, the Knights Hospitaller , were even allowed to bring German settlers into Bohemian land and settle them . During this time, German settlers were exempt from the local Župan Laws, which included various duties such as

14160-560: The German loss here was not as severe as after World War II . In and after World War II (1944–1950), Germans were driven out and deported to rump Germany from the East and their language and culture were lost in most areas (including the German-dominated lands which Germany lost after this war ) in which German people had settled during the Ostsiedlung; except part of Eastern Austria and especially Eastern Germany. During

14337-460: The German students in Prague"), founded in 1848, was an important social and scientific centre. Their library contained in 1885 more than 23,519 books and offered 248 scientific journals, 19 daily newspapers, 49 periodicals and 34 papers of entertainment. Regular lectures were held to scientific and political themes. Even before the Austro-Hungarian Empire was abolished in late 1918, to be succeeded by Czechoslovakia , Czech politicians demanded that

14514-516: The Germans settling in Prague, and even making up almost a quarter of all people in Prague . Bretislav II granted them important privileges, notably the right of self-government under magistrates of their own election, and the right of living under German law. During the late 12th and early 13th century , German settlement of the mountainous borderland (Known as the Sudetenland ) began . It

14691-543: The Germans. However, Masaryk still tried to win the Germans for the new state by referring to economic advantages and by referring to their common Austrian past. Sudeten representatives tried to join Austria or Germany or at least to obtain as much autonomy. The constitution of 1920 was drafted without Sudeten German representation, and Sudetens declined to participate in the election of the president. Sudeten political parties pursued an "obstructionist" (or negativist) policy in

14868-632: The Hanseatic League who settled coastal towns. While Hungary was never conquered by the Holy Roman Empire and was never in focus of German settlement, it still had a sizeable German population. During the 11th century, Stephen I of Hungary invited German priests , abbots , and churchmen to found monasteries and promote the conversion of Hungary. Eventually these Germans' descendants started to fill other occupations, becoming merchants , clerks , and farmers , etc. and were granted

15045-493: The High Medieval Landesausbau (inland settlement) took place, when arable land was largely expanded at the expense of forested areas. Although new land was won and numerous settlements created, demands could not be absorbed. Another factor was a surplus of offspring of the nobility who were not entitled to inheritance, but after the success of the first crusade, took their chances of acquiring new lands in

15222-715: The Holy Roman Empire and proclaimed by Pope Innocent III in 1215 as a subject to the Holy See . The Teutonic State established a comprehensive administrative structure, and modernized the old traditional tribal structure of the region. An integral part of the Order other than converting Pagans to Christianity was also to encourage Germans to settle the sparsely populated area. Most German settlers primarily went to urban cities, such as Graudenz (Grudziądz), Elbing (Elbląg), and Riga . The settlers also established numerous rural settlements, known as Vorwerke in German . Most of

15399-500: The Jesuits. The right of handing out degrees, of holding chancellorships, and of appointing the secular professors was also granted to the Jesuits. Cardinal Ernst Adalbert of Harrach actively opposed the union of the university with another institution, the withdrawal of the archiepiscopal right to the chancellorship, and prevented the drawing up of the Golden Bull for the confirmation of the grant to Jesuits. Cardinal Ernst funded

15576-529: The Land Reform in the middle of German populations; for the children of these Czech invaders Czech schools were built on a large scale; there is a very general belief that Czech firms were favoured as against German firms in the allocation of State contracts and that the State provided work and relief for Czechs more readily than for Germans. I believe these complaints to be in the main justified. Even as late as

15753-410: The Nazis. None of these historical objects have been found to this day. Although the university began to recover rapidly after 1945, it did not enjoy academic freedom for long. After the communist coup in 1948, the new regime started to arrange purges and repress all forms of disagreement with the official ideology, and continued to do so for the next four decades, with the second wave of purges during

15930-463: The Obotrites residential capital, Mecklenburg Castle . After Henry the Lion lost his internal struggle with Emperor Frederick I , Mecklenburg and Pomerania became fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire in 1181, although the latter briefly as it passed under Danish suzerainty in 1185, and then under Imperial again only in the 13th century. German influence in Bohemia began when Duke Spytihněv I freed himself from Moravian vassalage and instead paid homage to

16107-731: The Polish-Bohemian enmity. In 1080 Vratislav I, fighting under the banner of the Emperor, captured the golden lance of the papal counter-king, Rudolf of Swabia , at the battle of Flarchheim . Bohemia's reward for this loyalty came six years later, in 1086, when Henry IV elevated the Duke to the rank of king. All of this laid the perfect conditions for German settlement and dominance of Bohemia . German settlers, mainly traders, miners, farmers and monks. The trade fairs of Prague attracted many merchants from all over Europe, with many including

