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125-553: During its lifespan, the building was also called the First Equity Building and the Insurance Center. The building was demolished between July and August 1972. The beautiful and ornate building became a victim of urban renewal and I.M. Pei 's street straightening project. After demolition, Robinson Street was widened from 74 feet to 134 feet. The building's marble columns were removed and preserved, and

250-460: A basic level of medical care and disease prevention. A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health , exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty coupled with governments' reluctance in implementing public health policies. Developed nations are at greater risk of certain public health crises, including childhood obesity, although overweight populations in low- and middle-income countries are catching up. From

375-620: A basic level of medical care and disease prevention. As a result, a large majority of disease and mortality in developing countries results from and contributes to extreme poverty . For example, many African governments spend less than $ 100 USD per person per year on health care, while, in the United States, the federal government spent approximately $ 10,600 USD per capita in 2019. However, expenditures on health care should not be confused with spending on public health. Public health measures may not generally be considered "health care" in

500-516: A city's centre. Urban renewal may increase density and reduce urban sprawl . While urban sprawl is an unrestricted way of expanding the limits of a city, urban renewal clears out undeveloped areas within city limits. While urban sprawl increases urbanization, it can lead to vacant areas and sparse industrial sites. In some cases, urban renewal may result in increased urban sprawl when city infrastructure begins to include freeways and expressways . Urban renewal triggers urban sprawl to transpire, as

625-410: A component of preventive medicine and public health. It is implemented as part of primary care rather than a specialty in its own right. Valles argues that the term social medicine has a narrower and more biomedical focus than the term population health. The purpose of a public health intervention is to prevent and mitigate diseases, injuries , and other health conditions. The overall goal

750-441: A country's overall health care system. Many interventions of public health interest are delivered outside of health facilities , such as food safety surveillance, distribution of condoms and needle-exchange programs for the prevention of transmissible diseases. Public health requires Geographic Information Systems (GIS) because risk, vulnerability and exposure involve geographic aspects. A dilemma in public health ethics

875-400: A courtyard, creating a semi-private space within the estate functioning as recreation area. The courtyards were meant to create a community atmosphere and the blocks of flats were designed to allow sunlight into the courtyards. The blocks of flats were built using high-quality brickwork and included architectural features such as lettering , glazing , fixtures and fittings. The estates built in

1000-565: A deliberate focus on equitable development strategies, as demonstrated by initiatives like the ReGenesis Project in South Carolina , which combines environmental cleanup with community-driven planning. Urban renewal evolved into a policy based less on destruction and more on renovation and investment, and today is an integral part of many local governments. A primary purpose of urban renewal is to restore economic viability to

1125-668: A form of "health fascism" by a number of scholars, objectifying the individual with no considerations of emotional or social factors. When public health initiatives began to emerge in England in modern times (18th century onwards) there were three core strands of public health which were all related to statecraft: Supply of clean water and sanitation (for example London sewerage system ); control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine ); an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering. Great Britain

1250-452: A given area by attracting external private and public investment and by encouraging business start-ups and survival. The goals of urban renewal are: Slum clearances are strategy to demolish low-income poor-quality settlements and use the land for another type of housing. As well as being a tool for urban renewal, they have also been carried for public health and social reform reasons. Slum clearances and other programmes focused mainly on

1375-499: A handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological , and social well-being . As such, according to the World Health Organization , "health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Public health is related to global health which is the health of populations in

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1500-474: A large-scale program to renovate dilapidated Soviet-built housing , known as Khrushchevki . The program provided for the demolition of 5,171 apartment buildings and the resettlement of 1.6 million city residents by 2032. The program was later extended to a number of other Russian cities. The history of Singapore's urban renewal goes back to the time period surrounding the Second World War . Before

1625-463: A million avoidable child deaths each year. Intermittent preventive therapy aimed at treating and preventing malaria episodes among pregnant women and young children is one public health measure in endemic countries. Since the 1980s, the growing field of population health has broadened the focus of public health from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality , poverty, and education. Modern public health

1750-618: A mural within the building was moved to a Fidelity Bank building. This article about a building or structure in Oklahoma is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Urban renewal Urban renewal (also called urban regeneration in the United Kingdom and urban redevelopment in the United States ) is a program of land redevelopment often used to address urban decay in cities. Urban renewal involves

1875-597: A network of highways and interstates becomes the connection between many different cities. Areas are also often cleared in solely order to construct highways, which bring pollution and heavy vehicle traffic to surrounding neighborhoods. Poorly-conceived designs can lead to the destruction of functional neighborhoods and the creation of new ones which are less desirable or replaced with experimental new development patterns which prove undesirable or not economically sustainable. Community displacement of people living in urban renewal areas comes in various forms. Displacement may be

2000-407: A review of research on what local authorities can do to tackle obesity. The review covers interventions in the food environment (what people buy and eat), the built and natural environments , schools, and the community, as well as those focussing on active travel , leisure services and public sports, weight management programmes , and system-wide approaches . Health inequalities, driven by

2125-509: A series of publications on this topic in the late 1980s and early 1990s criticizing the UK's the Health of The Nation campaign. These publications exposed abuse of epidemiology and statistics by the public health movement to support lifestyle interventions and screening programs. A combination of inculcating a fear of ill-health and a strong notion of individual responsibility has been criticized as

