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102-572: Bakhmut ( Ukrainian : Бахмут , pronounced [bɐxˈmut] ; Russian : Бахмут ) is a city in eastern Ukraine . It is officially the administrative center of Bakhmut urban hromada and Bakhmut Raion in Donetsk Oblast . The city is located on the Bakhmutka River, about 90 kilometres (55 miles) north of Donetsk , the administrative center of the oblast. Bakhmut was designated a city of regional significance until 2020, when

204-627: A Neolithic -era flint processing workshop, excavated ancient burial grounds from the Copper Age and Bronze Age , and discovered stone baba sculptures associated with nomads from the ninth-to-twelfth century. Although there is evidence of prior settlement in 1556, the first official mention of Bakhmut dates from 1571, when Ivan the Terrible , in order to protect the southern border of the Russian state from Crimean–Nogai slave raids , ordered

306-414: A weak yer vowel that would eventually disappear completely, for example Old East Slavic котъ /kɔtə/ > Ukrainian кіт /kit/ 'cat' (via transitional stages such as /koˑtə̆/, /kuˑt(ə̆)/, /kyˑt/ or similar) or Old East Slavic печь /pʲɛtʃʲə/ > Ukrainian піч /pitʃ/ 'oven' (via transitional stages such as /pʲeˑtʃʲə̆/, /pʲiˑtʃʲ/ or similar). This raising and other phonological developments of the time, such as

408-518: A bill into law that started a six-month period for the removal of communist monuments and the mandatory renaming of settlements with names related to communism . On 23 September 2015, the city council voted to restore the city's former name of Bakhmut. The final decision was made by the Verkhovna Rada on 4 February 2016, and the city returned to its original name. The Russian government, as well as Russian state media, have continued to refer to

510-636: A body of national literature, institute a Ukrainian-language educational system, and form an independent state (the Ukrainian People's Republic , shortly joined by the West Ukrainian People's Republic ). During this brief independent statehood the stature and use of Ukrainian greatly improved. In the Russian Empire Census of 1897 the following picture emerged, with Ukrainian being the second most spoken language of

612-428: A decree forcing the remaining local Jews to register at the local commandant's office and wear armbands marking them as Jewish . On 9 January 1942, under the pretext of needing to gather in one place for relocation, Artemivsk's Jewish population was gathered in the city park, where they were forced to hand over all their valuable possessions, then were locked in the cellar of a former NKVD building. They were locked in

714-509: A mineshaft in an alabaster mine, where they shot into the crowd, killing several people. The soldiers then bricked up the entrance to the tunnel, suffocating the remaining people trapped inside. The exact number of dead is unclear, and records of the Jewish death toll differ: Soviet documents reported a number of about 3,000, while the German occupation authorities recorded 1,200 victims. The city

816-491: A municipal water system was installed. In 1876, due to the work of Russian geologist Alexander Karpinsky , large deposits of rock salt were discovered near Bakhmut. Bakhmut soon produced 12.3% of the total output of salt in the Russian Empire. Bakhmut saw industrialization during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the early 1870s, German industrialist Edmund Farke built alabaster , brick and tile factories in

918-648: A policy of defending Ukraine's interests within the Soviet Union. He proudly promoted the beauty of the Ukrainian language and developed plans to expand the role of Ukrainian in higher education. He was removed, however, after only a brief tenure, for being too lenient on Ukrainian nationalism. The new party boss from 1972 to 1989, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky , purged the local party, was fierce in suppressing dissent, and insisted Russian be spoken at all official functions, even at local levels. His policy of Russification

1020-565: A result of close Slavic contacts with the remnants of the Scythian and Sarmatian population north of the Black Sea , lasting into the early Middle Ages , the appearance of the voiced fricative γ/г (romanized "h"), in modern Ukrainian and some southern Russian dialects is explained by the assumption that it initially emerged in Scythian and related eastern Iranian dialects, from earlier common Proto-Indo-European *g and *gʰ . During