16284-624: The Rhine river and to the north of Italy, which roughly corresponded with the territories of the German stem duchies , that formed a federation under the first king Henry the Fowler (919 to 936). The Slavs living within the reach of East Francia (since 962 C.E. the Holy Roman Empire), collectively called Wends or "Elbe Slavs", seldom formed larger political entities. They rather constituted various small tribes, settling as far west as to

16461-588: The SdP leader, arguing that his call for Sudeten Anschluss goes against the wish of his voters and supporters: "His present call to irredentism saddles the Sudeten Germans with all the consequences of treason to the State; for such a challenge the electors gave him neither their votes nor their mandate". On 22 March, the German Agrarian Party, led by Gustav Hacker , merged with the SdP. German Christian Socialists in Czechoslovakia suspended their activities on 24 March; their deputies and senators entered

16638-575: The SdP of 1935 represented a "conglomerate of practically all [political] colourings", and the opinion of the general Sudeten German population only supported autonomy within Czechoslovakia. On 13 March 1938, the Third Reich annexed Austria during the Anschluss . Sudeten Germans reacted with fear to the news of Austrian annexation, and the moderate wing of SdP grew in strength. Hitherto pro-Henlein German newspaper Bohemia (newspaper) denounced

16815-487: The SdP parliamentary club. However, the majority of Sudeten Germans did not support annexation into Germany. Contemporary reports of The Times found that there was a "large number of Sudetenlanders who actively opposed annexation", and that the pro-German policy was challenged by the moderates within the SdP as well; according to Wickham Steed , over 50 % of Henleinists favoured greater autonomy within Czechoslovakia over joining Germany. P. E. Caquet argues that in case of

16992-408: The Sudetenland would have been in a position to align itself with Nazi Germany. As the political situation worsened, the security in Sudetenland deteriorated. The region became the site of small-scale clashes between young SdP followers, equipped with arms smuggled from Germany, and police and border forces. In some places, the regular army was called in to pacify the situation. Nazi propaganda accused

17169-877: The Theological Faculty remained the common until 1891, when it was divided as well. In the winter semester of 1909–10 the German Charles-Ferdinand University had 1,778 students; these were divided into: 58 theological students, for both the secular priesthood and religious orders; 755 law students; 376 medical; 589 philosophical. Among the students were about 80 women. The professors were divided as follows: theology, 7 regular professors, 1 assistant professor, 1 docent; law, 12 regular professors, 2 assistant professors, 4 docents; medicine, 15 regular professors, 19 assistant, 30 docents; philosophy, 30 regular professors, 8 assistant, 19 docents, 7 lecturers. The Czech Charles-Ferdinand University in

17346-533: The University Václav Hampl said in 2008: "I am very pleased that Charles University achieved such a great success and I would like to thank to all who have contributed to it. An overwhelming majority of schools with a similar placement like Charles University have incomparably better financing and therefore this success is not only a reflection of professional qualities of our academics but also their personal efforts and dedication." According to

17523-417: The Wends in 1108, probably coming from a Flemish clerk in the circles of the archbishop of Magdeburg , which included the prospect of profitable land gains for new settlers, had no noticeable effect and resulted in neither a military campaign nor a movement of settlers into the area. Although the first settlers had already arrived in 1124, being mostly of Flemish and Dutch origin, they settled south of

17700-654: The areas of settlement. Other regions were also settled, though not as heavily. The Ostsiedlung encompassed multiple modern and historical regions, primarily Germany east of the Saale and Elbe rivers, the states of Lower Austria and Styria in Austria , Poland and the Czech Republic , but also in other parts of Central and Eastern Europe . The majority of Ostsiedlung settlers moved individually, in independent efforts, in multiple stages and on different routes. Many settlers were encouraged and invited by

17877-414: The borders with Austria and Germany. In October 1932, after Naegle's death, the Czechs started again a controversy over the insignia. Ethnic tensions intensified, although some professors of the German University were members of the Czechoslovak government. Any agreement to use the insignia for both the universities was rejected. On 21 November 1934, the German University had to hand over the insigniae to

18054-407: The broad definition of Bohemia, which includes all of the three Bohemian crown lands: Bohemia , Moravia and (Austrian) Silesia . In the German language, it is more common to distinguish among the three lands, hence the prominent terms Deutschböhmen (German Bohemians), Deutschmährer (German Moravians) and Deutschschlesier (German Silesians). Even in German the broader use of "Bohemian"

18231-460: The camp. On 8 May 1940 the Czech University was officially renamed Czech Charles University ( Czech : Česká universita Karlova ) by government regulation 188/1940 Coll. World War II marks the end of the coexistence of the two universities in Prague. In 1945 the insignia of the university (the rector's chain, the scepters of the individual faculties, the university seal and also the founding documents and other historical documents) were stolen by

