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67-554: The Bontoc live in a mountainous territory, particularly close to the Chico River and its tributaries. Mineral resources ( gold , copper , limestone , gypsum ) can be found in the mountain areas. Gold, in particular, has been traditionally extracted from the Bontoc municipality. The Chico River provides sand, gravel, and white clay, while the forests of Barlig and Sadanga within the area have rattan, bamboo and pine trees. They are

134-640: A battle ended, the warrior, true to his mercenary origins, would ceremoniously present trophy heads to a general, who would variously reward him with promotions in rank, gold or silver, or land from the defeated clan. Generals displayed the heads of defeated rivals in public squares. Headhunting has been a practice among the Kukis , the Wa , Mizo , the Garo and the Naga ethnic groups of India , Bangladesh and Myanmar till

201-423: A benefit or hindrance. It provided a source of water for washing and irrigation, and habitat for carabao who had to be led to a watering hole daily. At times it might be an obstacle to settlements on the other side of the river, but until the last century this was an opportunity for enterprising Filipinos who would provide ferry transport. Now, bridges suitable for vehicles have been built. The danger of flooding

268-472: A display of manhood; distribute communal resources; and resist outside pressures to abandon Mappurondo ways of life. In Sarawak , the north-western region of the island of Borneo , the first " White Rajah " James Brooke and his descendants established a dynasty. They eradicated headhunting in the hundred years before World War II. Before Brooke's arrival, the Iban had migrated from the middle Kapuas region into

335-683: A field trip, may have been taken by headhunters in the Asmat region. He was the son of New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller. In The Cruise of the Snark (1911), the account by Jack London of his 1905 adventure sailing in Micronesia, he recounted that headhunters of Malaita attacked his ship during a stay in Langa Langa Lagoon , particularly around Laulasi Island . His and other ships were kidnapping villagers as workers on plantations,

402-424: A group ( sinpangili ) based on affiliations, history together against intruders, and community rituals for agriculture and matters which affect the entire province, like natural disasters. Kinship groups have two main functions: controlling property and regulating marriage. However, they are also important for the mutual cooperation of the group's members. There are generally three social classes in Bontoc society,

469-400: A hierarchy of spirits, the highest being a supreme deity called Intutungcho , whose son, Lumawig , descended from the sky ( chayya ), to marry a Bontoc girl. Lumawig taught the Bontoc their arts and skills, including irrigation of their land. The Bontoc also believe in the anito , spirits of the dead, who are omnipresent and must be constantly consoled. Anyone can invoke the anito, but

536-544: A practice known as blackbirding . Captain Mackenzie of the ship Minolta was beheaded by villagers as retribution for the loss of village men during an armed labour "recruiting" drive. The villagers believed that the ship's crew "owed" several more heads before the score was even. In New Zealand, the Maori preserved the heads of some of their ancestors as well as certain enemies in a form known as mokomokai . They removed

603-485: A rattan cap ( suklong ). Women wear skirts ( tapis ). Bontoc people use weapons such as battleaxes ( }pin-nang/pinangas ), knives and spears ( falfeg, fangkao, sinalawitan ), and shields ( kalasag ). The ritual pasiking of the Bontoc is called the takba , and represents an ancestor figure, and active participant in begnas rituals. Among the Bontoc people, tattoos are known as fatek . The Bontoc describe three types of tattoos : The chaklag ,

670-426: A seer ( insup-ok ) intercedes when someone is sick through evil spirits. The indigenous religion of the Bontoc has been preserved for centuries. The Bontoc believe in a unique pantheon of deities, of which the supreme god is the cultural hero, Lumawig, son of Kabunian. There are many sacred sites associated with Lumawig and a variety of Bontoc deities. Oral tradition tells that Lumawig instilled five great lessons to

737-470: A sight which might have satisfied a savage or a Hill-man, but hardly consistent with the comparatively enlightened tastes, one would think, of Chinese soldiers even of to-day. It is not known how many of the French were killed and wounded; fourteen left their bodies on shore, and no doubt several wounded were taken back to the ships. (Chinese accounts state that twenty were killed and large numbers wounded.) In

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804-645: A tower called "Tablja" above Cetinje Monastery . The tower was never finished, and Montenegrins used it to display Turkish heads taken in battle, as they were in frequent conflict with the Ottoman Empire. In 1876 King Nicholas I of Montenegro ordered that the practice should end. He knew that European diplomats considered it to be barbaric. The Tablja was demolished in 1937. Many Chinese soldiers and civilians were beheaded by some Japanese soldiers, who even made contests to see who would kill more people (see Hundred man killing contest ) , and took photos with

