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50-770: Hereditary head of the house of Rozhaki whose seat was the ancient Bitlis Castle and descended from Sharafkhan Bidlisi , Bedir Khan was born in Cizre (now in Turkey) of Azizan family . He became the Mir of the Emirate of Botan in 1821 and ruled until 1847. The Bedir Khans also claimed descent from Muhammad 's general Khalid ibn al-Walid . He was born to Abdullah Bey, and became the ruler of Botan after his cousin Seyfeddin (who succeeded Abdullah Bey after his death), wasn't able to calm down

100-728: A mansion in the Fatih quarter. Several of his descendants were admitted into the bureaucracy of the Ottoman Empire. In June 1868, Bedir Khan decided to settle in present-day Syria . He traveled by ship to Beirut and from there he moved to Damascus . Bedir Khan Beg died a year after he settled in Damascus . His funeral was held at the cemetery of Rukneddin , Damascus. Bedir Khan Beg was married several times, according to his son Mehmed, he had sixteen wives. Emin Ali Bedir Khan

150-640: A monument in Matiate , modern-day Midyat in Tur Abdin, which remains to be found. His successor, the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III , also crossed Tur Abdin. Most ancient monuments in Tur Abdin are Christian , but as attested by the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II , the area has a pre-Christian history. Older names of the area indicate that the people living here worshipped Assyrian deities . Arches on

200-848: A quarter of the Christian population thirty years ago. Most have fled to Syria (where the city of Qamishli was built by them), Europe (particularly Sweden, Germany, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands ), Australia and the United States. In the past few years, a few families have returned to Tur Abdin. Due to migration, the Syriacs' main residential area in Turkey today is Istanbul , where between 12,000 to 18,000 lives there. As of 2019, an estimated between 2,000 to 3,000 of

250-662: A triple alliance. As the Ottomans decided to detach Cizre from Diyarbakir and have it joined to the Mosul Eyalet , Bedr Khan opposed the decision and would not submit to the authority of the Vali of Mosul. In the meantime, Han Mahmoud of Müküs unsuccessfully attempted to conquer the area around Bitlis . The triple alliance entered in conflict with the local Assyrian Christian population, and perpetrated massacres amongst them in 1843 and 1846. The conflict arose, as Nestorians in

300-777: Is a hilly region situated in southeast Turkey , including the eastern half of the Mardin Province , and Şırnak Province west of the Tigris , on the border with Syria and famed since Late Antiquity for its Christian monasteries on the border of the Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire . The area is a low plateau in the Anti-Taurus Mountains stretching from Mardin in the west to the Tigris in

350-777: Is of great importance to the Syriac Orthodox Assyrians , for whom the region used to be a monastic and cultural heartland. The Assyrian/Syriac community of Tur Abdin call themselves Suryoye , and traditionally speak a central Neo-Aramaic dialect called Turoyo . The town of Midyat and the villages of Hah, Bequsyone , Dayro da-Slibo , Saleh (with the old monastery of Mor Yaqub), Iwardo (with Mor Huschabo), Anhel , Kafro , Arkah (Harabale, with Dayro Mor Malke), Beth Sbirino, Miden (Middo), Kerburan , Binkelbe with Mor Samun Zayte and Beth Zabday (Azech) were all important Syriac Orthodox settlements among with countless other villages. Hah, today called Anıtlı, has

400-460: Is one of his sons and Celadet Bedir Khan , Süreyya Bedir Khan and Kamuran Alî Bedirxan are his grandchildren. He was the father of twenty-one children. Sharafkhan Bidlisi Sharaf al-Din Khan b. Shams al-Din b. Sharaf Beg Bedlisi ( Kurdish : شەرەفخانی بەدلیسی , Şerefxanê Bedlîsî ; Persian : شرف‌الدین خان بن شمس‌الدین بن شرف بیگ بدلیسی ; 25 February 1543 – c.  1603–04 )

450-659: The Council of Chalcedon of 451. After a period of persecution by the Chalcedonian state church of the Roman Empire and during the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 , the monasteries of the Tur Abdin enjoyed a particular prosperity under Arab rule in the latter 7th century. The fortress of Rhabdion was mentioned by the 6th-century Greek historian Procopius , while the 6th-century Notitia Antiochena and