18408-487: The centre of German nationalist forces. The party represented itself as striving for a just settlement of Sudeten German claims within the framework of Czechoslovak democracy. Henlein, however, maintained secret contact with Nazi Germany and received material aid from Berlin , which told him to refuse every concession offered by Czechoslovakia. The SdP endorsed the idea of a Führer and mimicked Nazi methods with banners, slogans and uniformed troops. Concessions offered by

18585-423: The circumstances. Britain and France then pressured the Czechoslovak government into ceding the Sudetenland to Germany on 21 September. The Munich Agreement , signed September 29 by Britain, France, Germany and Italy and negotiated without Czechoslovak participation, only confirmed that decision and the negotiated details. Czechoslovakia ceded a German-defined maximalist extension of Sudetenland to Germany, including

18762-566: The coalition, chaired by Pacher, appointed a committee of twelve members. One day after the proclamation of the Republic of Czechoslovakia, on 29 October 1918, the Province of German Bohemia was formed with its capital in Reichenberg . Its first governor was Raphael Pacher, who transferred his office on 5 November to Rudolf Lodgman von Auen. The Province of German Bohemia comprised a contiguous region in North and West Bohemia stretching from

18939-723: The diversity of Bohemia since he was a Prague-based German-speaking Jew, but his surname was of Czech origin. In 1867, the equality of Austrian citizens of all ethnicities was guaranteed by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , which enshrined the principles of constitutional monarchy . The agreement established the Dual Monarchy and gave the Hungarians sovereignty over their own affairs. The preservation of German cultural dominance throughout Cisleithania had proved to be difficult and now seemed to be

19116-684: The east by declaring war on the Obotrites and Wilzes in the North, as well as on the Sorbs (east of Thuringia) and Czech tribal princes. However, since the goal wasn't to establish an ethnic and linguistic boundary between the Slavs and Germanic tribes, Slavic settlement continued in Thuringia and Northern Bavaria, with individual Slavs even making it to the Rhine Basin . The tribes that populated these marches were generally unreliable allies of

19293-520: The economy and politics of the Bohemian lands. For example, forest glass production was a common industry for German Bohemians. Though they were living beyond the medieval Kingdom of Germany , an independent German Bohemian awareness, however, was not widespread, and for a long time, it played no decisive role in everyday life. Individuals were usually seen as Bohemians, Moravians or Silesians. Defining events later in German Bohemian history were

19470-515: The end of the century when even non-Catholics were granted the right to study. On 29 July 1784, German replaced Latin as the language of instruction. For the first time Protestants were allowed, and soon after Jews . The university acknowledged the need for a Czech language and literature chair . Emperor Leopold II established it by a courtly decree on 28 October 1791. On 15 May 1792, scholar and historian Franz Martin Pelzel  [ cs ]

19647-457: The exception of northern Bohemia. However, the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye , on 10 September 1919, made it clear that German Bohemia would not become part of the new Austrian Republic . Instead, it would become part of Czechoslovakia . The new state regarded ethnic Germans as an ethnic minority . Nevertheless, some 90 percent lived in territories in which they represented 90 percent or more of

19824-434: The fact that Germany and Austria lost part of their territories in the East appeared as a counterpoint to Ostsiedlung because some of the Germans in the East became foreign citizens when their homes were no longer part of Germany and Austria. The Germans in the East outside Germany and Austria were partially forced to leave and the regions that Germany and Austria lost in the East were dominated by non-German peoples, so

20001-440: The first German political party became part of the government ( German Christian Social People's Party and Farmers' League ). German nationalist sentiment ran high during the early years of the republic. On the other hand, in his very first message as Czechoslovak president, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk had stressed that Bohemian Germans were to be seen as "emigrants" and "colonists". The new state hence started with marginalization of

20178-787: The first in Central Europe , attended by large German student nations , and its language of education was Latin . Czechs made up about 20 percent of the students at the time of its founding, and the rest was primarily German. A culturally-significant example of German Bohemian prose from the Middle Ages is the story Der Ackermann aus Böhmen ("The Ploughman from Bohemia"), written in Early New High German by Johannes von Tepl (c. 1350 – 1414) in Žatec ( Saaz ), who probably had studied liberal arts in Prague. For centuries, German Bohemians played important roles in

20355-702: The former Cisleithanian Imperial Council . In addition to the establishment of the state's governmental organisation, higher authorities were also created, such as the Finance Ministry, the Department of Agriculture and the Higher Regional Court of Reichenberg as well as a general post office and railway administration. For geographical reasons, however, a territorial solution would have been impossible unless those regions, together with Austria, had been incorporated into Germany . After