1122-589: A self-aware Ukrainian nation would threaten the unity of the empire. In 1804 Ukrainian as a subject and language of instruction was banned from schools. In 1811, by order of the Russian government, the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was closed. In 1847 the Brotherhood of St Cyril and Methodius was terminated. The same year Taras Shevchenko was arrested, exiled for ten years, and banned for political reasons from writing and painting. In 1862 Pavlo Chubynsky

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1224-890: A variant name of the Little Russian language . In a private letter from 1854, Taras Shevchenko lauds "our splendid Ukrainian language". Valuyev's decree from 1863 derides the "Little Russian" language throughout, but also mentions "the so-called Ukrainian language" once. In Galicia, the earliest applications of the term Ukrainian to the language were in the hyphenated names Ukrainian-Ruthenian (1866, by Paulin Święcicki ) or Ruthenian-Ukrainian (1871, by Panteleimon Kulish and Ivan Puluj ), with non-hyphenated Ukrainian language appearing shortly thereafter (in 1878, by Mykhailo Drahomanov ). A following ban on Ukrainian books led to Alexander II 's secret Ems Ukaz , which prohibited publication and importation of most Ukrainian-language books, public performances and lectures, and even banned

1326-486: A winery that had opened on the site in 1952, inaugurated a memorial to commemorate the victims of the 1942 mass murder. The memorial was built into a rock face in the old mine where water collects and was named the "Wailing Wall" for the murdered Jews of the city. In April 2014, at the beginning of the war in Donbas , pro-Russian rebels led by Igor Bezler and belonging to the organization Donetsk People's Republic claimed

1428-581: Is Russian (62%), with a large minority speaking Ukrainian (35%), and very small minorities speaking Armenian (0.19%), Romani (0.15%), and Belarusian (0.10%). The Russian speech of many residents has characteristics of surzhyk , a kind of mixed Ukrainian and Russian speech common in eastern Ukraine . Historically, Bakhmut was a more Ukrainian-speaking city. In 1897, most residents of Bakhmut spoke Ukrainian (61.8%), while minorities spoke Russian (18.9%) and Yiddish (16.7%). Bakhmut's political leaning and sense of identity has historically been mixed. In

1530-564: Is also an internet publication, bahmut.in.ua . The Metalurh Stadium, a football stadium constructed in 1949, is located within the city and has a seating capacity of 4,800. The stadium was damaged during the Russian invasion. Ukrainian language Ukrainian ( українська мова , ukrainska mova , IPA: [ʊkrɐˈjinʲsʲkɐ ˈmɔʋɐ] ) is one of the East Slavic languages in the Indo-European languages family, and it

1632-646: Is based on the character of contemporary written sources, ultimately reflecting socio-historical developments, and he further subdivides the Middle period into three phases: Ukraine annually marks the Day of Ukrainian Writing and Language on 9 November, the Eastern Orthodox feast day of Nestor the Chronicler . The era of Kievan Rus' ( c. 880–1240) is the subject of some linguistic controversy, as

1734-421: Is located in the suburb of Soledar . The chambers in the mine are large enough that a hot air balloon has been floated inside, and classical music concerts have been played. The highway between Kharkiv and Rostov-on-Don passes near the city. The city contains an institute of the salt industry, several technical colleges , medical schools, music schools, and teacher-training colleges . Among others, there

1836-471: Is more mutual intelligibility with Belarusian , and a closer lexical distance to West Slavic Polish and South Slavic Bulgarian . Ukrainian is a descendant of Old East Slavic , a language spoken in the medieval state of Kievan Rus' . In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , the language developed into Ruthenian , where it became an official language, before a process of Polonization began in

1938-570: Is referred to as "Old Ukrainian", but elsewhere, and in contemporary sources, is known as the Ruthenian language, and from the end of the 18th century to the present what in Ukraine is known as "Modern Ukrainian", but elsewhere is known as just Ukrainian. Azov Governorate (1708-1779) Voronezh Governorate was an administrative-territorial unit ( guberniya ) of the Tsardom of Russia ,

2040-649: Is spoken primarily in Ukraine . It is the first (native) language of a large majority of Ukrainians . Written Ukrainian uses the Ukrainian alphabet , a variant of the Cyrillic script . The standard language is studied by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and Potebnia Institute of Linguistics . Comparisons are often made between Ukrainian and Russian , another East Slavic language, yet there

