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101-598: [REDACTED] Look up Bactria  or Bactrian in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Bactrian may refer to: Bactria , an ancient region in Central Asia, including the modern Balkh region of Afghanistan Bactria (satrapy) , under the Achaemenid Empire Bactrian language , an extinct Eastern Iranian language Bactrian camel ,

202-473: A dyke near Shushtar , called "Caesar's dyke". The victory over Valerian is presented in a mural at Naqsh-e Rustam , where Shapur is represented on horseback wearing royal armour and a crown. Before him kneels a man in Roman dress, asking for grace. The same scene is repeated in other rock-face inscriptions. Christian tradition has Shapur I humiliating Valerian, infamous for his persecution of Christians , by

303-586: A Persian from Balkh known as Saman Khuda left Zoroastrianism for Islam while living under the Umayyads. His children founded the Samanid Empire (875–999 AD). Persian became the official language and had a higher status than Bactrian, because it was the language of Muslim rulers. It eventually replaced the latter as the common language due to the preferential treatment as well as colonization. Several important trade routes from India and China (including

404-573: A council amongst the magnates. The Eastern provinces of the fledgling Sasanian Empire bordered on the land of the Kushans and the land of the Sakas (roughly today's Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan). The military operations of Shapur's father Ardashir I had led to the local Kushan and Saka kings offering tribute, and satisfied by this show of submission, Ardashir seems to have refrained from occupying their territories. Al-Tabari alleges he rebuilt

505-632: A language known later as Bactrian – an Iranian language . (The Tokhari and their language should not be confused with the Tocharian people who lived in the Tarim Basin between the 3rd and 9th centuries AD, or the Tocharian languages that form another branch of Indo-European languages .) The name Daxia was used in the Shiji ("Records of the Grand Historian") by Sima Qian . Based on

606-679: A region in the southwestern Iranian plateau , was the homeland of the southwestern branch of the Iranian peoples , the Persians. It was also the birthplace of the first Iranian Empire, the Achaemenids . The region served as the centre of the empire until its conquest by the Macedonian king Alexander the Great ( r.  336–323 BCE ). Since the end of the 3rd or the beginning of

707-556: A remote place, Bishapur in Khuzistan , where they were settled as a garrison and built a weir with bridge for Shapur. However, the Persian forces were later defeated by the Roman officer Balista and the lord of Palmyra Septimius Odaenathus , who captured the royal harem. Shapur plundered the eastern borders of Syria and returned to Ctesiphon, probably in late 260. In 264 Septimius Odaenathus reached Ctesiphon, but failed to take

808-564: A small and independent kingdom struggling to exist against nomadic Turanians . One of the early centres of Zoroastrianism, and capital of the legendary Kayanian dynasty , Bactria is mentioned in the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great as one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire ; it was a special satrapy, ruled by a crown prince or an intended heir. Bactria was the centre of Iranian resistance against

909-667: A species of camel in Asia Bactrian deer See also [ edit ] Bactria (disambiguation) Balkh (disambiguation) Bahlika (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Bactrian . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bactrian&oldid=1226305421 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

1010-730: A town named Pushang in Khorasan . In all records Shapur calls himself mzdysn ("Mazda-worshipping"). His inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht recounts his wars and religious establishments to the same extent. He believed that he had a responsibility; "For the reason, therefore, that the gods have so made us their instrument (dstkrt), and that by the help of the gods we have sought out for ourselves, and hold, all these nations (štry) for that reason we have also founded, province by province, many Varahrān fires (ʾtwry wlhlʾn), and we have dealt piously with many Magi (mowmard), and we have made great worship of

1111-513: Is also attested under Shapur, who made use of them to demolish the city of Hatra . He may also have used them against Valerian, as attested in the Shahnameh ( The Book of Kings ). Shapur I left other reliefs and rock inscriptions. A relief at Naqsh-e Rajab near Estakhr is accompanied by a Greek translation. Here Shapur I calls himself "the Mazdayasnan (worshipper of Ahuramazda ),

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1212-570: Is also found in the story of the mythological Iranian king Kay Khosrow . According to the modern historian Bonner, the story of Shapur's birth and uprising "may conceal a marriage between Ardashir and an Arsacid princess or perhaps merely a noble lady connected with the Parthian aristocracy." On his inscriptions, Shapur identifies his mother as a certain Murrod . Shapur I was a son of Ardashir I and his wife Murrod or Denag . The background of

1313-633: Is derived from the Ancient Greek : Βακτριανή ( Romanized Greek term: Baktrianē ), which is the Hellenized version of the Bactrian endonym . Other cognates include βαχλο ( Romanized : Bakhlo ). بلخ ( Romanized : Balx ), Chinese 大夏 ( pinyin : Dàxià ), Latin Bactriana. The region was mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts as बाह्लीक or Bāhlīka . Wilhelm Eilers proposed that

1414-513: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Language and nationality disambiguation pages Bactria Called "beautiful Bactria, crowned with flags" by the Avesta , the region is considered, in the Zoroastrian faith, to be one of the " sixteen perfect Iranian lands " that the supreme deity, Ahura Mazda , had created. It was once