871-700: A truce with the sons of a famous chief, who supported Rentap in not recognizing the government of Brooke due to his policies. The Iban performed a third major migration from upper Batang Ai region in the Batang Lupar region into the Batang Kanyau (Embaloh) onwards the upper Katibas and then to the Baleh/Mujong regions in the upper Batang Rajang region. They displaced the existing tribes of the Kayan, Kajang, Ukit, etc. The Brooke administration sanctioned

938-487: The kakachangyan (rich), the wad-ay ngachanna (middle-class), and the lawa (poor). The rich sponsor feasts, and assist those in distress, as a demonstration of their wealth. The poor usually work as sharecroppers or as laborers for the rich. The Bontoc people had a caste called the kadangyan whose members had specialised leadership roles, married only within the same caste, and wore specialised clothing. The Bontoc speak Bontoc , Ilocano and Tagalog In

1005-849: The American colonial period of the Philippines . Headhunting was a common practice among Taiwanese aborigines . All tribes practiced headhunting except the Yami people , who were previously isolated on Orchid Island , and the Ivatan people . It was associated with the peoples of the Philippines. Taiwanese Plains Aborigines , Han Taiwanese and Japanese settlers were choice victims of headhunting raids by Taiwanese Mountain Aborigines. The latter two groups were considered invaders, liars, and enemies. A headhunting raid would often strike at workers in

1072-961: The Battle of Tamsui in the Keelung Campaign during the Sino-French War on 8 October 1884, the Chinese took prisoners and beheaded 11 French marines who were injured, in addition to La Galissonnière's captain Fontaine. The heads were mounted on bamboo poles and displayed to incite anti-French feelings . In China, pictures of the beheading of the Frenchmen were published in the Tien-shih-tsai Pictorial Journal in Shanghai. A most unmistakable scene in

1139-708: The Cagayan River . Its tributaries are the Bunog River to the south, The Tanudan and Biga Rivers to the east, The Mabaca and Saltan Rivers to the North, and the Pasil River further downstream. Headhunting Headhunting is the practice of hunting a human and collecting the severed head after killing the victim, although sometimes more portable body parts (such as ear , nose , or scalp ) are taken instead as trophies . Headhunting

1206-586: The Chico River Dam Project , an electric power generation project which local residents resisted for three decades before it was finally shelved in the 1980s - a landmark case study concerning ancestral domain issues in the Philippines. The Chico River, has a total length of 233 kilometres (145 mi), making it the longest tributary of the Cagayan River , itself the largest river in the Philippines. For centuries it has been central to farming, trading, livelihoods, and daily life, whether as

1273-858: The Japanese occupation of British Borneo during the Second World War, headhunting was revived among the natives. The Sukarno-led Indonesian forces fought against the formation of the Federation of Malaysia. Forces of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak fought in addition, and headhunting was observed during the communist insurgency in Sarawak and what was then Malaya. The Iban were noted for headhunting, and were later recognised as good rangers and trackers during military operations, during which they were awarded fourteen medals of valour and honour. Since 1997 serious inter-ethnic violence has erupted on

1340-658: The demigod Cúchulainn beheads the three sons of Nechtan and mounting their heads on his chariot. This is believed to have been a traditional warrior, rather than religious, practice. The practice continued approximately to the end of the Middle Ages among the Irish clans and even later among the Border Reivers of the Anglo-Scottish marches. The pagan religious reasons for headhunting were likely lost after

1407-679: The 19th century. Nuristanis in eastern Afghanistan were headhunters until the late 19th century. The Wa people , whose domain straddles the Burma-China border, were once known to Europeans as the "Wild Wa" for their "savage" behavior. Until the 1970s, the Wa practiced headhunting. Several tribes of the Jivaroan group, including the Shuar in Eastern Ecuador and Northern Peru, along

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1474-489: The Bontoc people, namely: (1) a man must not steal; (2) one should not gossip; (3) men and women must not commit adultery; (4) one must be temperate in eating and in drinking alcoholic drinks; and (5) all people must live simple and industrious lives. Chico River (Philippines) The Chico River ( Spanish : Río Chico de Cagayán ), is a river system in the Philippines in the island of Luzon , encompassing