20532-501: The founding cities are geometrical or rasterized floor plans with main streets, intersecting axes and a central market place. Different settlement phases are reflected in twin cities names such as New town or Old town . Charles University in Prague Charles University ( CUNI ; Czech : Univerzita Karlova , UK ; Latin : Universitas Carolina ; German : Karls-Universität ), or historically as

20709-425: The highly industrialised settlement areas of three million Germans would now be separated from Austria and come under Czech control. The Austrian head of government, Ernst Seidler von Feuchtenegg , wanted to divide Bohemia by setting up administrative counties ( Verwaltungskreise ), which would be based on the nationalities of the population. On 26 September 1918, his successor, Max Hussarek von Heinlein , offered

20886-527: The idea of the reinstitution of the 1349 student nations , instead declaring their support for the idea of keeping the university together, but dividing it into separate colleges , one German and one Czech. This would allow both Germans and Czechs to retain the collective traditions of the university. German-speakers, however, quickly vetoed this proposal, preferring a pure German university: they proposed to split Charles-Ferdinand University into two separate institutions. After long negotiations, Charles-Ferdinand

21063-609: The insignia of 1348 were exclusively to be kept by the Czech university. The Act No. 197/1919 Sb. z. a n. established the Protestant Theological Faculty, but not as a part of the Charles University. (That changed on 10 May 1990, when it finally became a faculty of the university. ) In 1920, the so-called Lex Mareš (No. 135/1920 Sb. z. a n.) was issued, named for its initiator, professor of physiology František Mareš , which determined that

21240-534: The king subverted the university constitution by granting the Bohemian masters three votes. Only a single vote was left for all other three nations combined, compared to one vote per each nation before. The result of this coup was the emigration of foreign (mostly German) professors and students, founding the University of Leipzig in May 1409. Before that, in 1408, the university had about 200 doctors and Masters, 500 bachelors, and 30,000 students ; it now lost

21417-436: The larger part of Central and Eastern Europe indigenous populations were responsible for the growth. Author Piskorski wrote that "insofar as it is possible to draw conclusions from the less than rich medieval source material, it appears that at least in some East Central European territories the population increased significantly. It is however possible to contest to what extent this was a direct result of migration and how far it

21594-659: The late 14th and early 15th centuries' settlement slowed down, due to numerous factors such as the Black Plague in Germany , and the Hussite Wars . The Teutonic State was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade , Prussian Crusade and in general the Northern Crusades in the territories of Prussia , Pomerelia and Livonia . It was established on February 2, 1207 as a principality of

21771-471: The local princes and regional lords, who sometimes even expelled part of the indigenous populations to make room for German settlers. Smaller groups of migrants first moved to the east during the early Middle Ages. Larger treks of settlers, which included scholars, monks, missionaries, craftsmen and artisans, often invited, in numbers unverifiable, first moved eastwards during the mid-12th century. The military territorial conquests and punitive expeditions of

21948-524: The loss of the traditionally-Bohemian crown land and weakened Germans in the remaining parts of Bohemia. As the 19th century arrived, resistance to the German domination began to develop among the Czechs. After the revolutions of 1848 and the rise of ethnic nationalism , nervousness about ethnic tensions in Austria-Hungary resulted in a prevailing equality between Czechs and German Bohemians. Each ethnicity tried to retain, in regions in which it

22125-490: The medieval settlement processes essentially prevails until today. Flemish and Dutch settlers were among the first to immigrate to Mecklenburg at the beginning of the 12th century. In the following years, they moved further east to Pomerania and Silesia and in the south to Hungary, motivated by the lack of settlement areas in their already largely developed home areas and several flood disasters and famines. Experienced and skilled hydraulic engineers, they were in high demand at

22302-471: The model of Switzerland; Henlein promoted a separate Sudeten German identity, using the term sudetendeutscher Stamm (Sudeten German tribe). Before 1937, Henlein was critical of Adolf Hitler and advocated for the ideas of liberalism and individualism. However, Henlein's movement was growing increasingly divided and his own position soon became precarious. Henlein suffered a severe blow to his reputation as well as political influence when his mentor, Heinz Rutha ,

22479-479: The most prominent supporters of settlement included William IV who had purchased small amounts of land on the frontier of Pomerania, and Wichmann von Seeburg . In 1152 the large numbers of Flemish and Dutch people were introduced to the unoccupied and uncultivated marshlands just east of Magdeburg near the Havel . They founded the cities of Fläming and Jüterbog . Henry the Lion also settled Mecklenburg with

22656-780: The movement had a profound influence on the history of Eastern Central Europe between the Baltic Sea and the Carpathians until the 20th century. In the 20th century, accounts of the Ostsiedlung were heavily exploited by German nationalists (including the Nazi movement ) to press the territorial claims of Germany and to demonstrate supposed German superiority over non-Germanic peoples, whose cultural, urban and scientific achievements in that era were undermined, rejected, or presented as German. After World War I (1914–1918),