2250-496: A significant increase after World War II as concerns over the spread of disease as a result of globalization increased and the HIV/AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa surfaced. From 1990 to 2010, total health aid from developed countries increased from 5.5 billion to 26.87 billion with wealthy countries continuously donating billions of dollars every year with the goal of improving population health. Some efforts, however, receive

2375-475: A significantly larger proportion of funds such as HIV which received an increase in funds of over $ 6 billion between 2000 and 2010 which was more than twice the increase seen in any other sector during those years. Health aid has seen an expansion through multiple channels including private philanthropy, non-governmental organizations , private foundations such as the Rockefeller Foundation or

2500-550: A stated or covert intention of the project, but it may also happen when other renewal objectives are prioritized over the ability of residents to stay in their area, or as an unforeseen consequence of planning decisions. Displacement may be direct, for example in cases where low-income residents are forced to leave their homes and communities, or indirect, for example when renewal is a catalyst for gentrification and/or housing prices rise such that they no longer affordable to low-income residents. Indirect displacement can also result from

2625-488: A ‘world-class’ city." In Buenos Aires , Argentina , Puerto Madero is a known example of an urban renewal project. In the 1990s, the Argentine government decided to build a new residential and commercial district to replace city's old port and docks. More than 50 skyscrapers have been built in the last 20 years. Puerto Madero is now Buenos Aires' most expensive and exclusive neighborhood. Australia's built environment

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2750-427: Is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in

2875-531: Is a fundamental part of population health. Scholars such as Coggon and Pielke express concerns about bringing general issues of wealth distribution into population health. Pielke worries about "stealth issue advocacy" in population health. Jung, Boris and Lushniak consider population health to be a concept that is the goal of an activity called public health practiced through the specialty preventive medicine. Lifestyle medicine uses individual lifestyle modification to prevent or revert disease and can be considered

3000-561: Is a known example of an urban renewal project. Its historical development began in 1976, when the Taipei Municipal Government accepted the proposal to redevelop the area east of the Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hall. The goal of this redevelopment was to set up a secondary commercial center away from the more crowded old city center ( Taipei Station , Ximending area). The redevelopment hoped to increase

3125-409: Is dealing with the conflict between individual rights and maximizing right to health . Public health is justified by consequentialist utilitarian ideas, but is constrained and critiqued by liberal , deontological , principlist and libertarian philosophies Stephen Holland argues that it can be easy to find a particular framework to justify any viewpoint on public health issues, but that

3250-451: Is due to the activation of an evolved reward system for substances such as drugs, tobacco, alcohol , refined salt , fat , and carbohydrates . New technologies such as modern transportation also cause reduced physical activity . Research has found that behavior is more effectively changed by taking evolutionary motivations into consideration instead of only presenting information about health effects. The marketing industry has long known

3375-465: Is limited. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made major progress in promoting health, including substantially reducing the occurrence of cholera and polio and eradicating smallpox , diseases that have plagued humanity for thousands of years. The World Health Organization (WHO) identifies core functions of public health programs including: In particular, public health surveillance programs can: The "Truth" campaign, launched by

3500-475: Is now the prime central business district of Taipei. From the 1850s onwards, the terrible conditions of the urban poor in the slums of London began to attract the attention of social reformers and philanthropists, who began a movement for social housing. The first area to be targeted was the notorious slum called the Devil's Acre near Westminster . This new movement was largely funded by George Peabody and

3625-490: Is often carried out in rural areas, referred to as village renewal, though it may not be exactly the same in practice. An example being the introduction of tractors in France after the second world war. Replenished housing stock might be an improvement in quality, cultural and social amenity, and opportunities for safety and surveillance. Developments such as London Docklands increased tax revenues for government. In late 1964,

3750-434: Is often concerned with addressing determinants of health across a population. There is a recognition that health is affected by many factors including class, race, income, educational status, region of residence, and social relationships ; these are known as " social determinants of health ". The upstream drivers such as environment, education, employment, income, food security, housing, social inclusion and many others effect

3875-584: Is one of Europe's most labor-intensive industries. In late 2020, it accounted for more than 21 million employment in the European Union when combined with social work. According to the WHO , several countries began the COVID-19 pandemic with insufficient health and care professionals, inappropriate skill mixtures, and unequal geographical distributions. These issues were worsened by the pandemic, reiterating

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4000-530: Is part of a country's overall healthcare system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators , and through the promotion of healthy behaviors . Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding , delivery of vaccinations , promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors , suicide prevention , smoking cessation , obesity education , increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control

4125-487: Is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. The WHO reports that a lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life contributes to over a million avoidable child deaths each year. Public health surveillance has led to the identification and prioritization of many public health issues facing the world today, including HIV/AIDS , diabetes , waterborne diseases , zoonotic diseases , and antibiotic resistance leading to

4250-478: Is quite young and the earliest large scale urban renewal projects didn't occur until the 1960s in the large cities of Sydney and Melbourne . Housing Commission of New South Wales and the Housing Commission of Victoria conducted large slum recalamation projects in the 1960s replacing large areas of Victorian era housing with international style housing commission towers. These projects were halted in

4375-522: Is related to public health. The American Board of Preventive Medicine separates three categories of preventive medicine: aerospace health, occupational health , and public health and general preventative medicine. Jung, Boris and Lushniak argue that preventive medicine should be considered the medical specialty for public health but note that the American College of Preventive Medicine and American Board of Preventive Medicine do not prominently use