2142-776: Is the Ivan Karabyts Bakhmut College of Arts (named after composer Ivan Karabyts ) and the Bakhmut Pedagogical College. There are twelve libraries , including one for blind people . After the outbreak of the war in Donbas in 2014 the Horlivka Institute for Foreign Languages was evacuated and is now operating in Bakhmut. The mass media in Bakhmut includes Russian-language newspapers such as Sobytiia and Vpered , as well as local television and radio channels. There

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2244-541: The 1991 Ukrainian independence referendum , the overwhelming majority of Bakhmut residents voted for independence from the Soviet Union. In the 2010 Ukrainian presidential election , most voters in Bakhmut and surrounding areas voted for Russia-leaning Viktor Yanukovych and his party the Party of Regions . However, Christopher Miller, visiting the city in 2010, reported that "few seemed enthusiastic about having [voted for Yanukovych] and openly acknowledged that they believed he

2346-660: The Associated Press in October 2022, "taking Bakhmut would rupture Ukraine's supply lines and open a route for Russian forces to press on toward Kramatorsk and Sloviansk , key Ukrainian strongholds in Donetsk province". In a December analysis of the offensive, however, the UK Ministry of Defence said "the capture of the town would have limited operational value although it would potentially allow Russia to threaten

2448-597: The G7 summit , Zelensky stated that the images of the ruined Hiroshima after atomic bombing reminded him of the level of destruction in Bakhmut. The battle is still ongoing with Ukraine claiming to still control a strip of territory within city limits along the T0504 highway, as well as performing attacks on the flanks of the city. By May 24, reports that corroborated the claimed seizure of the city by Russian and Wagner forces had surfaced. By 25 May, Wagner had begun withdrawing from

2550-723: The Latin language. Much of the influence of Poland on the development of the Ukrainian language has been attributed to this period and is reflected in multiple words and constructions used in everyday Ukrainian speech that were taken from Polish or Latin. Examples of Polish words adopted from this period include zavzhdy (always; taken from old Polish word zawżdy ) and obitsiaty (to promise; taken from Polish obiecać ) and from Latin (via Polish) raptom (suddenly) and meta (aim or goal). Significant contact with Tatars and Turks resulted in many Turkic words, particularly those involving military matters and steppe industry, being adopted into

2652-569: The Novgorod Republic did not call themselves Rus ' until the 14th century; earlier Novgorodians reserved the term Rus ' for the Kiev , Pereyaslavl and Chernigov principalities. At the same time as evidenced by contemporary chronicles, the ruling princes and kings of Galicia–Volhynia and Kiev called themselves "people of Rus ' " (in foreign sources called " Ruthenians "), and Galicia–Volhynia has alternately been called

2754-626: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . By the 18th century, Ruthenian diverged into regional variants, and the modern Ukrainian language developed in the territory of present-day Ukraine. Russification saw the Ukrainian language banned as a subject from schools and as a language of instruction in the Russian Empire , and continued in various ways in the Soviet Union . Even so, the language continued to see use throughout

2856-567: The Republic of Mordovia , as well as eastern areas of Ukraine , including parts of Kharkiv , Donetsk Oblast , and Luhansk Oblast . On June 9 [ O.S. May 29], 1719, the governorate was divided into provinces: Bakhmut (with the center in Bakhmut ), Shatsk , Tambov , Voronezh , and Yelets . The uyezds were transformed into districts. In 1725, Azov Governorate was renamed into Voronezh Governorate. The administration of

2958-619: The Russian Empire , and the Russian SFSR , which existed from 1708 (as Azov Governorate ) to 1779 and again from 1796 to 1928. Its capital was located in Voronezh since 1725. The governorate was located in the south of the European part of the Russian Empire. In 1928, the governorate was abolished, and its area was included into newly established Central Black Earth Oblast . Azov Governorate, together with seven other governorates,

3060-482: The hromadas of Ukraine. In addition to Bakhmut, the hromada also contains the nearby town Krasna Hora and numerous small surrounding villages. Since 1950, the winery Artwinery  [ uk ; ru ] (or Artvaineri, formerly Artemovsk Winery) has operated in the city. Its production was disrupted by the Russian annexation of Crimea , as it used to procure 70% of its grapes from Crimea. The Artemsil salt mine