22833-414: The nobility. In 1224, Andrew II signed a charter laying out the duties and rights of the Germans in the kingdom. The king defined their duties such as the payment of tax, military service, and housing of the king and his officials. In exchange, they were able to elect their priests and officials independently and their merchants were exempt from customs duties. Their markets were also not taxed. No outsider

23010-430: The north and south. More characteristic were the German language islands , which were towns inhabited by German minorities and surrounded by Czechs. Sudeten Germans were mostly Roman Catholics , a legacy of centuries of Austrian Habsburg rule. Not all ethnic Germans lived in isolated and well-defined areas; for historical reasons, Czechs and Germans mixed in many places, and Czech-German bilingualism and code-switching

23187-530: The north and the Empire from the west, eager to reestablish her marches. The area remained under rule of the Polabian tribes and uncolonized and unchristianized into the 12th century. The territories (from north to south): The Sorbian March east of the Saale river was established in the 9th century. King Otto I designated a larger area – the Saxon Eastern March – in 937, that encompassed

23364-852: The northeastern parts of the Lutici lands. In 1124 and 1128, Wartislaw I, Duke of Pomerania , at that time a vassal of Poland, invited bishop Otto of Bamberg to Christianize the Pomeranians and Liutizians of his duchy. In 1147, as a campaign of the Northern Crusades , the Wendish Crusade was mounted in the Duchy of Saxony to retake the marches lost in 983. The crusaders also headed for Pomeranian Demmin and Szczecin , despite these areas having already been successfully Christianized. The Crusade caused widespread devastation and slaughter. This created ideal conditions for German settlement, some of

23541-511: The old insignia, aula, library, and botanical garden, but common facilities were administered by the German University. The first rector of the Czech University became Václav Vladivoj Tomek  [ de ] . In 1890, the Royal and Imperial Czech Charles-Ferdinand University had 112 teachers and 2,191 students and the Royal and Imperial German Charles-Ferdinand University had 146 teachers and 1,483 students. Both universities had three faculties;

23718-742: The oldest was named for the king the Carolinum , established in 1366. In 1372 the Faculty of Law became an independent university. In 1402 Jerome of Prague in Oxford copied out the Dialogus and Trialogus of John Wycliffe . The dean of the philosophical faculty, Jan Hus , translated Trialogus into the Czech language . In 1403 the university forbade its members to follow the teachings of Wycliffe, but his doctrine continued to gain in popularity. In

23895-715: The peripheral regions of the Empire. There is no doubt that there were "rather numerous German settlers" in Eastern Central who were responsible for bringing German law in the earliest stages of the colonization. Other settlers included Walloons, Jews, Dutch, Flemish, and later Poles, especially in the territory of modern Ukraine. The migration of the Walser in the territory of present-day Switzerland to areas that had formerly been inhabited by Romans . The Walser settlers left their homes in Valais and founded villages in

24072-401: The population of the whole republic (13.6 million). The Sudetenland possessed huge chemical works and lignite mines as well as textile, china, and glass factories. To the west, a triangle of historic ethnic German settlement surrounding Eger was the most active area for pan-German nationalism. The Upper Palatinate Forest , an area that was primarily populated by Germans, extended along

24249-477: The population. In 1921, the population of multi-ethnic Czechoslovakia comprised 6.6 million Czechs, 3.2 million Germans, two million Slovaks , 0.7 million Hungarians , half a million Ruthenians (Rusyns), 300,000 Jews , and 100,000 Poles , as well as Gypsies , Croats and other ethnic groups. German-speakers represented a third of the population of the Bohemian lands and about 23.4 percent of

24426-418: The process, new constituency boundaries had to be drawn throughout the empire. Electoral officials were very careful to demarcate areas as clearly either German or Czech and to assure that there would be no conflict as to which ethnicity had a majority in any constituency. Nevertheless, that did not settle tensions among Czechs, who wanted to govern themselves from Prague. Archduke Franz Ferdinand came up with

24603-610: The proposal and called for a full division of the university. After long negotiations, it was divided into the German Charles-Ferdinand University and the Czech Charles-Ferdinand University. The Cisleithanian Imperial Council prepared an act of parliament, and the emperor granted royal assent on 28 February 1882. In 1907, the Cisleithanian Imperial Council was for the first time elected by universal male suffrage. As part of

24780-466: The regional climates and wood was plentiful in the continental regions. The German settlers, mainly from Franconia and Thuringia, who advanced into the area in the 13th century, brought with them the half-timbering style, which was already known to the Germanic peoples, as a wood-saving, solid and stable construction method, that allowed multi-storey buildings. A combination of the two construction methods