4500-540: Is the control of tobacco smoking . Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places. Supporters argue by presenting evidence that smoking is one of the major killers, and that therefore governments have a duty to reduce the death rate, both through limiting passive (second-hand) smoking and by providing fewer opportunities for people to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual freedom and personal responsibility, and worry that

4625-1515: Is to improve the health of individuals and populations, and to increase life expectancy . Public health is a complex term, composed of many elements and different practices. It is a multi-faceted, interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology , biostatistics , social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health , community health , behavioral health , health economics , public policy , mental health , health education , health politics , occupational safety , disability , gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health . Modern public health practice requires multidisciplinary teams of public health workers and professionals. Teams might include epidemiologists , biostatisticians , physician assistants , public health nurses , midwives , medical microbiologists , pharmacists , economists , sociologists , geneticists , data managers , environmental health officers ( public health inspectors ), bioethicists , gender experts, sexual and reproductive health specialists, physicians , and veterinarians . The elements and priorities of public health have evolved over time, and are continuing to evolve. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding , delivery of vaccinations , suicide prevention , smoking cessation , obesity education , increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control

4750-514: The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , bilateral donors, and multilateral donors such as the World Bank or UNICEF . The result has been a sharp rise in uncoordinated and fragmented funding of an ever-increasing number of initiatives and projects. To promote better strategic cooperation and coordination between partners, particularly among bilateral development agencies and funding organizations,

4875-530: The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and the World Health Organization has shown a link between international health aid in developing countries and a reduction in adult mortality rates. However, a 2014–2016 study suggests that a potential confounding variable for this outcome is the possibility that aid was directed at countries once they were already on track for improvement. That same study, however, also suggests that 1 billion dollars in health aid

5000-690: The Peabody Trust and had a lasting impact on the urban character of Westminster. Slum clearance began with the Rochester Buildings, on the corner of Old Pye Street and Perkin's Rent, which were built in 1862 by the merchant William Gibbs . They are one of the earliest large-scale philanthropic housing developments in London. The Rochester Buildings were sold to the Peabody Trust in 1877 and later become known as Blocks A to D of

5125-693: The Porto Maravilha  [ pt ] is a large-scale urban waterfront revitalization project, which covers a centrally located five million square meter area. The project aims to redevelop the port area, increasing the city center attractiveness as a whole and enhancing the city's competitiveness in the global economy . The urban renovation involves 700 km of public networks for water supply, sanitation, drainage, electricity, gas and telecom; 5 km of tunnels; 70 km of roads; 650 km of sidewalks; 17 km of bike path; 15.000 trees; and 3 plants for sanitation treatment. China experienced

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5250-710: The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) spearheaded the establishment of ESSENCE, an initiative to facilitate dialogue between donors/funders, allowing them to identify synergies. ESSENCE brings together a wide range of funding agencies to coordinate funding efforts. In 2009 health aid from the OECD amounted to $ 12.47 billion which amounted to 11.4% of its total bilateral aid. In 2009, Multilateral donors were found to spend 15.3% of their total aid on bettering public healthcare. Debates exist questioning

5375-639: The United Nations hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases in September 2011. There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries , as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained health workers , monetary resources or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even

5500-474: The "risk of crime during all phases of construction sites" La legalità per la rigenerazione urbana: a law analysis . In the French colonial period, the entire city of Marrakesh - the city inside the defensive walls - was razed and redeveloped, except for the preservation of mosques, madrassas, and funerary memorials. The preserved madrassas include buildings erected as caravanserai. In 2017, Moscow launched

5625-408: The 1950s with the reconstruction from Korean War , but the first Urban Redevelopment Act was passed in 1976. This began 20 years of large-scale clearance projects, which did not address socioeconomic problems and led to the breakdown of communities. In the 2000s, the government's focus changed from redevelopment to maintenance of existing developments. In Taipei , Taiwan , Xinyi Special District

5750-481: The 1950s. It was caused by the movement of migrants, especially from peninsular Malaysia and the baby boom. In mid 1959, overcrowded slums were inhabited by a big number of squatter populations, whereas these areas lacked the existence of service facilities such as sanitation. Since the establishment of the Republic of Singapore , urban renewal has been included in the part of the national improvement policy that

5875-705: The 1990s the concept of culture -led regeneration gained ground. Examples most often cited as successes include Temple Bar in Dublin where tourism was attracted to a bohemian 'cultural quarter', Israel has been undergoing extensive urban renewal projects due to the large number of concrete tenement buildings in its cities which do not meet modern Israeli safety standards and have what is widely considered to be an impoverished and unattractive appearance. Israel built large numbers of these tenement buildings, known in Israel as "train buildings" (בנייני רכבת, binyanei rakevet ), in

6000-795: The 2000s. Urban renewal involving established residential areas is now seldom tolerated and more recent projects have instead concentrated on disused industrial and transport infrastructure or adaptive reuse of older building stock particularly for new hi-rise housing projects. Pyrmont and Ultimo in Sydney and Postcode 3000 in Melbourne in 1992 are two key early examples along with Beacon Cove Fisherman's Bend in Melbourne and Urban renewal in Woolstore Precinct, Teneriffe and later Northshore at Hamilton in Brisbane . In Rio de Janeiro ,