3162-399: The law of Ukraine "On protecting the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language" was approved by the parliament, formalizing rules governing the usage of the language and introducing penalties for violations. The literary Ukrainian language, which was preceded by Old East Slavic literature, may be subdivided into two stages: during the 12th to 18th centuries what in Ukraine

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3264-458: The "Victory of Labor" factory that made nails and spikes, the "Blyskavka" ("Lightning") factory that produced agriculture tools, as well as brick, tile, and alabaster factories, and a shoe factory. In 1922, to help rebuild the salt industry, a state salt mining company was created, which is now Artemsil . In 1925, the salt mining areas were split off from Bakhmut into their own urban-type settlement named Karlo-Libknekhtivsk (now Soledar). In 1924,

3366-599: The "freezing" cellar for three days without food or water. During this period, according to Haaretz , local residents threw lumps of snow through the windows in an attempt to provide some sort of drinkable water to the imprisoned Jews. A few residents risked their lives to rescue some Jewish children, a feat for which they would later receive the title of Righteous Among the Nations from Israel . The Artemivsk massacre took place on 11–12 January 1942, when Sonderkommando 4b of Einsatzgruppe C led thousands of Jews into

3468-425: The 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around the 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorod dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus', whereas the modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky denies

3570-456: The 13th century, eastern parts of Rus (including Moscow) came under Tatar rule until their unification under the Tsardom of Muscovy , whereas the south-western areas (including Kyiv ) were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . For the following four centuries, the languages of the two regions evolved in relative isolation from each other. Direct written evidence of the existence of

3672-680: The 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, German words began to appear in the language spoken in Ukraine. Their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts. Examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh ("roof"), rura ("pipe"), rynok ("market"), kushnir ("furrier"), and majster ("master" or "craftsman"). In

3774-645: The 18th century, some of these towns were abolished, and a number of others were mentioned as towns in later sources. In 1765, Bakhmut Province was transferred into Novorossiysk Governorate . In 1775, the provinces were abolished, and the governorate was subdivided into uyezds . At that time, the governorate consisted of Dankovsky , Demshinsky , Insarsky , Kadomsky , Kasimovsky , Kerensky , Korotoyaksky , Kozlovsky , Lebedyansky , Livensky , Narovchatsky , Nizhnelomovsky , Ryazhsky , Shatsky , Tambovsky , Temnikovsky , Userdsky , Usmansky , Verkhnelomovsky , Voronezhsky , Yefremovsky , and Yeletsky Uyezds . In

3876-662: The Bakhmutka River and mine salt. The population of Bakhmut doubled, and the town was assigned to the Izium Regiment , a province of Sloboda Ukraine . In the autumn of 1705, Bakhmut became one of the centers of the Bulavin Rebellion . A detachment of Don Cossacks headed by Ataman Kondraty Bulavin captured the Bakhmut salt mines and occupied the city until they were defeated and the city retaken by government troops. According to official Soviet sources,

3978-542: The Cossack motherland, Ukrajina , as a self-appellation for the nation of Ukrainians, and Ukrajins'ka mova for the language. Many writers published works in the Romantic tradition of Europe demonstrating that Ukrainian was not merely a language of the village but suitable for literary pursuits. However, in the Russian Empire expressions of Ukrainian culture and especially language were repeatedly persecuted for fear that

4080-549: The Orthodox church spoke Ruthenian. The 1654 Pereiaslav Agreement between Cossack Hetmanate and Alexis of Russia divided Ukraine between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia. During the following century, both monarchies became increasingly intolerant of Ukrainian own cultural and political aspirations. Ukrainians found themselves in a colonial situation. The Russian centre adopted

4182-574: The Polish nobility. Many Ukrainian nobles learned the Polish language and converted to Catholicism during that period in order to maintain their lofty aristocratic position. Lower classes were less affected because literacy was common only in the upper class and clergy. The latter were also under significant Polish pressure after the Union with the Catholic Church . Most of the educational system