24957-524: The remainder (out of 187) in German. In 1864, Germans suggested the creation of a separate Czech university. Czech professors rejected this because they did not wish to lose the continuity of university traditions. It soon became clear that neither the German-speaking Bohemians nor the Czechs were satisfied with the bilingual arrangement that the university had established after the revolutions of 1848. The Czechs also refused to support

25134-405: The remainder being in German. In 1864, some Germans suggested the creation of a separate Czech university. Czech professors rejected that because they did not wish to lose the continuity of university traditions. The Czechs, however, were still not satisfied with bilingual status and proposed creating two separate constituent colleges , one for the Germans and one for the Czechs. The Germans vetoed

25311-533: The secular power in a Golden Bull and on 14 January 1349 he repeated that as the King of the Romans . Most Czech sources since the 19th century—encyclopedias, general histories, materials of the university itself—prefer to give 1348 as the year of the founding of the university, rather than 1347 or 1349. That was caused by an anticlerical shift in the 19th century, shared by both Czechs and Germans . The university

25488-427: The settlements of the as yet undeveloped areas east of the Elbe. The land was drained by creating a network-like structure of smaller drainage ditches that drained the water in main ditches. Roads connecting the settlers' individual farms ran along these main trenches. Dutch settlers were recruited by the local rulers in large numbers, especially during the second half of the 12th century. In 1159/60, for example, Albert

25665-466: The settlers came from the Rhineland region. The Teutonic Order established numerous Castles, and other holdings near populated places such as Kaliningrad to consolidate the conquered lands. While East Prussia was heavily settled and Germanized, Livonia still had a very small German population, because there were no attempts to settle inland. The Germans in Livonia were mainly employees of the Teutonic Order there for administrative purposes, or merchants of

25842-454: The settlers than from the Wends, although settlers were partly exempted from tax payments during the first years after settlement establishment. The development of Germania Slavica was also associated with the establishment of towns. There already existed Slavic castle towns, in which merchant quarters formed suburbs at fortified strongholds (grads). Wendish-Scandinavian merchants founded manufacturing and trading settlements (emporia) at

26019-711: The shooting at the university, the perpetrator killed his father at their home in Hostouň . He was also identified as the person responsible for the murders of a man and his two-month-old daughter in Klánovice Forest six days earlier on 15 December. Charles University does not have one joint campus. The University's faculties are located in Prague , Hradec Králové , Plzeň and Brandýs nad Labem . The Institute for Language and Preparatory Studies has teaching centres in Dobruška , Mariánské Lázně , Poděbrady and Zahrádky (near Česká Lípa ). The Charles University Archive and Depository are located in Lešetice . University buildings and compounds are scattered throughout Prague – in

26196-656: The situation and forced Czechoslovakia to comply with most of the Carlsbad Decrees. However the SdP, instructed to continue to push towards war, escalated the situation with more protests and violence. With the help of special Nazi forces, the Sudetendeutsche Freikorps (paramilitary groups trained in Germany by SS -instructors) took over some border areas and committed many crimes: they killed more than 110 Czechoslovaks (mostly soldiers and policemen) and kidnapped over 2,020 Czechoslovak citizens (including German antifascists), taking them to Nazi Germany . In August, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain sent Lord Runciman ,

26373-416: The south. The Margravate of Meissen and Transylvania were populated by German settlers, beginning in the 12th century. From the end of the 12th century onwards, monasteries and cities were established in Pomerania, Brandenburg, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and eastern Austria. In the Baltics, the Teutonic Order founded a crusader state in the beginning of the 13th century. A call for a crusade against

26550-405: The southern edge, East Franks the middle edge, and Saxon miners the northern edge, notably the Erzgebirge . Unlike in Mecklenburg , Pomerania , Brandenburg , and Silesia , the German settlement was not as heavy, nor were many Czechs assimilated like in Eastern Germany. As German influence grew, with greater numbers of Settlers arriving each year, Soběslav II felt it was necessary to protect

26727-413: The status of free peasants. In 1149, Géza II invited German settlers to Southern Transylvania. Written records call them "Flamands", "Teutons", and "Latins". The term "Saxons" appeared in 1206, and became the official term for local Germans in 1231. The term represented legal status rather than nationality. The Transylvanian Saxons have diverse origins, their pottery, art, and liturgy were not uniform. In

26904-429: The territory between the Elbe , the Oder and the Peene rivers. Governed by Margrave Gero , it is also referred to as Marca Geronis . After Gero's death in 965, the march was divided in smaller sectors: Northern March , Lusatian March , Margraviate of Meissen , and March of Zeitz . The march was populated by various West Slavic tribes, the largest being Polabian Slavs tribes in the north and Sorbian tribes in

27081-419: The time of my Mission, I could find no readiness on the part of the Czechoslovak Government to remedy them on anything like an adequate scale... the feeling among the Sudeten Germans until about three or four years ago was one of hopelessness. But the rise of Nazi Germany gave them new hope. I regard their turning for help towards their kinsmen and their eventual desire to join the Reich as a natural development in