1515-555: Is transliterated in other languages as; Greek Sapur , Sabour and Sapuris ; Latin Sapores and Sapor ; Arabic Sābur and Šābur ; New Persian Šāpur , Šāhpur , Šahfur . According to the semi-legendary Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan , a Middle Persian biography of Ardashir I , the daughter of the Parthian king Artabanus IV , Zijanak, attempted to poison her husband Ardashir. Discovering her intentions, Ardashir ordered her to be executed. Finding out about her pregnancy,

1616-644: The mobads (priests) were against it. Nevertheless, Ardashir still demanded her execution, which led the mobads to conceal her and her son Shapur for seven years, until the latter was identified by Ardashir, who chooses to adopt him based on his virtuous traits. This type of narrative is repeated in Iranian historiography. According to 5th-century BCE Greek historian Herodotus , the Median king Astyages wanted to have his grandson Cyrus killed because he believed that he would one day overthrow him. A similar narrative

1717-749: The Babylonian Amoraim , the Talmudic sages from among the important Jewish communities of Mesopotamia . Shapur's campaigns deprived the Roman Empire of resources while restoring and substantially enriching his own treasury, by deporting many Romans from conquered cities to Sasanian provinces like Khuzestan , Asuristan , and Pars . This influx of deported artisans and skilled workers revitalised Iran's domestic commerce. In Bishapur , Shapur died of an illness. His death came in May 270 and he

1818-559: The Bazrangid ruler of Persis, Gochihr , taking Istakhr for himself. Around 208 Vologases VI succeeded his father Vologases V as king of the Arsacid Empire. He ruled as the uncontested king from 208 to 213, but afterwards fell into a dynastic struggle with his brother Artabanus IV , who by 216 was in control of most of the empire, even being acknowledged as the supreme ruler by the Roman Empire. Artabanus IV soon clashed with

1919-679: The Greek Macedonian invaders after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in the 4th century BC, but eventually fell to Alexander the Great . After the death of Alexander, Bactria was annexed by his general, Seleucus I . The Seleucids lost the region after the declaration of independence by the satrap of Bactria, Diodotus I ; thus began the history of the Greco-Bactrian , and later the Indo-Greek , Kingdoms. By

2020-625: The Greek language for administrative purposes, and the local Bactrian language was also Hellenized, as suggested by its adoption of the Greek alphabet and Greek loanwords. The Bactrian king Euthydemus I and his son Demetrius I crossed the Hindu Kush mountains and began the conquest of the Indus valley . For a short time, they wielded great power: a great Greek empire seemed to have arisen far in

2121-556: The King of Kings using the Emperor as a footstool to mount his horse, and they claim he later died a miserable death in captivity at the hands of the enemy. However, just as with the above-mentioned Gilaks deported to the East by Shapur, the Persian treatment of prisoners of war was unpleasant but honourable, drafting the captured Romans and their Emperor into their army and deporting them to

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2222-837: The Kings of Persis , most likely at the accession of the Arsacid monarch Phraates II ( r.  132–127 BCE ). Unlike the fratarakas , the Kings of Persis used the title of shah ("king"), and laid foundations to a new dynasty, which may be labelled the Darayanids. Under Vologases V ( r.  191–208 ), the Parthian Empire was in decline, due to wars with the Romans , civil wars and regional revolts. The Roman emperor Septimius Severus ( r.  193–211 ) had invaded

2323-522: The Seleucid Empire and founded a number of Greek towns . The Greek language became dominant for some time there. The paradox that Greek presence was more prominent in Bactria than in areas far closer to Greece can possibly be explained by past deportations of Greeks to Bactria. When Alexander's troops entered Bactria they discovered communities of Greeks who appeared to have been deported to

2424-640: The Silk Road ) passed through Bactria and, as early as the Bronze Age , this had allowed the accumulation of vast amounts of wealth by the mostly nomadic population. The first proto-urban civilization in the area arose during the 2nd millennium BC . Control of these lucrative trade routes, however, attracted foreign interest, and in the 6th century BC the Bactrians were conquered by the Persians , and in

2525-661: The Silk Roads . Kujula Kadphises , the xihou (prince) of the Yuezhi, united the region in the early 1st century and laid the foundations for the powerful, but short-lived, Kushan Empire . In the 3rd century AD, Tukhara was under the rule of the Kushanshas (Indo-Sasanians). The form Tokharistan – the suffix -stan means "place of" in Persian – appeared for the first time in the 4th century, in Buddhist texts, such as

2626-832: The Vibhasa-sastra . Tokhara was known in Chinese sources as Tuhuluo (吐呼羅) which is first mentioned during the Northern Wei era. In the Tang dynasty, the name is transcribed as Tuhuoluo (土豁羅). Other Chinese names are Doushaluo 兜沙羅, Douquluo 兜佉羅 or Duhuoluo 覩貨羅. During the 5th century AD, Bactria was controlled by the Xionites and the Hephthalites , but was subsequently reconquered by the Sassanid Empire. By