500-732: The Emirate of Bitlis . Between 1578 and 1588, Sharafkhan virtually led all the Ottoman wars against the Persians . In 1597, Sharafkhan gave the authority of his dynasty to his son Šams-al-Dīn. Sharaf Khan Bidlisi was planning for a long time to write a book about Kurdish history , and finally in 1597 he started writing his epic, Sharafnama . Written in Persian , the Sharafnama divides its history into four parts. The first one deals with

550-515: The Quran , readings on the principles of shari'a , piety and purity. Due to Shah Tahmasp 's religious disposition, Bidlisi was introduced to religious scholars, who warned him against evil people, and instead encouraged friendship with the virtuous. And once Bidlisi attained maturity, he was taught the martial arts (sipahigira), archery , polo , racing , swordsmanship , and the precepts of chivalry – humanism and generosity. In 1576 Tahmasb of

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600-634: The Safavids gave him the title of Mir of Mirs and appointed him leader of all Iranian Kurdish tribes. He accepted his title, but only two years later, Sharafkhan abandoned his previous stand, and supported the Ottomans in their war against the Iranians , offering them 400 soldiers. In 1578, Sultan Murad III , the Ottoman Sultan, granted Sharafkhan the title of Emir and he became the Mir of

650-447: The monastery of Mor Gabriel . Some local Kurdish villages sought to claim land on which the monastery had paid taxes since the 1930s as belonging to the villages, and made other accusations against the monastery. This led to considerable diplomatic and human rights action throughout Europe and within Turkey. The most important Syriac Orthodox centre in Tur Abdin is the monastery of Dayro d-Mor Hananyo , 6 km south east of Mardin, in

700-482: The 16th century in his works. Outside Iran and Kurdish-speaking countries , Sharaf Khan Bidlisi has influenced Kurdish literature and societies through the translation of his works by other scholars. He was also a gifted artist and a well-educated man, excelling as much in mathematics and military strategy as he did in history. Sharaf Khan Bidlisi was born on 25 February 1543, in the Markazi province of Iran in

750-578: The Friday day prayers meeting that mentions the Prophet , the first four caliphs and the current rulers). The third part numbers the families of the hereditary governors, while the fourth details the history of the mirs of Bitilis . It was, in a sense, inevitable for Sharaf Khan to compose the Sharafnama in Persian given the circumstances of his time. After his father, Shams al-Dan Khan, sought refuge at

800-594: The Garmrood village, during the exile of his father. His father was Shamsheddin, a Kurdish Beg , He was a member of the Rojkî tribe, whose members governed the Bitlis Emirate at the time and had ruled intermittently as an independent emirate since at least the 9th century. Sharafkhan therefore never took up the common tribal title of " Khan ", preferring instead the royal title of emir or mir , "prince." He

850-625: The Kurdish leaders of Kilis (Husayn Jānbūlād) and Ardalan ( Halo Khan ). This gesture could have been aimed at demonstrating the Bidlis ruler's dynastic authority and gaining broader recognition, while also indicating that Persian was read and written in the courts of other Kurdish rulers. Tur Abdin Tur Abdin ( Arabic : طور عبدين ; Kurdish : Tor ; Latin : Turabdium ; Syriac : ܛܽܘܪ ܥܰܒ݂ܕܺܝܢ or ܛܘܼܪ ܥܲܒ݂ܕܝܼܢ , Ṭūr ʿAḇdīn )

900-636: The Ottoman Army in exchange of promises of a rank in the government. Yezdanşer would become appointed the mütesellim of Cizre for a short time. From Evreh castle Bedir Khan and his family were put in chains and taken to Kumçati in the Şırnak province . After 40 days in detention, Bedir Khan and his family were transferred to Constantinople. After Bedir Khan's hopes that he would be allowed to settle in Constantinople were not fulfilled, he and his entourage were sent to Heraklion , Crete , which at

950-537: The Ottomans, but as an important commander of his troops, defected to the Ottomans, he was forced to flee to Evruh castle, where he endured an eight months long siege. Bedir Khan had to surrender to the Ottomans at Evreh Castle in Eruh , Siirt on the 4 July 1847. The same day also Han Mahmud was defeated in Tatvan . Bedir Khan was betrayed by Yezdanşer a distant relative and high ranking commander of his forces, who had joined