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4284-542: The Principality or Kingdom of Ruthenia. Also according to Andrey Zaliznyak, the Novgorodian dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus during the 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorodian dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus, whereas

4386-557: The Russian Empire. According to the Imperial census's terminology, the Russian language ( Русскій ) was subdivided into Ukrainian (Малорусскій, ' Little Russian '), what is known as Russian today (Великорусскій, ' Great Russian '), and Belarusian (Бѣлорусскій, 'White Russian'). The following table shows the distribution of settlement by native language ( "по родному языку" ) in 1897 in Russian Empire governorates ( guberniyas ) that had more than 100,000 Ukrainian speakers. Although in

4488-460: The Soviet Union and a special term, "a language of inter-ethnic communication", was coined to denote its status. After the death of Stalin (1953), a general policy of relaxing the language policies of the past was implemented (1958 to 1963). The Khrushchev era which followed saw a policy of relatively lenient concessions to development of the languages at the local and republic level, though its results in Ukraine did not go nearly as far as those of

4590-519: The Soviet policy of Ukrainianization in the 1920s. Journals and encyclopedic publications advanced in the Ukrainian language during the Khrushchev era, as well as transfer of Crimea under Ukrainian SSR jurisdiction. Yet, the 1958 school reform that allowed parents to choose the language of primary instruction for their children, unpopular among the circles of the national intelligentsia in parts of

4692-551: The USSR, meant that non-Russian languages would slowly give way to Russian in light of the pressures of survival and advancement. The gains of the past, already largely reversed by the Stalin era, were offset by the liberal attitude towards the requirement to study the local languages (the requirement to study Russian remained). Parents were usually free to choose the language of study of their children (except in few areas where attending

4794-564: The Ukrainian language dates to the late 16th century. By the 16th century, a peculiar official language formed: a mixture of the liturgical standardised language of Old Church Slavonic , Ruthenian and Polish . The influence of the latter gradually increased relative to the former two, as the nobility and rural large-landowning class, known as the szlachta , was largely Polish-speaking. Documents soon took on many Polish characteristics superimposed on Ruthenian phonetics. Polish–Lithuanian rule and education also involved significant exposure to

4896-477: The Ukrainian language held the formal position of the principal local language in the Ukrainian SSR . However, practice was often a different story: Ukrainian always had to compete with Russian, and the attitudes of the Soviet leadership towards Ukrainian varied from encouragement and tolerance to de facto banishment. Officially, there was no state language in the Soviet Union until the very end when it

4998-465: The Ukrainian language. Examples include torba (bag) and tyutyun (tobacco). Because of the substantial number of loanwords from Polish, German, Czech and Latin, early modern vernacular Ukrainian ( prosta mova , " simple speech ") had more lexical similarity with West Slavic languages than with Russian or Church Slavonic. By the mid-17th century, the linguistic divergence between the Ukrainian and Russian languages had become so significant that there

5100-409: The Ukrainian school might have required a long daily commute) and they often chose Russian, which reinforced the resulting Russification. In this sense, some analysts argue that it was not the "oppression" or "persecution", but rather the lack of protection against the expansion of Russian language that contributed to the relative decline of Ukrainian in the 1970s and 1980s. According to this view, it

5202-508: The beginning of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Artemivsk's population included 5,300 Jews, making up almost 10% of the total population. The majority of these were either drafted into the Red Army or evacuated into the interior areas of the Soviet Union. On 31 October 1941, Nazi German troops began their occupation of Artemivsk. On 19 November, the occupation authorities issued

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5304-407: The chancellery and gradually evolved into the Ruthenian language. Polish rule, which came later, was accompanied by a more assimilationist policy. By the 1569 Union of Lublin that formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from Lithuanian rule to Polish administration, resulting in cultural Polonization and visible attempts to colonize Ukraine by

5406-459: The city of Artemivsk as part of their territory. As the rebels entered the city, mayor Oleksiy Reva temporarily fled the city. Local military units defended the city for months, repelling separatist assaults over the course of the Battle of Artemivsk . Ukrainian government forces fully recaptured the city on 7 July 2014, ending the battle. On 15 May 2015, Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko signed