2727-570: The revolting Ionians and send them to Bactria. Persia subsequently conscripted Greek men from these settlements in Bactria into their military, as did Alexander later. Alexander conquered Sogdiana . In the south, beyond the Oxus, he met strong resistance, but ultimately conquered the region through both military force and diplomacy, marrying Roxana , daughter of the defeated Satrap of Bactria, Oxyartes . He founded two Greek cities in Bactria, including his easternmost, Alexandria Eschate (Alexandria

2828-654: The 1st century BC, when Strabo described how "the Asii, Pasiani, Tokhari, and Sakarauli" had taken part in the "destruction of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom". Ptolemy subsequently mentioned the central role of the Tokhari among other tribes in Bactria. As Tukhara or Tokhara it included areas that were later part of Surxondaryo Region in Uzbekistan, southern Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan. The Tokhari spoke

2929-627: The 2nd century BCE, Pars was ruled by local dynasts subject to the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire . These dynasts held the ancient Persian title of frataraka ("leader, governor, forerunner"), which is also attested in the Achaemenid-era. Later under the frataraka Wadfradad II (fl. 138 BCE) was made a vassal of the Iranian Parthian (Arsacid) Empire . The frataraka were shortly afterwards replaced by

3030-491: The 4th century BC by Alexander the Great . These conquests marked the end of Bactrian independence. From around 304 BC the area formed part of the Seleucid Empire , and from around 250 BC it was the centre of a Greco-Bactrian kingdom , ruled by the descendants of Greeks who had settled there following the conquest of Alexander the Great . The Greco-Bactrians, also known in Sanskrit as Yavanas , worked in cooperation with

3131-543: The 6th century. Bactrian (natively known as ariao , 'Iranian'), an Eastern Iranian language , was the common language of Bactria and surroundings areas in ancient and early medieval times. The Islamization of Bactria began with the Muslim conquest of Iran in the 7th century. The capital city of Bactra was centre of an Iranian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, and New Persian as an independent literary language first emerged in this region. The Samanid Empire

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3232-572: The East and annexed most of the land of the Kushans, and appointing his son Narseh as Sakanshah—king of the Sakas—in Sistan . In 242 CE, Shapur conquered khwarezm . Shapur could now proudly proclaim that his empire stretched all the way to Peshawar, and his relief in Rag-i-Bibi in present-day Afghanistan confirms this claim. Shapur I claims in his Naqsh-e Rostam inscription possession of

3333-491: The East. But this empire was torn by internal dissension and continual usurpations. When Demetrius advanced far east of the Indus River, one of his generals, Eucratides , made himself king of Bactria, and soon in every province there arose new usurpers, who proclaimed themselves kings and fought against each other. For example Eucratides is known to have battled another king named Demetrius of India, probably Demetrius II ,

3434-844: The Eastern territories with POW's from his previous campaign against the Medes of the Mountains. Agathias claims Bahram II (274–293 CE) later campaigned in the land of the Sakas and appointed his brother Hormizd as its king. When Hormizd revolted, the Panegyrici Latini list his forces as the Sacci (Sakas), the Rufii (Cusii/Kushans) and the Geli (Gelans / Gilaks , the inhabitants of Gilan ). Since

3535-707: The Furthest). After Alexander's death, Diodorus Siculus tells us that Philip received dominion over Bactria, but Justin names Amyntas to that role. At the Treaty of Triparadisus , both Diodorus Siculus and Arrian agree that the satrap Stasanor gained control over Bactria. Eventually, Alexander's empire was divided up among the generals in Alexander's army. Bactria became a part of the Seleucid Empire , named after its founder, Seleucus I . The Macedonians , especially Seleucus I and his son Antiochus I , established

3636-413: The Gilaks are obviously out of place among these easterners, and as we know that Shapur I had to fight the Medes of the Mountains first before marching to the land of the Kushans, it is conceivable those Gilaks were the descendants of warriors captured during Shapur I's North-western campaign, forcibly drafted into the Sasanian army, and settled as a hereditary garrison in Merv , Nishapur , or Zrang after

3737-427: The Greek account. According to some writers, Bactria was the homeland ( Airyanem Vaejah ) of Indo-Iranians who moved south-west into Iran and the north-west of the South Asian subcontinent around 2500–2000 BC. Later, it became the northern province of the Achaemenid Empire in Central Asia . It was in these regions, where the fertile soil of the mountainous country is surrounded by the Turan Depression , that

3838-515: The Greek minority. In the Indus valley , this went even further. The Indo-Greek king Menander I (known as Milinda in South Asia ), recognized as a great conqueror, converted to Buddhism . His successors managed to cling to power until the last known Indo-Greek ruler, a king named Strato II , who ruled in the Punjab region until around 55 BC. Other sources, however, place the end of Strato II's reign as late as 10 AD. Daxia , Ta-Hsia , or Ta-Hia ( Chinese : 大夏 ; pinyin : Dàxià )