6125-599: The American Legacy Foundation in 2000. This campaign aimed to educate and discourage young people from smoking by exposing the tobacco industry's deceptive practices. Through a combination of powerful visuals, persuasive storytelling, and relatable messaging, the "Truth" campaign successfully reduced smoking rates among teenagers and young adults. Many health problems are due to maladaptive personal behaviors. From an evolutionary psychology perspective, over consumption of novel substances that are harmful

6250-856: The Anglo-Saxon model taking in account the idea of an action that "determines an increase of economic, cultural, social values in an existing urban or territorial context." For instance, we can mention the regional law of 29 July 2008, nr. 21, of the Puglia Region, "Norms for urban regeneration", which states: «By this law, the Puglia Region promotes the regeneration of parts of cities and urban systems in coherence with municipal and inter-municipal strategies in order to improve urban, socio-economics, environmental and cultural conditions of human settlements " LEGGE REGIONALE 29 luglio 2008, n. 21: "Norme per la rigenerazione urbana" . A similar concept

6375-475: The British commentator Neil Wates expressed the opinion that urban renewal in the United States had 'demonstrated the tremendous advantages which flow from an urban renewal programme,' such as remedying the 'personal problems' of the poor, creation or renovation of housing stock, educational and cultural 'opportunities'. Urban renewal might have economic benefits and improve the global economic competitiveness of

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6500-510: The Old Perkin's Rents Estate. Angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts funded an experimental social housing estate, among the first of its kind, on the corner of Columbia Road and Old Pye Street (now demolished). In 1869, the Peabody Trust built one of its first housing estates at Brewer's Green, between Victoria Street and St. James's Park . What remained of the Devil's Acre on

6625-533: The Past (2016) examines the destruction of Syrian Town, a diverse neighborhood in Easton, Pennsylvania , and highlights how former residents use collective memory to maintain community ties despite displacement. In the politics of urban renewal, the state ultimately decides what is important to a city based on its own narrative and existing market conditions, and introduces elements which reflect these values, replacing

6750-501: The UN assistance report, two pilot developments were initiated in the end of 1964 by the government. These redevelopments then led to the success of Singapore's urban renewal because the government could provide sufficient amount of public housing and business areas. In the establishment of urban renewal programmes, some difficulties were experienced by the PAP government . The obstacles came from

6875-452: The age of five were overweight in 2014. Once considered a problem in high-income countries, it is now on the rise in low-income countries, especially in urban settings. Many public health programs are increasingly dedicating attention and resources to the issue of obesity, with objectives to address the underlying causes including healthy diet and physical exercise . The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) has published

7000-496: The area at the time were considered model dwellings and included shared laundry and sanitary facilities, innovative at the time, and fireplaces in some bedrooms. The design was subsequently repeated in numerous other housing estates in London. State intervention was first achieved with the passage of the Public Health Act of 1875 through Parliament . The Act focused on combating filthy urban living conditions that were

7125-405: The authors opined that "The fact that type 2 diabetes, a largely preventable disorder, has reached epidemic proportion is a public health humiliation." The risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity . The WHO's latest estimates as of June 2016 highlighted that globally approximately 1.9 billion adults were overweight in 2014, and 41 million children under

7250-457: The availability of lottery funding for capital projects and the vibrancy of the cultural and creative sectors. However, the arrival of Tate Modern in the London borough of Southwark may be heralded as a catalyst to economic revival in its surrounding neighborhood. Urban renewal schemes are often combined with small business and big business incentives. The process of urban regeneration

7375-422: The beginnings of human civilization , communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. In complex , pre-industrialized societies , interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders, such as army generals, the clergy or rulers. Great Britain became a leader in the development of public health initiatives, beginning in the 19th century, due to

7500-740: The case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological , and social well-being , among other factors. Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology , biostatistics , social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health , community health , behavioral health , health economics , public policy , mental health , health education , health politics , occupational safety , disability , oral health , gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health . Public health, together with primary care , secondary care, and tertiary care ,

7625-658: The cause of disease outbreaks. It required all new residential construction to include running water and an internal drainage system and also prohibited the construction of shoddy housing by building contractors. The London County Council was created in 1889 as the municipal authority in the County of London and in 1890 the Old Nichol in the East End of London was declared a slum and the Council authorized its clearance and

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7750-535: The changes made to the urban decay area. After having more research about urban renewal in terms of international trends and domestic development, the practitioners in the industry built consensus to use “urban renewal” to describe all the changes made to the old town area. With the rapid development pace of urbanization in China, the urbanization rate reached the inflection point of the Northam curve . The city development

7875-461: The cleared areas to become surface parking lots, sparse industrial areas, or vacant land. In Barcelona the 1992 Olympics provided a catalyst for infrastructure improvements and the redevelopment of the water front area, and in Bilbao the building of a new art museum was the focus for a new business district around the city's derelict dock area. The approach has become very popular in the UK due to

8000-573: The clearing out of blighted areas in inner cities in favour of new housing, businesses, and other developments. The concept of urban renewal as a method for social reform emerged in England as a reaction to the increasingly cramped and unsanitary conditions of the urban poor in the rapidly industrializing cities of the 19th century. The agenda that emerged was a progressive doctrine that assumed better housing conditions would reform its residents morally and economically. Modern attempts at renewal began in

8125-458: The correct approach is to find a framework that best describes a situation and see what it implies about public health policy. The definition of health is vague and there are many conceptualizations. Public health practitioners definition of health can different markedly from members of the public or clinicians . This can mean that members of the public view the values behind public health interventions as alien which can cause resentment amongst