5508-430: The city to be replaced by regular Russian troops. On June 4, Yevgeny Prigozhin conceded that Ukrainian forces still controlled parts of the city along the T0504 highway. Bakhmut has a humid continental climate ( Dfb bordering on Dfa ). Bakhmut's population has continuously declined in recent years, with the death rate (535) significantly higher than the birth rate (187) in 2017. In January 2022 (the last estimate of

5610-458: The city was the site of the battle of Artemivsk in 2014. During the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine which commenced in February 2022, Bakhmut was the site of a major battle between Russian and Ukrainian forces. The city was largely destroyed, with most of its population having fled, and what remained being placed under Russian occupation. Near the city, archaeologists have discovered

5712-600: The city's name was changed from Bakhmut to Artemivsk , in honour of the Bolshevik leader Fyodor Sergeyev , who was known as Comrade Artem (or Artyom). The city's synagogue was shuttered in 1928. 3,255 residents of Artemivsk died as a result of the Holodomor . During Stalin's Great Purge in the late 1930s, more than 500 residents of Artemivsk were victims of the repressions. During the Second World War , at

5814-563: The city's population before the Russian invasion of Ukraine ), the estimated population of Bakhmut was 75,900. The majority of Bakhmut's residents are ethnic Ukrainians (69.4%), with a large minority of ethnic Russians (27.5%). Many of the latter group are descendants of migrants who arrived in Bakhmut during industrialization efforts in the Soviet era, between the later 1920s and the 1940s. There are also small minorities of ethnic Belarusians (0.6%), Armenians (0.3%), Romani people (0.2%), and Jews (0.2%). The most spoken native language

5916-583: The city. In 1878, the Kharkiv-Bakhmut-Popasna railroad was constructed. Streets were paved in Bakhmut in 1900. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the city began to develop metal-working industry. By 1909, the city had 64 industrial enterprises, which employed 1,075 workers. In 1905, after the release of the October Manifesto , an antisemitic pogrom took place in Bakhmut, killing and wounding several Jewish residents of

6018-450: The city. In April 1918, after the collapse of the Russian Empire , troops loyal to the Ukrainian People's Republic took control of Bakhmut. Later, it was captured by White movement soldiers led by Pyotr Krasnov , who were eventually defeated by Soviet forces. From 1920 to 1925, Bakhmut was the administrative center of the newly created Donets Governorate of the Ukrainian SSR . In 1923, there were many enterprises in Bakhmut, including

6120-509: The collapse of the empire, two revolutions and six presidents." He has "only once" been accused of corruption . He has been criticized for his conduct during the 2014 battle of Artemivsk during which he fled the city, but in September 2019, when he held a city council session in the Ukrainian language for the first time, it was considered a "historic event" for Bakhmut. Bakhmut is the administrative center of Bakhmut urban hromada , one of

6222-591: The country, and remained particularly strong in Western Ukraine . Specific developments that led to a gradual change of the Old East Slavic vowel system into the system found in modern Ukrainian began approximately in the 12th/13th century (that is, still at the time of the Kievan Rus') with a lengthening and raising of the Old East Slavic mid vowels e and o when followed by a consonant and

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6324-600: The creation of border fortifications along the Aidar and Siverskyi Donets rivers. The settlement was described then as a guard-fort ( storozha ) named after the nearby Bakhmutka River, a tributary of the Siverskyi Donets, and located at the mouth of a stream called the Chornyi Zherebets. The ultimate origin of the name Bakhmut is uncertain. According to a theory by Kharkiv historian Igor Rassokhaa,

6426-528: The designation was abolished. In January 2022, it had an estimated population of 71,094. Bakhmut was originally founded in the 16th century as a minor border post on the southern border of the Russian state. Its population grew in the early 18th century, and it served as the capital of Slavo-Serbia (1753–1764), a colony in the Russian Empire established by settlers from the Balkans . It received city status in 1783, and underwent major industrialization over

6528-407: The existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko , Vsevolod Hantsov , Olena Kurylo , Ivan Ohienko and others. According to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language