3939-466: The Kushāns and Hepthalites in the 1st–6th centuries AD. Over the course of time, the eastern Iranian dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Persian, a western dialect spoken in Iran and Afghanistan. 36°45′29″N 66°53′56″E  /  36.7581°N 66.8989°E  / 36.7581; 66.8989 Shapur I Shapur I (also spelled Shabuhr I ; Middle Persian : 𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩 , romanized:  Šābuhr )

4040-468: The Parthian domains in 196, and two years later did the same, this time sacking the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. At the same time, revolts occurred in Media and Persis. The Iranologist Touraj Daryaee argues that the reign of Vologases V was "the turning point in Parthian history, in that the dynasty lost much of its prestige." The kings of Persis were now unable to depend on their weakened Parthian overlords. Indeed, in 205/6, Pabag rebelled and overthrew

4141-456: The Persians of 500,000 gold denarii. Philip immediately issued coins proclaiming that he had made peace with the Persians ( pax fundata cum Persis ). However, Philip later broke the treaty and seized lost territory. Shapur I commemorated this victory on several rock reliefs in Pars . Shapur I invaded Mesopotamia in 250 but again, serious trouble arose in Khorasan and Shapur I had to march over there and settle its affair. Having settled

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4242-432: The Roman emperor Caracalla , whose forces he managed to contain at Nisibis in 217. Peace was made between the two empires the following year, with the Arsacids keeping most of Mesopotamia . However, Artabanus IV still had to deal with his brother Vologases VI, who continued to mint coins and challenge him. The Sasanian family had meanwhile quickly risen to prominence in Pars, and had now under Ardashir begun to conquer

4343-411: The Roman emperor, Valerian . He did not seem interested in permanently occupying the Roman provinces, choosing instead to resort to plundering and pillaging, gaining vast amounts of riches. The captives of Antioch, for example, were allocated to the newly reconstructed city of Gundeshapur , later famous as a center of scholarship. In the 260s, subordinates of Shapur suffered setbacks against Odaenathus ,

4444-532: The Sasanians with "a huge army and great quantity of gold," (according to a Sasanian rock relief) and wintered in Antioch , while Shapur was occupied with subduing Gilan , Khorasan , and Sistan . There the Roman general Timesitheus fought against the Sasanians and won repeated battles, and recaptured Carrhae and Nisibis, and at last routed a Sasanian army at Resaena, forcing the Persians to restore all occupied cities unharmed to their citizens. "We have penetrated as far as Nisibis, and shall even get to Ctesiphon ,"

4545-466: The Seleucids—particularly from Antiochus III the Great , who was ultimately defeated by the Romans (190 BC). The Greco-Bactrians were so powerful that they were able to expand their territory as far as South Asia : As for Bactria, a part of it lies alongside Aria towards the north, though most of it lies above Aria and to the east of it. And much of it produces everything except oil. The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew so powerful on account of

4646-464: The Sogdians and Bactrians did not differ much from the nomads in their modes of life and customs, although the Bactrians were a little more civilised; however, of these, as of the others, Onesicritus does not report their best traits, saying, for instance, that those who have become helpless because of old age or sickness are thrown out alive as prey to dogs kept expressly for this purpose, which in their native tongue are called "undertakers," and that while

4747-430: The actions of his future wife al-Nadirah . Shapur also consolidated and expanded the empire of Ardashir I, waged war against the Roman Empire , and seized its cities of Nisibis and Carrhae while he was advancing as far as Roman Syria . Although he was defeated at the Battle of Resaena in 243 by Roman emperor Gordian III ( r.  238–244 ), he was the following year able to win the Battle of Misiche and force

4848-421: The affair in Khorasan he resumed the invasion of Roman territories, and later annihilated a Roman force of 60,000 at the Battle of Barbalissos . He then burned and ravaged the Roman province of Syria and all its dependencies. Shapur I then reconquered Armenia , and incited Anak the Parthian to murder the king of Armenia, Khosrov II . Anak did as Shapur asked, and had Khosrov murdered in 258; yet Anak himself

4949-418: The ancient city of Zrang in Sakastan (the land of the Sakas , Sistan ), but the only early Sasanian period founding of a new settlement in the East which is certain is the building by Shapur I of Nishapur —"Beautiful (city built) by Shapur"—in Dihistan (former Parthia , apparently lost by the Parthians to the Kushans ). Soon after the death of his father in 241 CE, Shapur felt the need to cut short

5050-416: The battle or murdered by the Romans after the defeat. The Romans then chose Philip the Arab as Emperor. Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants, and was aware that he had to return to Rome to secure his position with the Senate. Philip concluded a peace with Shapur I in 244; he had agreed that Armenia lay within Persia's sphere of influence. He also had to pay an enormous indemnity to

5151-430: The campaign they had started in Roman Syria, and reassert Sasanian authority in the East, perhaps because the Kushan and Saka kings were lax in abiding to their tributary status. However, he first had to fight "The Medes of the Mountains"—as we will see possibly in the mountain range of Gilan on the Caspian coast—and after subjugating them, he appointed his son Bahram (the later Bahram I ) as their king. He then marched to