8250-596: The current initiatives, noted in the Chief Executive's 2022 Policy Address, is to consolidate property interests and expedite urban renewal. Iranian Urban Renewal corporation is in charge of the program. Tehran and Isfahan and Khorasan and Khuzestan have some of the highest statistics of housing developments. Seventh program offers support to Ministry of Road and Urban and Development for gentrification and development in lesser devoped zones. Funding will also support money going to mass housing developers. During

8375-526: The demolition of housing in disadvantaged areas have often been criticized as a means of urban renewal for not adequately addressing the social problems that caused the initial problems in the area. By contrast, slum upgrading is an approach that aims to improve the existing area by directly addressing existing land tenure, infrastructure, and socioeconomic problems. Also known as land acquisition, compulsory purchase/acquisition, resumption or expropriation in various countries, eminent domain is, in principle,

8500-419: The distribution of health between and within populations and are often shaped by policy. A social gradient in health runs through society. The poorest generally have the worst health, but even the middle classes will generally have worse health outcomes than those of a higher social level. The new public health advocates for population-based policies that improve health in an equitable manner. The health sector

8625-483: The early 1970s as enthusiasm for Towers in the Park planning waned. In 1971, a plan to raze Sydney's historic area The Rocks for public housing was halted by green bans . The CBDs and inner suburban areas of Australia's cities have been in constant renewal since the 19th century, however apart from large commercial re-developments this has mostly been done in ad-hoc fashion rather than as major planning initiative. Among

8750-404: The effects of chronic diseases as life expectancy increases, the poorer communities being heavily affected by both chronic and infectious diseases. Another major public health concern in the developing world is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. The WHO reports that a lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life contributes to over

8875-422: The efficacy of international health aid. Supporters of aid claim that health aid from wealthy countries is necessary in order for developing countries to escape the poverty trap . Opponents of health aid claim that international health aid actually disrupts developing countries' course of development, causes dependence on aid, and in many cases the aid fails to reach its recipients. For example, recently, health aid

9000-435: The evacuate and build program and TAMA 38. The evacuate and build program, launched in 1998, allows developers to tear down older building complexes and replace them with larger and more modern buildings, while TAMA 38, launched in 2005, enables developers to extensively remodel buildings, strengthening them against earthquakes, adding safety rooms, remodeling the building's appearance, and adding new apartments. In both projects,

9125-760: The fact that it was the first modern urban nation worldwide. The public health initiatives that began to emerge initially focused on sanitation (for example, the Liverpool and London sewerage systems ), control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine ) and an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering. Public health has been defined as "the science and art of preventing disease ", prolonging life and improving quality of life through organized efforts and informed choices of society , organizations (public and private), communities and individuals . The public can be as small as

9250-412: The fastest urbanization and has one of the greatest urban sprawl scale in the world from 1990. Massive real estate development and reconstruction brought economic revitalization. However, when cleaning the urban decay area, traditional and historic buildings were destroyed to different levels. In the industry, researchers and practitioners used “old town reconstruction” and “urban regeneration” to describe

9375-475: The first decades of independence to house masses of Jewish refugees coming from Europe and the Muslim world. Since then, Israeli architectural styles have changed. In addition, these buildings do not meet modern safety regulations: Israeli law has required all new buildings to be built in an earthquake-resistant manner since 1980 and to be built with bomb shelters since 1991. There are two main urban renewal programs:

9500-425: The gap between the needs of urban residents, local authorities, and property developers, fostering innovative, community-driven solutions. Moreover, urban renewal projects have drawn attention to the nuanced impacts of gentrification. While these efforts can bring economic and infrastructural improvements, they may also displace long-standing communities and erode cultural heritage. Addressing these challenges requires

9625-502: The government. People remain living inside the buildings during the renovation period, which usually lasts for over a year, leading to concerns about exposure to construction dust and the possible presence of asbestos. Such rehabilitation works are common in districts with older buildings, like Kowloon City, Mong Kok, Sham Shui Po, Yao Ma Tei and Tai Po. The government of Hong Kong has always been concerned with land shortage and has introduced various policies to increase land supply. One of

9750-448: The harmful and undesirable effects of tobacco smoking on other persons and imposing smoking bans in public places have been particularly effective in reducing tobacco smoking. Public libraries can also be beneficial tools for public health changes. They provide access to healthcare information, link people to healthcare services, and even can provide direct care in certain situations. As well as seeking to improve population health through

9875-796: The highest possible level of health". The WHO's broad mandate includes advocating for universal healthcare, monitoring public health risks, coordinating responses to health emergencies, and promoting human health and well-being. The WHO has played a leading role in several public health achievements, most notably the eradication of smallpox , the near- eradication of polio , and the development of an Ebola vaccine . Its current priorities include communicable diseases , particularly HIV/AIDS , Ebola , COVID-19 , malaria and tuberculosis ; non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and cancer; healthy diet , nutrition, and food security ; occupational health ; and substance abuse . Most countries have their own governmental public health agency, often called

10000-446: The implementation of specific population-level interventions, public health contributes to medical care by identifying and assessing population needs for health care services, including: Some programs and policies associated with public health promotion and prevention can be controversial. One such example is programs focusing on the prevention of HIV transmission through safe sex campaigns and needle-exchange programs . Another