1541-552: The Celts' conversion to Christianity, even though the practice continued. In former Celtic areas, cephalophore representations of saints (miraculously carrying their severed heads) were common. Heads were also taken among the Germanic tribes and among Iberians , but the purpose is unknown. The Scythians were excellent horsemen. Ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that some of their tribes practiced human sacrifice, drinking

1608-836: The Dayak headhunting tradition. The Moluccans (especially Alfurs in Seram ), an ethnic group of mixed Austronesian-Papuan origin living in the Maluku Islands , were fierce headhunters until the Dutch colonial rule in Indonesia suppressed the practice. Headhunting was practiced by many Austronesian people in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands . Headhunting has at one time or another been practiced among most of

1675-612: The Dutch in turn during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia . They defected to Koxinga 's Chinese forces. The Aboriginals (Formosans) of Sincan defected to Koxinga after he offered them amnesty. The Sincan Aboriginals fought for the Chinese and beheaded Dutch people in executions. The frontier aboriginals in the mountains and plains also surrendered and defected to the Chinese on May 17, 1661, celebrating their freedom from compulsory education under Dutch rule. They hunted down Dutch people, beheading them and trashing their Christian school textbooks. At

1742-646: The Hillmen, who are the veriest savages in the treatment of their enemies—to prevent such barbarities. It is said the Chinese buried the dead bodies of the Frenchmen after the engagement on 8th instant by order of General Sun. The Chinese are in possession of a machine gun taken or found on the beach. Han and Taiwanese Aboriginals revolted against the Japanese in the Beipu Uprising in 1907 and Tapani Incident in 1915. The Seediq aboriginals revolted against

1809-608: The Japanese as lesser people , and in response to mutilation and torture of American war dead. In Borneo , retaliation by natives against the Japanese was based on atrocities having been committed by the Imperial Japanese Army in that area. Following their ill treatment by the Japanese, the Dayak of Borneo formed a force to help the Allies. Australian and British special operatives of Z Special Unit developed some of

1876-641: The Japanese in the 1930 Wushe Incident and resurrected the practice of headhunting, beheading Japanese during the revolt. During the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period , Qin soldiers frequently collected their defeated enemies' heads as a means to accumulate merits. After Shang Yang 's reforms, the Qin armies adopted a meritocracy system that awards the average soldiers, most of whom were conscripted serfs and were not paid, an opportunity to earn promotions and rewards from their superiors by collecting

1943-585: The La Coyotera, Oaxaca site. It is dated to the Proto-Classic Zapotec civilization , which flourished from c. 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. Tzompantli are also noted in other Mesoamerican pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Toltec and Mixtec . Based on numbers given by the conquistador Andrés de Tapia and Fray Diego Durán , Bernard Ortiz de Montellano has calculated in

2010-567: The Mappurondo religious minority, an upland tribe in the southwest part of the Indonesian island of Sulawesi . Heads are not taken; instead, surrogate heads in the form of coconuts are used in a ritual ceremony. The ritual, called pangngae, takes place at the conclusion of the rice-harvesting season. It functions to bring an end to communal mourning for the deceased of the past year; express intercultural tensions and polemics; allow for

2077-532: The Pacific Fleet mandated strong disciplinary action against any soldier who took enemy body parts as souvenirs. But such trophy-hunting persisted: Life published a photograph in its issue of May 22, 1944, of a young woman posing with the autographed skull sent to her by her Navy boyfriend. There was public outrage in the US in response. Historians have suggested that the practice related to Americans viewing

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2144-726: The Saribas-Skrang in Sarawak at the Battle of Betting Maru in 1849. He gained the signing of the Saribas Treaty with the Iban chief of that region, who was named Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana "Bayang". Subsequently, the Brooke dynasty expanded their territory from the first small Sarawak region to the present-day state of Sarawak. They enlisted the Malay, Iban, and other natives as a large unpaid force to defeat and pacify any rebellions in

2211-481: The authority of the Brooke administration was Libau "Rentap". The Brooke government had to send three successive punitive expeditions in order to defeat Rentapi at his fortress on the top of Sadok Hill. Brooke's force suffered major defeats during the first two expeditions. During the third and final expedition, Brooke built a large cannon called Bujang Sadok (Prince of Sadok Mount) to rival Rentap's cannon nicknamed Bujang Timpang Berang (The One Arm Bachelor) and made