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5252-484: The capital of which was Merv , in today's Turkmenistan. The early Greek historian Ctesias , c.  400 BC (followed by Diodorus Siculus ), alleged that the legendary Assyrian king Ninus had defeated a Bactrian king named Oxyartes in c.  2140 BC , or some 1000 years before the Trojan War . Since the decipherment of cuneiform script in the 19th century, however, which enabled actual Assyrian records to be read, historians have ascribed little value to

5353-403: The city. The Colossal Statue of Shapur I , which stands in the Shapur Cave, is one of the most impressive sculptures of the Sasanian Empire . Shapur is mentioned many times in the Talmud , in which he is referred to in Jewish Aramaic as Shabur Malka (שבור מלכא), meaning "King Shapur". He had good relations with the Jewish community and was a friend of Shmuel , one of the most famous of

5454-402: The conclusion of Shapur's north-eastern campaign, the usual Sasanian practise with prisoners of war. Ardashir I had, towards the end of his reign, renewed the war against the Roman Empire , and Shapur I had conquered the Mesopotamian fortresses Nisibis and Carrhae and had advanced into Syria . In 242, the Romans under the father-in-law of their child-emperor Gordian III set out against

5555-440: The direct descendants of the Iranian peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwārezm (Khorezm) and Bactria, which formed part of Transoxania (Sogdiana). They were included in the empires of Persia and Alexander the Great, and they intermingled with such later invaders as

5656-487: The divine Shapur, King of Kings of the Iranians , and non-Iranians, of divine descent, son of the Mazdayasnan, the divine Ardashir , King of Kings of the Aryans, grandson of the divine king Papak ". Another long inscription at Estakhr mentions the King's exploits in archery in the presence of his nobles. From his titles we learn that Shapur I claimed sovereignty over the whole earth, although in reality his domain extended little farther than that of Ardashir I. Shapur I built

5757-408: The end of the Arsacid era and the start of 427 years of Sasanian rule. The chief secretary of the deceased Arsacid king, Dad-windad , was afterwards executed by Ardashir I. Ardashir celebrated his victory by having two rock reliefs sculptured at the Sasanian royal city of Ardashir-Khwarrah (present-day Firuzabad ) in Pars . The first relief portrays three scenes of personal fighting; starting from

5858-406: The end of the Parthian Empire. Yet, the military was essentially the same as that of the Parthians; the same Parthians nobles who served the Arsacid royal family, now served the Sasanians, forming the majority of the Sasanian army. However, the Sasanians seem to have employed more cataphracts who were equipped with lighter chain-mail armour resembling that of the Romans. Although Iranian society

5959-479: The family is obscure; although based in Pars (also known as Persis ), they were not native to the area, and were seemingly originally from the east. The historian Marek Jan Olbrycht has suggested that the family was descended from the Indo-Parthians of Sakastan . Iranologist Khodadad Rezakhani also noted similarities between the early Sasanians and the Indo-Parthians, such as their coinage. Yet, he stated that "evidence might still be too inconclusive." Pars,

6060-471: The fertility of the country that they became masters, not only of Bactria and beyond, but also of India, as Apollodorus of Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued by them than by Alexander...." The last Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles I lost control of Bactria to nomadic invaders near the end of the 2nd century BC, at which point Greek political power ceased in Bactria, but Greek cultural influence continued for many more centuries. The Greco-Bactrians used

6161-409: The geographic frame of the Bactrian plain. The Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC, also known as the "Oxus civilization") is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age archaeological culture of Central Asia , dated to c.  2200 –1700 BC, located in present-day eastern Turkmenistan , northern Afghanistan , southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan , centred on

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6262-437: The gods." According to the Zoroastrian priest Kartir , Shapur treated the Zoroastrians generously, and permitted members of their clergy to follow him on his expeditions against the Romans. According to the historian Prods Oktor Skjærvø , Shapur was a "lukewarm Zoroastrian". During the reign of Shapur, Manichaeism , a new religion founded by the Iranian prophet Mani , flourished. Mani was treated well by Shapur, and in 242,

6363-445: The great town Gundishapur near the old Achaemenid capital Susa , and increased the fertility of the district with a dam and irrigation system—built by Roman prisoners—that redirected part of the Karun River . The barrier is still called Band-e Kaisar , "the mole of the Caesar". He is also responsible for building the city of Bishapur , with the labours of Roman soldiers captured after the defeat of Valerian in 260. Shapur also built

6464-447: The incorporation of new territory into the empire, however what was precisely seen as "non-Iran(ian)" ( aneran ) is not certain. Although this new title was used on his inscriptions, it was almost never used on his coinage . The title first became regularised under Hormizd I. Shapur appears in Harry Sidebottom 's historical fiction novel series as one of the enemies of the series protagonist Marcus Clodius Ballista, career soldier in