10125-495: The importance of associating products with high status and attractiveness to others. Films are increasingly being recognized as a public health tool, with the Harvard University 's T.H. Chan School of Public Health categorizing such films as "impact filmmaking." In fact, film festivals and competitions have been established to specifically promote films about health. Conversely, it has been argued that emphasizing

10250-441: The importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, and the effects of aging and other physical and mental health conditions. However, public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. Although the collaboration of local health and government agencies is considered best practice to improve public health, the pieces of evidence available to support this

10375-477: The importance of public health. In the United States, a history of underinvestment in public health undermined the public health workforce and support for population health, long before the pandemic added to stress, mental distress, job dissatisfaction, and accelerated departures among public health workers. Health aid to developing countries is an important source of public health funding for many developing countries. Health aid to developing countries has shown

10500-593: The infrastructure and character of older city cores. This can have knock-on effects on society and culture more broadly. Professor Kenneth Paul Tan writes that Singapore's self-image of having succeeded against all odds has led to strong pressure to pursue progress and development regardless of the destructive cost, postulating that Singapore's "culture of comfort and affluence" has developed in order to cope with people's repeated loss of their sense of place, redirecting their desires from "community" towards "economic progress, upward mobility, affluent and convenient lifestyles and

10625-535: The interplay of renewal projects and social inequalities, for example when people face discrimination in the housing market based on racial identity. In the United States, urban redevelopment projects have often resulted in the displacement of low-income inhabitants and Black communities when their dwellings were taken and demolished. In the 1950s, a Southwest Washington renewal project (see Berman v. Parker ) displaced thousands of largely African-American families, but provided them with no replacement housing because at

10750-458: The largest projects since the 1980s have been the clearing of most of South Brisbane 's commercial heart to become South Bank for World Expo 88 and the transformation of large industrial parts of South Melbourne to become the modern hi-rise dominated precinct Southbank . More recent ongoing projects include Darling Harbour in Sydney and Docklands in Melbourne in the late 1980s as well as South Wharf in Melbourne and Barangaroo in Sydney in

10875-635: The late 19th century in developed nations. However, urban reform imposed by the state for reasons of aesthetics and efficiency had already begun in 1853, with Haussmann's renovation of Paris ordered by Napoleon III . Modern urban renewal experienced an intense phase in the late 1940s under the rubric of reconstruction . In the context of urban renewal, "reconstruction" typically refers to efforts to rebuild and revitalize cities that were damaged during World War II. This phase involved not just repairing buildings, but also rethinking urban design, infrastructure, and housing policies. The impact of these initiatives

11000-520: The low-income residents, and building plenty of highways to reach large scale urban sprawl. The Josefov neighborhood, or Old Jewish Quarter , in Prague was leveled and rebuilt in an effort at urban renewal between 1890 and 1913. The Urban Renewal Authority is the statutory body responsible for urban renewal in Hong Kong. The Operation Building Bright scheme was launched in 2009 and is subsidised by

11125-882: The ministry of health, with responsibility for domestic health issues. For example, in the United States , state and local health departments are on the front line of public health initiatives. In addition to their national duties, the United States Public Health Service (PHS), led by the Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service , and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , headquartered in Atlanta , are also involved with international health activities. Most governments recognize

11250-539: The needs of the normative group. Identifying bias within public health research and practice is essential to ensuring public health efforts mitigate and don't aggravate health inequities. The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution, which establishes the agency's governing structure and principles, states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of

11375-527: The other side of Victoria Street was cleared and further Peabody estates were built after the Cross Act of 1875 . In 1882, the Peabody Trust built the Abbey Orchard Estate on former marshland at the corner of Old Pye Street and Abbey Orchard Street. Like many of the social housing estates, the Abbey Orchard Estate was built following the square plan concept. Blocks of flats were built around

11500-514: The poor, the elderly and ethnic minorities. In 2016, Portland Development Commission apologised again after the funds instead went into multimillion-dollar apartment projects, the increasing prices force the African-American and other low-income residents out of the market. The impact of urban renewal on marginalized communities has been well-documented in ethnographic studies. Rebuilding Shattered Worlds: Creating Community by Voicing

11625-450: The power to take private property for public use . However, cases have emerged in the United States in cases where the land acquired was not put to any public use. For example, the Kelo v. City of New London lawsuit ruled that eminent domain may instead transfer acquired private property into private ownership in the case of renewal schemes. The case was brought by a homeowner whose house

11750-452: The prevalence of infectious diseases decreased through the 20th century , public health began to put more focus on chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease . Previous efforts in many developed countries had already led to dramatic reductions in the infant mortality rate using preventive methods. In Britain, the infant mortality rate fell from over 15% in 1870 to 7% by 1930. A major public health concern in developing countries

11875-627: The prosperity of the eastern district and the convenience of urban life for existing residents. The center's purpose was to expand business investment in the area and attract international financial services and technology firms. It also planned for residential development by building a completely new community. The Xinyi Project Area is the only commercial development area in Taipei with a wholly planned street and urban design. In addition to attracting corporations, it also features large retail spaces, department stores, and shopping malls. Xinyi Special District

12000-448: The provision of housing and post-war reconstruction in the United Kingdom, was commissioned by Parliament as a response to the shocking lack of fitness amongst many recruits during the War; this was attributed to poor living conditions, a belief summed up in a housing poster of the period "you cannot expect to get an A1 population out of C3 homes". Public health Public health