1000-762: The Sultan In 1838, the Ottoman Reshid Pasha conquered Cizre and Bedir Khan began to lose his power due to the centralist policies of the Ottoman Empire , which culminated in the Tanzimat Edict of 1839 and its application the following year. Following the Battle of Nizip in 1839, in which Bedir Khan took part for the Ottoman side, he emerged as the dominant Kurdish ruler in central Kurdistan. He raised taxes, minted his own coins and organized

1050-486: The Syriac population of Tur Abdin, many of these Syriacs spoke other languages. During World War I , 300,000 Assyrian/Syriac Christians were killed in the Ottoman Empire's Genocide in Syriac called Sayfo , or 'the sword'). In the last few decades, caught between Turkish assimilation policies against Kurds , and Kurdish resistance, many Assyrians/Syriacs have fled the region or been killed. Today there are only 5,000,

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1100-575: The Tur Abdin became part of the Sasanian Empire along with the remaining territory of the five Transtigritine provinces and the nearby strongholds of Nisibis and Bezabde . The numerous monasteries of the Tur Abdin eventually became part of the Church of the East organized at the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 410. They mainly took the Miaphysite position of non-Chalcedonian Christianity after

1150-747: The ancient 'Idto d'Yoldath-Aloho, the Church of the Mother of God. The Assyrian king Adad-nirari II , who came to throne in the late 10th century BCE, removed the Arameans from political power in the Kashiari mountains (Tur Abdin). In the 9th century BCE the Assyrian King Ashurnasirpal II described crossing the plateau of Tur Abdin (which he calls "Kashyari") on his way to attack the region of Nairi , more than once. He erected

1200-680: The area between Urmia , Mosul and Hakkari , decided to refuse their accorded tribute to the Emir of Hakkari in 1841. After Nurullah Bey unsuccessfully attempted to subdue the Nestorians led by Shimun XVII Abraham , he called for the assistance by Bedir Khan Beg. In 1843, Bedir Khan broke their resistance and Mar Shimun took refuge in Mosul. And also in 1844 in the Tur Abdin mountains, Yazidis were again raided by Bedir Khan Beg. Bedir Khan Beg's goal

1250-503: The barren hills of the Tur Abdin." Gaunt has estimated the Assyrian population at between 500,000 and 600,000 just before the outbreak of World War I, significantly higher than reported on Ottoman census figures. Midyat , in Diyarbekir vilayet , was the only town in the Ottoman Empire with an Assyrian majority, although divided between Syriac Orthodox , Chaldeans , and Protestants . Syriac Orthodox Christians were concentrated in

1300-554: The centre of the Tur Abdin region, a few miles south of Midyat , is Dayro d-Mor Gabriel . Built in AD 397, Mor Gabriel monastery , is the oldest functioning Syriac Orthodox monastery on earth. It is the residence of the Metropolitan Bishop of Tur Abdin, seven nuns, four monks and a host of guests, assistants and students. The monastery is charged with keeping the flame of Syriac Orthodox faith alive in Tur Abdin, for which it

1350-487: The country's 25,000 Assyrians live in Tur Abdin, and they are spread among 30 villages, hamlets , and towns. Some of these locations are dominated by Syriacs while others are dominated by the Kurds. As part of a return movement, some Syriac Orthodox Christians returned to Tur Abdin villages from Germany , Sweden and Switzerland . The Syriacs of Diyarbekir Vilayet made significant resistance. Their strongest stand

1400-648: The court of Shah Tahmasp, it is not surprising that Sharaf Khan, who received a high-quality education alongside the princes in Shah Tahmasp's palace in Qazvin and mastered Persian like a native speaker, chose to write this work in that language. His decision was driven both by the desire to reach a wide audience across the Persian-speaking regions and to enhance his dynasty’s legitimacy in the broader world. Upon completing his book, Sharaf Khan sent copies to

1450-525: The east and delimited by the Mesopotamian plains to the south. The Tur Abdin is populated by more than 80 villages and nearly 70 monastery buildings and was mostly Syriac Orthodox until the early 20th century. The earliest surviving Christian buildings date from the 6th century. The name "Tur Abdin" is Syriac : ܛܘܪ ܥܒܕܝܢ , lit.   'Mountain of the Servants [of God]'. Tur Abdin