27258-404: The upkeep of local infrastructure. In 1219, Litoměřice ( German : Leitmeritz ), was the first German town to be given the privileges of the Magdeburg Laws in Bohemia. During the 13th-14th century, as much as 1 out of every 6th German settlers was going to Bohemia, while this is lower than in Upper Saxony , Lusatia , and Lower Silesia , It's still a substantial number. Eventually, during

27435-536: The uplands of the Alp valleys (in the north of Italy and in the Grisons ). The Medieval Warm Period , which began in the 11th century resulted in higher average temperatures in Central Europe. Additional technical progress in agriculture, for example through the construction of mills, Three-field farming and increased cultivation of grain (graining) led to general population increase. The new settlers not only brought their customs and language with them, but also new technical skills and equipment that were adapted within

27612-446: The upper 1.5 percent of the world's best universities in 2011. It came 201st to 300th out of 17,000 universities worldwide. It is the best university in the Czech Republic and one of the best universities in Central and Eastern Europe only overtaken by Russian Lomonosov Moscow State University at 74th place. It was placed 31st in Times BRICS & Emerging Economies Rankings 2014 (after 23rd University of Warsaw ). Rector of

27789-425: The war in 1918 brought about the partition of the multiethnic Austria-Hungary into its historical components, one of them, the Bohemian Kingdom , forming the west of the newly created Czechoslovakia. Czech politicians insisted on the traditional boundaries of the Bohemian Crown according to the principle of uti possidetis juris . The new Czech state would thus have defensible mountain boundaries with Germany, but

27966-514: The winter semester of 1909–10 included 4,319 students; of these 131 were theological students belonging both to the secular and regular clergy; 1,962 law students; 687 medical; 1,539 philosophical; 256 students were women. The professors were divided as follows: theological faculty, 8 regular professors, 2 docents; law, 12 regular, 7 assistant professors, 12 docents; medicine, 16 regular professors, 22 assistant, 24 docents; philosophy, 29 regular, 16 assistant, 35 docents, 11 lecturers. The high point of

28143-476: Was 40.5% German, was restrained by fear of competition from industry in the Weimar Republic . Many Germans felt that the new constitution failed to fulfil what the Czechs had promised in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) because there were too few minority rights. However, they gradually accepted remaining in Czechoslovakia and took part in the first elections in 1920. In 1926, the first Germans became minister ( Robert Mayr-Harting and Franz Spina ), and

28320-460: Was accused of homosexuality and committed suicide in prison. The radical wing of the party pressured Henlein to resign, and the Czechoslovak security forces increased their efforts to frustrate the movement's activities. Ronald Smelser noted that "backed to the wall, Henlein took what he thought to be the only step left to rescue his own position and the unity of his movement: he wrote a letter to Adolf Hitler." Henlein started secretly cooperating with

28497-418: Was allowed to receive villages or estates in German land where only the monarch and the Count of Hermannstadt had jurisdiction. Political and military events were greatly influenced by a massive population increase throughout Europe in the High Middle Ages. From the 11th to the 13th centuries, the population in the kingdom of Germany increased from about four to twelve million inhabitants. During this time,

28674-469: Was caused by the successful settlement of modern day Northeastern Germany . The mountainous area settled first was the Eger Valley , partially due to its southern edges coming under the control of Diepold III who was an ally of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa . Furthermore, the Monastery of Waldsassen owned extensive land in the Eger Valley. The first German villages were Penerit and Neudorf, both founded in 1196. Bavarians and Austrians settled

28851-423: Was difficult because the horizontally stacked wood of the log room expands differently in height than the vertical posts of the framework. The result was the new type of half-timbered house with a timber frame around the ground floor block, capable to support a second floor, which was made of half-timber. The Ostsiedlung followed an immediate rapid population growth throughout Central and Eastern Europe . During

29028-453: Was divided into German Charles-Ferdinand University ( German : Deutsche Karl-Ferdinands-Universität ) and Czech Charles-Ferdinand University ( Czech : Česká universita Karlo-Ferdinandova ) by an act of the Cisleithanian Imperial Council , which Emperor Franz Joseph sanctioned on 28 February 1882. Each section was entirely independent of the other, and enjoyed equal status. The two universities shared medical and scientific institutes,

29205-444: Was due to increased agricultural productivity and the gathering pace of urbanization." In contrast to Western Europe , this increased population was largely spared by the 14th-century Black Death pandemic . With the German settlers new systems of taxation arrived. While the existing Wendish tithe was a fixed tax depending on village size, the German tithe depended on the actual crop yield. Thus higher taxes were collected from