2278-531: The blood of victims, scalping their enemies, and drinking wine from the enemies' skulls. The Montenegrins are an ethnic group in Southeastern Europe who are centered around the Dinaric mountains . They practiced headhunting until 1876, allegedly carrying the head from a lock of hair grown specifically for that purpose. In the 1830s, Montenegrin ruler Petar II Petrović-Njegoš started building

2345-620: The brain and eyes, and smoked the head, preserving the moko tattoos . The heads were sold to European collectors in the late 1800s, in some instances having been commissioned and "made to order". In the Philippines, headhunting was extensive among the various Cordilleran peoples (also known as "Igorot") of the Luzon highlands. It was tied with rites of passage, rice harvests, religious rituals to ancestor spirits , blood feuds , and indigenous tattooing . Cordilleran tribes used specific weapons for beheading enemies in raids and warfare, specifically

2412-595: The children. Present-day Bontocs are a peaceful agricultural people who have, by choice, retained most of their traditional culture despite frequent contacts with other groups. Music is also important to Bontoc life, and is usually played during ceremonies. Songs and chants are accompanied by nose flutes ( kalaleng ), gongs ( gangsa ), bamboo mouth organ ( affiliao ), and Jew's harp ( ab-a-fiw ). Wealthy families make use of jewelry, which are commonly made of gold, glass beads, agate beads ( appong ), or shells, to show their status. Men wear g-strings ( wanes ) and

2479-659: The dead person's flesh was consumed in ceremonies following the capture and killing. The Korowai , a Papuan tribe in the southeast of Irian Jaya , live in tree houses , some nearly 40 metres (100') high. This was originally believed to be a defensive practice, presumably as protection against the Citak , a tribe of neighbouring headhunters. Some researchers believe that the American Michael Rockefeller , who disappeared in New Guinea in 1961 while on

2546-514: The dormitories for females ( olog ), and the dormitories for males ( ato/ator ). Different structures are mostly associated with agricultural needs, such as rice granaries ( akhamang ) and pigpens ( khongo ). Traditionally, all structures have inatep , cogon grass roofs. Bontoc houses also have numerous utensils, tools, and weapons: like cooking tools; agricultural tools like bolos , trowels, and plows, bamboo or rattan fish traps. The Bontoc take pride in their kinship ties and oneness as

2613-509: The evening Captain Boteler and Consul Frater called on General Sun, remonstrating with him on the subject of cutting heads off, and allowing them to be exhibited. Consul Frater wrote him a despatch on the subject strongly deprecating such practices, and we understand that the general promised it should not occur again, and orders were at once given to bury the heads. It is difficult for a general even situated as Sun is—having to command troops like

2680-475: The fields, or set a dwelling on fire and then kill and behead those who fled from the burning structure. The practice continued during the Japanese occupation of Taiwan , but ended in the 1930s due to brutal suppression by the Japanese colonial government. The Taiwanese Aboriginal tribes, who were allied with the Dutch against the Chinese during the Guo Huaiyi Rebellion in 1652, turned against

2747-530: The headhunting communities in South Nias (an island to the west of Sumatra) in 1886; he wrote a detailed study of their society and beliefs. He found that the main purpose of headhunting was the belief that, if a man owned another person's skull, his victim would serve as a slave of the owner for eternity in the afterlife. Human skulls were a valuable commodity. Sporadic headhunting continued in Nias island until

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2814-535: The heads of enemies, a type of body count . In this area, authorities also displayed heads of executed criminals in public spaces up to the early 20th century. The Wa people , a mountain ethnic minority in Southwest China , eastern Myanmar ( Shan State ) and northern Thailand , were once known as the "Wild Wa" by British colonists due to their traditional practice of headhunting. Tom O'Neill wrote: Samurai also sought glory by headhunting. When

2881-578: The island of Kalimantan, involving the indigenous Dayak peoples and immigrants from the island of Madura . Events have included the Sambas riots and Sampit conflict . In 2001, during the Sampit conflict in the Central Kalimantan town of Sampit , at least 500 Madurese were killed and up to 100,000 Madurese were forced to flee. Some Madurese bodies were decapitated in a ritual reminiscent of

2948-584: The items to tourists. It is believed that splinter groups in the local tribes continue with these practices when there is a tribal feud over territory or as revenge for a crime of passion. The Kichwa-Lamista people in Peru used to be headhunters. A tzompantli is a type of wooden rack or palisade documented in several Mesoamerican civilizations. It was used for the public display of human skulls , typically those of war captives or other sacrificial victims . A tzompantli-type structure has been excavated at