6565-402: The king of Palmyra . According to Shapur's inscription at Hajiabad, he still remained active at the court in his later years, participating in archery . He died of illness in Bishapur , most likely in May 270. Shapur was the first Iranian monarch to use the title of "King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians"; beforehand the royal titulary had been "King of Kings of Iranians". He had adopted

6666-505: The land outside the walls of the metropolis of the Bactrians looks clean, yet most of the land inside the walls is full of human bones; but that Alexander broke up the custom." The Bactrians spoke Bactrian , a north-eastern Iranian language. Bactrian became extinct, replaced by north-eastern Iranian languages such as Munji , Yidgha , Ishkashimi , and Pashto . The Encyclopaedia Iranica states: Bactrian thus occupies an intermediary position between Pashto and Yidgha - Munji on

6767-449: The latter ultimately being defeated according to the historian Justin . Most of them we know only by their coins, a great many of which are found in Afghanistan . By these wars, the dominant position of the Greeks was undermined even more quickly than would otherwise have been the case. After Demetrius and Eucratides, the kings abandoned the Attic standard of coinage and introduced a native standard, no doubt to gain support from outside

6868-572: The left, a Persian aristocrat seizing a Parthian soldier; Shapur impaling the Parthian minister Dad-windad with his lance; and Ardashir I ousting Artabanus IV. The second relief, conceivably intended to portray the aftermath of the battle, displays the triumphant Ardashir I being given the badge of kingship over a fire shrine from the Zoroastrian supreme god Ahura Mazda , while Shapur and two other princes are watching from behind. Ardashir considered Shapur "the gentlest, wisest, bravest and ablest of all his children", and nominated him as his successor in

6969-418: The mid-7th century AD, Islam under the Rashidun Caliphate had come to rule much of the Middle East and western areas of Central Asia. In 663 AD, the Umayyad Caliphate attacked the Buddhist Shahi dynasty ruling in Tokharistan. The Umayyad forces captured the area around Balkh , including the Buddhist monastery at Nava Vihara , causing the Shahis to retreat to the Kabul Valley. In the 8th century AD,

7070-403: The native Bactrian aristocracy. By the early 2nd century BC the Greco-Bactrians had created an impressive empire that stretched southwards to include north-west India. By about 135 BC, however, this kingdom had been overrun by invading Yuezhi tribes, an invasion that later brought about the rise of the powerful Kushan Empire . Bactrians were recorded in Strabo's Geography : "Now in early times

7171-434: The neighbouring regions and more far territories, such as Kirman . At first, Ardashir I's activities did not alarm Artabanus IV, until later, when the Arsacid king finally chose to confront him. Shapur, as portrayed in the Sasanian rock reliefs , took part in his father's war with the Arsacids, including the Battle of Hormozdgan . The battle was fought on 28 April 224, with Artabanus IV being defeated and killed, marking

7272-513: The new Roman emperor Philip the Arab ( r.  244–249 ) to sign a favorable peace treaty that was regarded by the Romans as "a most shameful treaty". Shapur later took advantage of the political turmoil within the Roman Empire by undertaking a second expedition against it in 252/3–256, sacking the cities of Antioch and Dura-Europos . In 260, during his third campaign, he defeated and captured

7373-500: The nobility included the powerful Parthian noble families (known as the wuzurgan ) that were centred on the Iranian plateau . They served as the backbone of the Sasanian feudal army and were largely autonomous. The Parthian nobility worked for the Sasanian shah for personal benefit, personal oath, and, conceivably, a common awareness of the "Aryan" (Iranian) kinship they shared with their Persian overlords. Use of war elephants

7474-537: The north and the Hindu Kush mountain range to the south and east. On its western side, the region was bordered by the great Carmanian desert and the plain of Margiana . The Amu Darya and smaller rivers such as (from west to east) the Shirin Tagab River , Sari Pul River , Balkh River and Kunduz River have been used for irrigation for millennia. The land was noted for its fertility and its ability to produce most ancient Greek agricultural products, with

7575-567: The north, beginning with the Sakas (160 BC). The Sakas were overthrown in turn by the Da Yuezhi ("Greater Yuezhi") during subsequent decades. The Yuezhi had conquered Bactria by the time of the visit of the Chinese envoy Zhang Qian (circa 127 BC), who had been sent by the Han emperor to investigate lands to the west of China. The first mention of these events in European literature appeared in

7676-514: The notable exception of olives. According to Pierre Leriche: Bactria, the territory of which Bactra was the capital, originally consisted of the area south of the Āmū Daryā with its string of agricultural oases dependent on water taken from the rivers of Balḵ (Bactra), Tashkurgan, Kondūz, Sar-e Pol, and Šīrīn Tagāō. This region played a major role in Central Asian history. At certain times the political limits of Bactria stretched far beyond

7777-496: The offspring of the officials who served Shapur's father. During the reign of Shapur, a certain Papak served as the commander of the royal guard ( hazarbed ), while Peroz served as the chief of the cavalry ( aspbed ); Vahunam and Shapur served as the director of the clergy; Kirdisro served as viceroy of the empire ( bidaxsh ); Vardbad served as the "chief of services"; Hormizd served as the chief scribe; Naduk served as "the chief of