29382-489: Was expelled from Czechoslovakia to Germany and Austria. The area that became known as the Sudetenland possessed chemical works and lignite mines as well as textile, china, and glass factories. The Bohemian border with Bavaria was inhabited primarily by Germans. The Upper Palatine Forest , which extends along the Bavarian frontier and into the agricultural areas of southern Bohemia , was an area of German settlement. Moravia contained patches of "locked" German territory to

29559-525: Was incorporated into Znaim and was supposed to be administered by Lower Austria. The judiciary for German Bohemia was based in Reichenberg, and Vienna was responsible for the other German regions. On 22 November 1918, the Province of German Bohemia proclaimed itself part of the state of German Austria . On the same day, the territory of German Austria was defined by the Act of the "Provisional National Assembly" ( Provisorische Nationalversammlung ), which included German Bohemian and German Moravian members of

29736-610: Was indignant, especially in nationalist strongholds like Egerland . On 1 October 1933, Konrad Henlein with his deputy, Karl Hermann Frank , aided by other members of the Kameradschaftsbund , a youth organization of mystical orientation, created a new political organisation. The Sudeten German Home Front ( Sudetendeutsche Heimatfront ) professed loyalty to Czechoslovakia but championed decentralization. It absorbed most former German Nationals and Sudeten Nazis. The Kameradschaftsbund under Henlein did not promote joining Germany, but campaigned for decentralised Czechoslovakia based on

29913-411: Was inspired by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV . He requested his friend and ally, Pope Clement VI , to create the university. On 26 January 1347, the pope issued the bull establishing a university in Prague, modeled on the University of Paris , with all four faculties , including theology . On 7 April 1348 Charles, the king of Bohemia, gave to the established university privileges and immunities from

30090-406: Was named the professor of the chair. He started his lectures on 13 March 1793. In the revolution of 1848, German and Czech students fought for the addition of the Czech language at the Charles-Ferdinand University as a language of lectures. Due to the demographic changes of the 19th century, Prague ceased to have a German-language majority around 1860. By 1863, 22 lecture courses were held in Czech,

30267-399: Was opened in 1349. The university was sectioned into parts called nations : the Bohemian , Bavarian , Polish and Saxon . The Bohemian natio included Bohemians, Moravians, southern Slavs, and Hungarians; the Bavarian included Austrians, Swabians , natives of Franconia and of the Rhine provinces ; the Polish included Silesians , Poles , Ruthenians; the Saxon included inhabitants of

30444-527: Was promoted, and soon these cereals became the most important type of grain. Farmers who used mouldboard ploughs were required to pay double tax fees. Potters were among the first group of artisans who also settled in the rural areas. Typical Slavic ceramics were the Flat-bottom vessels. With the influx of western settlers, new vessel shapes such as the rounded jar were introduced, inclusive hard-fired processes, that improved ceramics quality. This type of ceramics, known as Hard Grayware , became widespread east of

30621-503: Was quite common. Nevertheless, during the second half of the 19th century, Czechs and Germans began to create separate cultural, educational, political and economic institutions, which kept both groups semi-isolated from each other, which continued until the end of the Second World War, when almost all the ethnic Germans were expelled. In the English language, ethnic Germans who originated in the Kingdom of Bohemia were traditionally referred to as "German Bohemians". This appellation utilizes

30798-400: Was recruited from the independent academic community and appointed president of the republic in December 1989. Since 26 January 2022, Prof. Milena Králíčková is the first woman rector of the Charles University. On 21 December 2023, a mass shooting occurred at the university. 14 people were killed, and 25 others were wounded. The 24-year-old perpetrator then killed himself. Before

30975-417: Was the fate of Charles University , then called Charles-Ferdinand University. Its Czech students had become increasingly perturbed by the sole use of German for instruction. During the 1848 revolution , both Germans and Czechs fought to make Czech one of the university's official languages. They achieved that right, and the university became bilingual. By 1863, out of 187 lecture courses, 22 were held in Czech,

31152-601: Was the majority, sovereignty over its own affairs. Czechs and Germans generally maintained separate schools, churches and public institutions. Nevertheless, despite the separation, Germans often understood some Czech, and Czechs often spoke some German. Cities like Prague, however, saw more mixing between the ethnicities and also had large populations of Jews ; Germans living with Czechs fluently spoke Czech and code-switched between German and Czech when talking to Czechs and other Germans. Jews in Bohemia often spoke German and sometimes Yiddish . The famed writer Franz Kafka exemplifies

31329-407: Was utterly impossible. With the agreement, the desire for an autonomous Czech subdivision was mounting. Both German Bohemians and Czechs were hoping for a constitutional solution to the demands, but Czech nationalist views remained a constant part of the Bohemian political sphere. The Czechs had feared Germanization , but the Germans now worried about Czechization . A symbol of the rising tensions

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