3015-578: The last migrations of the Iban, and reduced any conflict to a minimum. The Iban conducted sacred ritual ceremonies with special and complex incantations to invoke god's blessings, which were associated with headhunting. An example was the Bird Festival in the Saribas/Skrang region and Proper Festival in the Baleh region, both required for men of the tribes to become effective warriors. During

3082-640: The late 20th century that there were at most 60,000 skulls on the Hueyi Tzompantli (great Skullrack) of Tenochtitlan . There were at least five more skullracks in Tenochtitlan, but, by all accounts, they were much smaller. Other examples are indicated from Maya civilization sites. A particularly fine and intact inscription example survives at the extensive Chichen Itza site. The Nazca used severed heads, known as trophy heads, in various religious rituals. Late Nazca iconography suggests that

3149-434: The late 20th century, the last reported incident dating from 1998. Headhunting was practiced among Sumba people until the early 20th century. It was done only in large war parties. When the men hunted wild animals, by contrast, they operated in silence and secrecy. The skulls collected were hung on the skull tree erected in the center of village. Kenneth George wrote about annual headhunting rituals that he observed among

3216-538: The main produce of the Bontocs but during the dry periods from February to March when rain is scarce, they usually consume camote , corn and millet as alternative for rice. The Bontoc also catch and gather fish, snails and crabs for consumption or for sale. In the earlier days, Bontoc men usually brought tobacco and matches when hunting for wild deer and wild pigs. In the forests, they also gather rattan , edible fruits, beeswax and honey, and wild edible or ornamental plants. The pre-Christian Bontoc belief system centers on

3283-407: The man was a warrior who had taken heads during battle. One method of tattooing used was the ‘puncture/cut and smear’ method. The bumafatek (tattooist) would first draw the pattern on the skin with ink of soot and water, and then prick the skin with a chakayyum , and lastly, scatter soot into the open skin and manually work the pigment into the skin with their hands. Rice is considered as

3350-403: The market place occurred. Some six heads of Frenchmen, heads of the true French type were exhibited, much to the disgust of foreigners. A few visited the place where they were stuck up, and were glad to leave it—not only on account of the disgusting and barbarous character of the scene, but because the surrounding crowd showed signs of turbulence. At the camp also were eight other Frenchmen's heads,

3417-437: The past, the Bontoc engaged in none of the usual pastimes or games of chance practiced in other areas of the country but did perform a circular rhythmic dance acting out certain aspects of the hunt, always accompanied by the gangsa or bronze gong. There was no singing or talking during the dance drama, but the women took part, usually outside the circumference. It was a serious but pleasurable event for all concerned, including

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3484-443: The peoples of Melanesia , including New Guinea . A missionary found 10,000 skulls in a community longhouse on Goaribari Island in 1901. Historically, the Marind-anim in New Guinea were famed because of their headhunting. The practice was rooted in their belief system and linked to the name-giving of the newborn. The skull was believed to contain a mana -like force. Headhunting was not motivated primarily by cannibalism, but

3551-417: The piles of heads as souvenirs. During World War II, Allied (specifically including American) troops occasionally collected the skulls of dead Japanese as personal trophies, as souvenirs for friends and family at home, and for sale to others. (The practice was unique to the Pacific theater ; United States forces did not take skulls of German and Italian soldiers.) In September 1942, the Commander in Chief of

3618-488: The practice of tattooing . In head-hunting societies, tattoos were records of how many heads the warriors had taken in battle, and was part of the initiation rites into adulthood. The number and location of tattoos, therefore, were indicative of a warrior's status and prowess. In Southeast Asia, anthropological writings have explored headhunting and other practices of the Murut , Dusun Lotud , Iban , Berawan , Wana and Mappurondo tribes. Among these groups, headhunting

3685-440: The prestige of the leaders of Late Nazca society was enhanced by successful headhunting. The Celts of Europe practiced headhunting as the head was believed to house a person's soul. Ancient Romans and Greeks recorded the Celts' habits of nailing heads of personal enemies to walls or dangling them from the necks of horses. The Celtic Gaels practiced headhunting a great deal longer. In the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology ,