7878-645: The one hand, Sogdian , Choresmian , and Parthian on the other: it is thus in its natural and rightful place in Bactria. The principal religions of the area before the Islamic invasion were Zoroastrianism and Buddhism . Contemporary Tajiks are the descendants of ancient Eastern Iranian inhabitants of Central Asia, in particular, the Sogdians and the Bactrians, and possibly other groups, with an admixture of Western Iranian Persians and non-Iranian peoples. The Encyclopædia Britannica states: The Tajiks are

7979-408: The possessions of Daxia and Anxi Parthia are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the people of Han , but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China. These contacts immediately led to the dispatch of multiple embassies from the Chinese, which helped to develop trade along

8080-492: The prison"; Papak served as the "gate keeper"; Mihrkhwast served as the treasurer; Shapur served as the commander of the army; Arshtat Mihran served as the secretary; Zik served as the "master of ceremonies". Under Shapur, the Iranian military experienced a resurgence after a rather long decline in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, which gave the Romans the opportunity to undertake expeditions into the Near East and Mesopotamia during

8181-711: The prophet Zoroaster was said to have been born and gained his first adherents. Avestan , the language of the oldest portions of the Zoroastrian Avesta , was one of the Old Iranian languages , and is the oldest attested member of the Eastern Iranian languages . Ernst Herzfeld suggested that Bactria belonged to the Medes before its annexation to the Achaemenid Empire by Cyrus the Great in sixth century BC , after which it and Margiana formed

8282-525: The prophet joined the Sasanian court, where he tried to convert Shapur by dedicating his only work written in Middle Persian , known as the Shabuhragan . Shapur, however, did not convert to Manichaeism and remained a Zoroastrian. While the titulage of Ardashir was "King of Kings of Iran(ians)", Shapur slightly changed it, adding the phrase "and non-Iran(ians)". The extended title demonstrates

8383-431: The province of Syria to Roman control. The speedy retreat of Shapur's troops caused Valerian to pursue the Persians to Edessa , but they were defeated , and Valerian, along with the Roman army that was left, was captured by Shapur Shapur then advanced into Asia Minor and managed to capture Caesarea , deporting hundred upon thousands of Roman citizens to the Sasanian empire. He used these captive Roman citizens to build

8484-541: The region by the Persians in previous centuries. Considerable difficulties faced by the Seleucid kings and the attacks of Pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus gave the satrap of Bactria, Diodotus I , the opportunity to declare independence about 245 BC and conquer Sogdia . He was the founder of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom . Diodotus and his successors were able to maintain themselves against the attacks of

8585-594: The region was named after the Balkh River (in Greek transliteration Βάκτρος ) from underlying Bāxtri- , itself meaning 'she who divides', from the Proto-Indo-European root * bhag- 'to divide' (whence also Avestan bag- and Old Indic bháj- ). Bactria is the geographic location Bactrian camels are named after. The Bactrian plain lay between the Amu Darya (ancient Oxus River) to

8686-476: The reign of Darius I , the inhabitants of the Greek city of Barca , in Cyrenaica , were deported to Bactria for refusing to surrender assassins. In addition, Xerxes also settled the "Branchidae" in Bactria; they were the descendants of Greek priests who had once lived near Didyma (western Asia Minor) and betrayed the temple to him. Herodotus also records a Persian commander threatening to enslave daughters of

8787-458: The reports of Zhang Qian, the Shiji describe Daxia as an important urban civilization of about one million people, living in walled cities under small city kings or magistrates. Daxia was an affluent country with rich markets, trading in an incredible variety of objects, coming from as far as Southern China. By the time Zhang Qian visited, there was no longer a major king, and the Bactrians were under

8888-794: The second century BC, Bactria was conquered by the Parthian Empire , and, in the early first century, the Kushan Empire was formed by the Yuezhi within Bactrian territories. Shapur I , the second Sasanian King of Kings of Iran , conquered western parts of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century, and the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom was formed. The Sasanians lost Bactria in the 4th century, but reconquered it in

8989-423: The suzerainty of the Yuezhi. Zhang Qian depicted a rather sophisticated but demoralised people who were afraid of war. Following these reports, the Chinese emperor Wu Di was informed of the level of sophistication of the urban civilizations of Ferghana , Bactria and Parthia , and became interested in developing commercial relationship with them: The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Dayuan and

9090-767: The territory of the Kushans (Kūšān šahr) as far as "Purushapura" ( Peshawar ), suggesting he controlled Bactria and areas as far as the Hindu-Kush or even south of it: I, the Mazda-worshipping lord, Shapur, king of kings of Iran and An-Iran… (I) am the Master of the Domain of Iran (Ērānšahr) and possess the territory of Persis, Parthian… Hindestan, the Domain of the Kushan up to the limits of Paškabur and up to Kash, Sughd, and Chachestan. He seems to have garrisoned