1500-752: The five Kurdish dynasties that have enjoyed status as royalty ( Saltant ): the Marwanids of Amed , the Hasanwayhids of Dinavar and Sharizur , the Fadluyids of the Great Lur , the princes of little Lur, and finally, Saladin the Great and the Ayyubids . The second part lists dynasties that have had coin struck and the khutba recited in their names. (The Khutba is a religious invocation pronounced at

1550-771: The following 150 years, during which most of the villages' churches were built. After the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD, the Syriac Orthodox Church split from the Greek-speaking Byzantine mainstream. They were then "severely persecuted as heretical Monophysites by the Byzantine Emperors", according to William Dalrymple , which led the Syrian Orthodox Church hierarchy to retreat to the "inaccessible shelter of

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1600-624: The following day, large demonstrations took place in the city of Midyat in Tur Abdin. Muslims angry about the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons gathered in Estel, the new part of the city, and started to march towards the old part of Midyat (6 kilometers away), where the Assyrians/Syriacs live. The mob was stopped by the police before reaching old Midyat . In 2008 a series of legal challenges were made against

1650-438: The hilly rural areas around Midyat, known as Tur Abdin, where they populated almost 100 villages and worked in agriculture or crafts. Syriac Orthodox culture was centered in two monasteries near Mardin (west of Tur Abdin), Mor Gabriel and Deyrulzafaran . Outside of the area of core Syriac settlement, there were also sizable populations in the towns of Diyarbakır , Urfa , Harput , and Adiyaman as well as villages. Unlike

1700-490: The justice system. The security in Bohtan gave him such popularity among its habitants, that many families from neighboring districts settled in the Emirate of Bohtan. This led to a dispute with the Vali of Mosul, who in 1842 wanted to integrate the district of Cizre into the province of Mosul, an aim, to which the population of Cizre did not agree to. By 1845, Bedir Khan beg ruled over a region spanning from Diyarbakir to Mosul in

1750-434: The monastery is led by a bishop and a monk and some lay assistants, and is a school for orphans. The bishop of Mor Hananyo is also the patriarchal vicar of Mardin. His goal is to rebuild the monastery and to preserve the history of the Syriac Orthodox church. The Dayro d-Mor Hananyo is part of the UNESCO world cultural heritage and was visited by numerous celebrities including the UK's King Charles III, when Prince of Wales. In

1800-410: The north side of the churches in Zaz and Saleh suggest pre-Christian buildings originally stood on the sites. Ancient Assyro-Babylonian religion is believed to have survived in the region until as late as the 18th century. In 586 B.C. the prophet Ezekiel mentions the famed wine of Izlo, on the southern edge of the plateau of Tur Abdin, in his prophecy against Tyre. The Mor Gabriel Monastery,

1850-427: The oldest Syriac Orthodox church in the world, was founded in 397 by the ascetic Mor Shmu'el (Samuel) and his student Mor Shem'un (Simon). According to tradition, Shem'un had a dream in which an Angel commanded him to build a House of Prayer in a location marked with three large stone blocks. When Shem'un awoke, he took his teacher to the place and found the stone the angel had placed. At this spot Mor Gabriel Monastery

1900-444: The region and his brother Said Bey was too religious and left the leadership to Bedir Khan. During his first term as Mir, he soon established a regional control strong enough, that allowed him to deny his support to the Ottoman Sultan during the Russo-Turkish War between 1828 and 1829. He managed to develop the war-torn districts under his control and within years, the population in the area in his control grew significantly. His success

1950-416: The time was governed by the Ottoman Empire . In 1853 he requested twice to be allowed to return to Istanbul , but his demands were turned down. In 1855 he purchased a farm just outside of Heraklion, which he named “Kabıl Hora“. As in 1856 a strong earthquake occurred in Crete , he faced financial calamities due to the destructions of his possessions. His salary which he still received from the Ottoman Empire,

2000-459: The west of the region. Built from yellow rock, the monastery is affectionately known as Dayro d Kurkmo in Syriac , Dayr al-Zafaran in Arabic , or Deyrülzafarân in Turkish : the Safron Monastery . Founded in AD 493, the monastery was the residence of the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch from 1160 to 1932. Although the patriarch now lives in Damascus the monastery still contains the patriarchal throne and tombs of seven patriarchs and metropolitans. Today