12125-484: The public towards certain interventions. Such vagueness can be a problem for health promotion . Critics have argued that public health tends to place more focus on individual factors associated with health at the expense of factors operating at the population level. Historically, public health campaigns have been criticized as a form of " healthism ", as moralistic in nature rather than being focused on health. Medical doctors, Petr Shkrabanek and James McCormick wrote

12250-597: The rebuilding of an area of some 15-acre (6.1 ha), including the Nichol and Snow estates, and a small piece on the Shoreditch side of Boundary Street, formally Cock Lane. The slum clearance began in 1891 and included 730 houses inhabited by 5,719 people. The LCC architects designed 21 and Rowland Plumbe two of 23 blocks containing between 10 and 85 tenements each. A total of 1,069 tenements, mostly two or three-roomed, were planned to accommodate 5,524 persons. The project

12375-476: The reemergence of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis . Antibiotic resistance , also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011 . For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people worldwide have diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by 2030. In a June 2010 editorial in the medical journal The Lancet ,

12500-548: The resistance of people who used to live in the slums and squatters. It was reported by Singapore newspapers that those people were reluctant to be replaced. This became the major problems of 1960s redevelopment schemes. Affordable land value also became one of its reasons. Another problem was that the government had to purchase the private land owned by the middle and upper society to make the land vacant and be used for redevelopment. Urban regeneration in South Korea began in

12625-409: The simple act of handwashing with soap can prevent the spread of many contagious diseases . In other cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing its spread to others, either during an outbreak of infectious disease or through contamination of food or water supplies. Public health, together with primary care , secondary care, and tertiary care , is part of

12750-591: The social determinants of health, are also a growing area of concern in public health. A central challenge to securing health equity is that the same social structures that contribute to health inequities also operate and are reproduced by public health organizations. In other words, public health organizations have evolved to better meet the needs of some groups more than others. The result is often that those most in need of preventative interventions are least likely to receive them and interventions can actually aggravate inequities as they are often inadvertently tailored to

12875-409: The spread of sexually transmitted diseases . Public health aims are achieved through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors , communities and environments . Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. Many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that

13000-438: The spread of sexually transmitted diseases . There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries , as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers , monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even

13125-418: The state may be encouraged to remove more and more choice in the name of better population health overall. Psychological research confirms this tension between concerns about public health and concerns about personal liberty: (i) the best predictor of complying with public health recommendations such as hand-washing, mask-wearing, and staying at home (except for essential activity) during the COVID-19 pandemic

13250-511: The strictest sense. For example, mandating the use of seat belts in cars can save countless lives and contribute to the health of a population, but typically money spent enforcing this rule would not count as money spent on health care. Large parts of the world remained plagued by largely preventable or treatable infectious diseases. In addition to this however, many developing countries are also experiencing an epidemiological shift and polarization in which populations are now experiencing more of

13375-476: The tenants are temporarily evacuated for the duration of the work and the developer pays for their alternative accommodation. In both programs, the developers add more apartments so as to sell them to additional tenants and make a profit. In Italy, the concept of urban renewal had been having the classical meaning of "recovery", "re-use", and also "redevelopment" for many years. It has not been long time that this meaning has changed, or has begun to change, towards

13500-502: The term "public health". Preventive medicine specialists are trained as clinicians and address complex health needs of a population such as by assessing the need for disease prevention programs, using the best methods to implement them, and assessing their effectiveness. Since the 1990s many scholars in public health have been using the term population health . There are no medical specialties directly related to population health. Valles argues that consideration of health equity

13625-1033: The time the law did not provide for any. A model established to improve the growth and urbanization of American cities instead harmed the welfare of many communities. Increasingly, urban redevelopment led to residents being replaced, not by new residents, but by shopping malls, automobile factories and dealerships, and big-box stores . Replacement housing – particularly in the form of high-rise housing for low-income tenants – has not been successful. Hostile architectural designs, together with low-quality construction and maintenance have often led to rapid deterioration and abandonment of these projects. Public housing projects like Cabrini-Green in Chicago and Pruitt-Igoe in St. Louis became so bad that they had to be demolished. In 2000, Portland, Oregon city leaders promised residents whose communities had already been decimated through urban renewal programs that their latest scheme would benefit

13750-448: The urban development in China for the past decade is strikingly similar to the situation in many Western countries. In terms of the similarity sharing with U.S. urban renewal programs, both countries viewed older neighborhoods as outdated and blighted, encouraged local governments to cooperate with local development interests for downtown redevelopment, failed to provide enough support and concern for residents of cleared areas, who often were

13875-425: The urban environment in a more sustainable and reasonable way. At the 15th China Central City Work Conference, the policy, "urban repair and ecological restoration ," was put forward. Immediately thereafter, new urban renewal models such as Guangzhou's micro-renovation and Shanghai's micro-renewal appeared to lead the trend of a new era of urban renewal programs in China. “Planning is inherently political”, however,

14000-751: The urban regeneration as "the coordinated set of urban-building interventions and social initiatives that can include replacement, re-use, redevelopment of the built environment and reorganization of the urban landscape by mean of recovery of degraded, underused or abandoned areas, as well as through the creation and management of infrastructure, green spaces and services […] with a horizon towards sustainability and environmental and social resilience, technological innovation and increasing biodiversity" (Art 2. L.R.18/2019). The same law introduces some rewards reserved to whom builds for social purposes. Moreover, these rewards are also reserved for those who carry on some particular implementation models. For instance, you can increase