9191-401: The title due to the influx of Roman citizens whom he had deported during his campaigns. However, it was first under his son and successor Hormizd I , that the title became regularised. Shapur had new Zoroastrian fire temples constructed, incorporated new elements into the faith from Greek and Indian sources, and conducted an extensive program of rebuilding and refounding of cities. "Shapur"

9292-402: The twelfth satrapy of Persia. After Darius III had been defeated by Alexander the Great , the satrap of Bactria, Bessus , attempted to organize a national resistance but was captured by other warlords and delivered to Alexander. He was then tortured and killed. Under Persian rule, many Greeks were deported to Bactria, so that their communities and language became common in the area. During

9393-543: The upper Amu Darya (known to the ancient Greeks as the Oxus River), an area covering ancient Bactria. Its sites were discovered and named by the Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi (1976). Bactria was the Greek name for Old Persian Bāxtriš (from native * Bāxçiš ) (named for its capital Bactra, modern Balkh ), in what is now northern Afghanistan, and Margiana was the Greek name for the Persian satrapy of Margu ,

9494-507: The young emperor Gordian III , who had joined his father-in-law Timesitheus, exultantly wrote to the Senate. The Romans later invaded eastern Mesopotamia but faced tough resistance from Shapur I who returned from the East. Timesitheus died under uncertain circumstances and was succeeded by Philip the Arab . The young emperor Gordian III went to the Battle of Misiche and was either killed in

9595-485: Was a popular name in Sasanian Iran , being used by three Sasanian monarchs and other notables of the Sasanian era and its later periods. Derived from Old Iranian *xšayaθiya.puθra ("son of a king"), it must initially have been a title, which became—at least in the late 2nd century CE—a personal name. It appears in the list of Arsacid kings in some Arabic-Persian sources; however, this is anachronistic . Shapur

9696-662: Was formed in Eastern Iran by the descendants of Saman Khuda , a Persian from Bactria, beginning the spread of the Persian language in the region and the decline of the Bactrian language. The modern English name of the region is Bactria. Historically, the region was first mentioned in Avestan as Bakhdi in Old Persian . This later developed into Bāxtriš in Middle Persian and Baxl in New Persian . The modern name

9797-489: Was greatly militarised and its elite designated themselves as a "warrior nobility" ( arteshtaran ), it still had a significantly smaller population, was more impoverished, and was a less centralised state compared to the Roman Empire. As a result, the Sasanian shahs had access to fewer full-time fighters, and depended on recruits from the nobility instead. Some exceptions were the royal cavalry bodyguard, garrison soldiers, and units recruited from places outside Iran. The bulk of

9898-664: Was shortly thereafter murdered by Armenian nobles. Shapur then appointed his son Hormizd I as the "Great King of Armenia". With Armenia subjugated, Georgia submitted to the Sasanian Empire and fell under the supervision of a Sasanian official. With Georgia and Armenia under control, the Sasanians' borders on the north were thus secured. During Shapur's invasion of Syria he captured important Roman cities like Antioch . The Emperor Valerian (253–260) marched against him and by 257 Valerian had recovered Antioch and returned

9999-1127: Was succeeded by his son, Hormizd I . Two of his other sons, Bahram I and Narseh , would also become kings of the Sasanian Empire, while another son, Shapur Meshanshah , who died before Shapur, sired children who would hold exalted positions within the empire. Under Shapur, the Sasanian court, including its territories, were much larger than that of his father. Several governors and vassal-kings are mentioned in his inscriptions; Ardashir, governor of Qom ; Varzin, governor of Spahan ; Tiyanik, governor of Hamadan ; Ardashir, governor of Neriz; Narseh, governor of Rind; Friyek, governor of Gundishapur ; Rastak, governor of Veh-Ardashir ; Amazasp III , king of Iberia . Under Shapur several of his relatives and sons served as governor of Sasanian provinces; Bahram , governor of Gilan ; Narseh , governor of Sindh , Sakastan and Turan ; Ardashir, governor of Kirman ; Hormizd-Ardashir , governor of Armenia ; Shapur Meshanshah , governor of Meshan ; Ardashir, governor of Adiabene . Several names of Shapur's officials are carved on his inscription at Naqsh-e Rustam . Many of these were

10100-567: Was the name given in antiquity by the Han Chinese to Tukhara or Tokhara : the central part of Bactria. The name "Daxia" appears in Chinese from the 3rd century BC to designate a little-known kingdom located somewhere west of China. This was possibly a consequence of the first contacts between China and the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom . During the 2nd century BC, the Greco-Bactrians were conquered by nomadic Indo-European tribes from

10201-400: Was the second Sasanian King of Kings of Iran . The precise dating of his reign is disputed, but it is generally agreed that he ruled from 240 to 270, with his father Ardashir I as co-regent until the death of the latter in 242. During his co-regency, he helped his father with the conquest and destruction of the city of Hatra , whose fall was facilitated, according to Islamic tradition, by

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