2050-455: The west to Urmia in the east. As it was known that he had planned the modernization of his troops by creating cross-tribal militias constituted by soldiers of several tribes and that the friday sermons were shouted in his name, the central Ottoman Government decided to end the emerging independence movement of Bedir Khan. Following the Battle of Nizip, Bedir Khan allied himself with Han Mahmud of Müküs and Nurullah Bey of Hakkari in 1840 to

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2100-542: The work of the 7th-century Greek geographer George of Cyprus both attest that Turabdium was an episcopal see . The bishop of Turabdium's seat was probably the village of Hah, in which were, besides the functioning 6th-century monastery, several ruined churches including the cathedral . The Tur Abdin became part of the Rashidun Caliphate in 640, during the Muslim conquest of the Levant . The Syriac Orthodox communities flourished under early Islamic rule; nearly 30 structures are known to have been wholly built or rebuilt in

2150-453: Was a Kurdish Emir of Bitlis . He was also a historian, writer and poet. He wrote exclusively in Persian . Born in the Qara Rud village, in central Iran, between Arak and Qom , at a young age he was sent to the Safavids ' court and obtained his education there. He is the author of Sharafnama , one of the most important works on medieval Kurdish history , written in 1597. He created a good picture of Kurdish life and Kurdish dynasties in

2200-464: Was at the villages of Azakh , Iwardo , and Basibrin. For months, Kurdish tribes and Turkish soldiers commanded by Ömer Naci Bey were unable to subdue the mostly Syriac Orthodox and Syriac Catholic villagers who were joined by Armenian and other refugees from surrounding villages. The leaders of the Azakh fedayeen swore We all have to die sometime, do not die in shame and humiliation and lived up to their fighting words. On 10 February 2006 and

2250-433: Was built. In Late Antiquity , the area was part of the Roman Empire 's province of Mesopotamia and an important centre of Roman Christianity , called in Latin : Mons Masius or Izla . The Tur Abdin was fortified by the emperor Constantius II ( r.  337–361 ), who constructed the fortress of Rhabdion to defend it during the Roman–Persian Wars . After the failure of Julian's Persian War in 363,

2300-447: Was most commonly known as Mir Sharaf (Prince Sharaf). Later his family was taken under protection of the Safavid dynasty . He was schooled at Tahmasb 's court, and wrote in 1596: "When I turned nine (in 1551) I entered the private harem (haram-i khass)... for three years (1551–1554) I served the family (Silsila) of that refined (pakiza atvar) shah as a page at the inner palace." Bedlîsî spoke of his education entailing instruction in

2350-499: Was only 7000 Kuruş . After Bedir Khan managed to solve the quarrels between the Christians and Muslims on the island, the situation became better. In September 1857, Sultan Abdul Majid changed his approach towards Bedir Khan, doubling his salary, and granting 43 of his followers to return to Kurdistan . Nevertheless, Bedir Khan decided to stay in Crete . In 1863, Sultan Abdul Aziz , the successor of Abdul Majid, allowed Bedir Khan and his family to settle in Istanbul, where they bought

2400-425: Was repeatedly responsible for massacres of the Yazidis . In 1832, thousands of Yazidis were killed in the Shekhan area by Bedir Khan Beg in cooperation with the Kurdish Soran prince Muhammad Pasha of Rawanduz . But he was not always on good terms with Muhammad Pahsa, in 1834, his army had to defend the Emirate from him. In 1836, the Ottomans attacked and defeated him, and Bedir Khan renewed his vow of allegiance to

2450-403: Was such, that European diplomats from the region reported to their governments about Bedir Khans ability to provide his followers with a good economic standard and security, comparing with other neighboring regions. Bedir Khan was proud of the security he brought to the region, that under his leadership, banditry had disappeared and caravans were able to cross his territory in safety. Bedir Khan Beg

2500-401: Was to force the Yazidis to convert to Islam . Pressure from the European Powers to stop the massacres of Christians led to Ottoman forces invading his territories in 1846–7, with Omer Pasha 's 12,000 strong Ottoman force, which was supported by Yezidi tribesmen seeking revenge, defeating the Kurdish army in the field near Zeitun, Cizre. At the beginning of the conflict he was able to beat

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