3752-420: The regions of Cordillera and Cagayan Valley . It is the longest tributary of the Cagayan River with a total length of 233 km (145 mi). The most extensive river in the Cordillera region, it covers the provinces of Mountain Province , Kalinga and Cagayan . It is referred to as a "river of life" for the Kalinga people who live on its banks, and is well known among development workers because of

3819-448: The rival, ritual violence , cosmological balance, the display of manhood , cannibalism , dominance over the body and soul of his enemies in life and afterlife, as a trophy and proof of killing (achievement in hunting), show of greatness, prestige by taking on a rival's spirit and power, and as a means of securing the services of the victim as a slave in the afterlife. Today's scholars generally agree that headhunting's primary function

3886-414: The rivers Chinchipe , Bobonaza , Morona , Upano , and Pastaza , main tributaries of the Amazon , practiced headhunting for trophies. The heads were shrunk , and were known locally as Tzan-Tzas . The people believed that the head housed the soul of the person killed. In the 21st century, the Shuar produce Tzan-tza replicas. They use their traditional process on heads of monkeys and sloths , selling

3953-415: The second largest group in the Mountain Province . The Bontoc social structure used to be centered around village wards containing about 14 to 50 homes. Traditionally, young men and women lived in dormitories and ate meals with their families. This gradually changed with the advent of Christianity. Bontocs have three different indigenous housing structures: the residence place of the family ( katyufong ),

4020-531: The states. The Brooke administration prohibited headhunting ( ngayau in Iban language) and issued penalties for disobeying the Rajah-led government decree. During expeditions sanctioned by the Brooke administration, they allowed headhunting. The natives who participated in Brooke-approved punitive expeditions were exempted from paying annual tax to the Brooke administration and/or given new territories in return for their service. There were intra-tribal and intertribal headhunting. The most famous Iban warrior to resist

4087-426: The tattooed chest of the head taker; pongo , the tattooed arms of men and women; and fatĕk , for all other tattoos of both sexes. Women were tattooed on the arms only, which they did to enhance their beauty or to signify their readiness for marriage. The arms were the most visible parts of the body during traditional dances. It is believed that men would not court women who are not tattooed. Tattoos indicated that

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4154-412: The uniquely shaped head axes and various swords and knives. Though some Cordilleran tribes living near Christianized lowlanders during the Spanish colonial period had already abandoned the practice by the 19th century, they were still rampant in more remote areas beyond the reach of Spanish colonial authorities. The practices were finally suppressed in the early 20th century by the United States during

4221-407: The upper Batang Lupar river region by fighting and displacing the small existing tribes, such as the Seru and Bukitan. Another successful migration by the Iban was from the Saribas region into the Kanowit area in the middle of the Batang Rajang river, led by the famous Mujah "Buah Raya". They fought and displaced such tribes as the Kanowit and Baketan. Brooke first encountered the headhunting Iban of

4288-487: Was less frequent due to being at a higher elevation than the bigger, flood-prone Cagayan into which it feeds. The highest headwaters begin along the slopes of Mount Data in the Cordillera mountains at Bauko, Mountain Province . It then flows northeastward through and next to cities and municipalities including Bontoc , Sabangan , Sadanga , Tinglayan , Lubuagan , Tabuk , Pinukpuk , Tuao , Piat , Rizal , finally arriving at Santo Niño , where it merges with

4355-463: Was practiced in historic times in parts of Europe , East Asia , Oceania , Southeast Asia , South Asia , Mesoamerica , South America , West Africa , and Central Africa . The headhunting practice has been the subject of intense study within the anthropological community , where scholars try to assess and interpret its social roles , functions , and motivations. Anthropological writings explore themes in headhunting that include mortification of

4422-416: Was ritual and ceremonial. It was part of the process of structuring, reinforcing, and defending hierarchical relationships between communities and individuals. Some experts theorize that the practice stemmed from the belief that the head contained " soul matter" or life force, which could be harnessed through its capture. Among the various Austronesian peoples , head-hunting raids were strongly tied to

4489-547: Was usually a ritual activity rather than an act of war or feuding. A warrior would take a single head. Headhunting acted as a catalyst for the cessation of personal and collective mourning for the community's dead. Ideas of manhood and marriage were encompassed in the practice, and the taken heads were highly prized. Other reasons for headhunting included capture of enemies as slaves, looting of valuable properties, intra and inter-ethnic conflicts, and territorial expansion. Italian anthropologist and explorer Elio Modigliani visited

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