14125-497: The volume of your building whenever "integrated safety systems and construction site risk management processes are applied; methods that are based on traceability and control activities, with particular reference to soil movement and waste traceability, based on advanced technologies", the increase in the building index is recognized in the art. 3 and these rewards are also given when technologies as geolocation, video surveillance and perimeter protection are implemented in order to prevent

14250-492: The war, Singapore's housing environment had already been a problem. The tension of both infrastructure and housing conditions were worsened by the rapidly increasing number of the Singapore population in the 1930s. As a consequence of the war and the lack of economic development, between the 1940s to the 1950s, the previous evil of housing conditions continued to happen. As much as 240,000 squatters were placed in Singapore during

14375-462: The worldwide context. It has been defined as "the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in " Health for all " people worldwide". International health is a field of health care, usually with a public health emphasis, dealing with health across regional or national boundaries. Public health is not the same as public healthcare ( publicly funded health care ). The term preventive medicine

14500-418: Was a leader in the development of public health during that time period out of necessity: Great Britain was the first modern urban nation (by 1851 more than half of the population lived in settlements of more than 2000 people). This led to a certain type of distress which then led to public health initiatives. Later that particular concern faded away. With the onset of the epidemiological transition and as

14625-498: Was acquired and demolished by a private company after the verdict. The company did not complete its contracted construction, leaving the plot empty. Similar occurred in the Rust Belt , where large areas of productive buildings were demolished to enable speculative future development which never materialized. Syracuse , Cincinnati , and Niagara Falls , among many others, cleared entire neighborhoods under urban renewal plans, only for

14750-894: Was associated with 364,000 fewer deaths occurring between ages 0 and 5 in 2011. To address current and future challenges in addressing health issues in the world, the United Nations have developed the Sustainable Development Goals to be completed by 2030. These goals in their entirety encompass the entire spectrum of development across nations, however Goals 1–6 directly address health disparities , primarily in developing countries. These six goals address key issues in global public health , poverty , hunger and food security , health, education, gender equality and women's empowerment , and water and sanitation . Public health officials can use these goals to set their own agenda and plan for smaller scale initiatives for their organizations. These goals are designed to lessen

14875-528: Was carried out by Lombardy Region by mean of its Regional Law of 26 November 2019 - n. 18 "Simplification and incentive measures for urban and territorial regeneration, as well as for the recovery of existing building heritage. Changes and addendums to the regional law 11 March 2005, n. 12 (Law for the Government of the Territory) and other regional laws " Legge Regione Lombardia 18/2019 . This law defines

15000-408: Was funneled towards initiatives such as financing new technologies like antiretroviral medication , insecticide-treated mosquito nets , and new vaccines. The positive impacts of these initiatives can be seen in the eradication of smallpox and polio ; however, critics claim that misuse or misplacement of funds may cause many of these efforts to never come into achievement. Economic modeling based on

15125-530: Was hailed as setting "new aesthetic standards for housing the working classes" and included a new laundry, 188 shops, and 77 workshops. Churches and schools were preserved. Building for the project began in 1893 and it was opened by the Prince of Wales in 1900. Other such schemes in the 1880s, where newly cleared sites were sold on to developers, included Whitechapel , Wild Street, Whitecross Street and Clerkenwell . The 1917 Tudor Walters Committee Report into

15250-408: Was not about urban sprawl and real estate development on a large scale. China improved its urban development strategy by using inventory planning other than incremental planning. Chinese promoted urbanization aggressively as national policy. But due to the change from the concept of urban renewal in terms of its presentation from the physical dimension, China now promotes small-scale “repairs” to improve

15375-420: Was people's perceived duties to prevent harm but (ii) the best predictor of flouting such public health recommendations was valuing liberty more than equality. Simultaneously, while communicable diseases have historically ranged uppermost as a global health priority, non-communicable diseases and the underlying behavior-related risk factors have been at the bottom. This is changing, however, as illustrated by

15500-1357: Was significant: cities were often reshaped with new zoning laws, transportation systems, and public housing projects. These changes aimed to accommodate growing populations and improve living conditions, but they also often led to displacement of communities and altered demographics. In the late 20th century and now in the 21st century, urban renewal initiatives have often pursued three key goals: economic revitalization, social or cultural regeneration, and environmental sustainability. These efforts frequently aim to transform underutilized urban areas into hubs of economic and cultural activity, leveraging policies that promote both sustainability and equitable development. For example, green infrastructure projects , such as urban parks and community gardens, not only enhance property values but also foster social cohesion and provide environmental benefits like improved water management and biodiversity conservation. In recent years, urban renewal programs have increasingly involved " culturepreneurs ," individuals or organizations that blend cultural and economic strategies to reimagine urban spaces. These stakeholders often collaborate with governments and private entities to redevelop vacant land into dynamic public spaces, such as pop-up cultural venues or urban beaches. Culturepreneur initiatives are designed to bridge

15625-435: Was urgently put in action. Before that, the 1958 master plan had already been designed to solve the city problems. However, due to the lack of urban planning experts caused by the deficiency of professional staff, criticism came from many urban practitioners. The professional team recommended by the United Nations then was asked by the government to cope with the urban renewal matters and its redevelopment plan in 1961. Based on

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