6630-513: The following few centuries. In 1920–1924, the city was an administrative center of the newly created Donets Governorate of the Ukrainian SSR in the Soviet Union. The city was known as Artemivsk or Artemovsk between 1924 and 2016. During World War II , it was the site of the Artemivsk massacre of Soviet Jews by Nazi Germany. During the beginning of the war in Donbas between the independent Ukrainian government and pro-Russian separatists,

6732-531: The following seventy-eight towns were included in Azov Governorate, In 1711, the town of Azov was ceded to Turkey, but the governorate was not renamed. In terms of the modern political division, Azov Governorate comprised the areas of what is currently Rostov Oblast , Voronezh Oblast , Lipetsk Oblast , Tambov Oblast , and parts of Kursk Oblast , Belgorod Oblast , Tula Oblast , Oryol Oblast , Ryazan Oblast , Penza Oblast , Saratov Oblast , and

6834-499: The following years, the administrative reforms continued, and governorates were gradually abolished in favor of vice-royalties. In 1778, some areas of Voronezh Governorate were transferred to Ryazan and Oryol Viceroyalties, and in 1779 Valuysky Uyezd was transferred to Voronezh Governorate. In 1779, the governorate was abolished, and Tambov and Voronezh Viceroyalty, followed in 1780 by Penza Viceroyalty , were established. In 1796, by Decree of Tsar Pavel I , Voronezh Viceroyalty

6936-400: The government forces "brutally" suppressed the revolution and Bakhmut was completely destroyed. From 1708 to 22 April 1725, Bakhmut was assigned to the first Azov Governorate . On 29 May 1719, it became the administrative center of Bakhmut Province within Azov Governorate. From 1753 until the colony's abolition, it was the administrative center of Slavo-Serbia , a short-lived territory that

7038-408: The governorate was performed by a governor. The governors of First Azov Governorate were By that time, the governorate was divided into five provinces, defined as sets of the towns. The following towns were a part of Voronezh Governorate, Three towns were subordinate to Lipetsk Iron Works, Belokolodsk , Romanov , and Sokolsk . In 1727, these towns were transferred into Bakhmut Province. During

7140-417: The language of much of the literature was purely or heavily Old Church Slavonic . Some theorists see an early Ukrainian stage in language development here, calling it Old Ruthenian; others term this era Old East Slavic . Russian theorists tend to amalgamate Rus' to the modern nation of Russia, and call this linguistic era Old Russian. However, according to Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak (2012), people from

7242-589: The larger urban areas of Kramatorsk and Sloviansk". On 11 December 2022, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy said that Russian forces had turned the city into "burned ruins". By early March 2023, Russian forces had not taken Bakhmut, but were continuing to press the attack, and hoped to complete their encirclement of the city. On 4 March, the deputy mayor of the city said that 4,000 civilians remained in Bakhmut and were living in shelters with no access to water, gas or electricity. On 20 May, Russia claimed to have fully taken Bakhmut; however, Ukraine has denied this. At

7344-542: The merger of the Old East Slavic vowel phonemes и /i/ and ы /ɨ/ into the specifically Ukrainian phoneme /ɪ ~ e/, spelled with и (in the 13th/14th centuries), and the fricativisation of the Old East Slavic consonant г /g/, probably first to /ɣ/ (in the 13th century), with /ɦ/ as a reflex in Modern Ukrainian, did not happen in Russian. Only the fricativisation of Old East Slavic г /g/ occurred in Belarusian, where

7446-462: The modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from the dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. After the fall of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, Ukrainians mainly fell under the rule of Lithuania and then Poland . Local autonomy of both rule and language was a marked feature of Lithuanian rule. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Old East Slavic became the language of

7548-508: The name Little Russia for Ukraine and Little Russian for the language, an expression that originated in Byzantine Greek and may originally have meant "old, original, fundamental Russia", and had been in use since the 14th century. Ukrainian high culture went into a long period of steady decline. The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was taken over by the Russian Empire. Most of the remaining Ukrainian schools also switched to Polish or Russian in

7650-463: The native language for the majority in the nation on the eve of Ukrainian independence, a significant share of ethnic Ukrainians were russified. In Donetsk there were no Ukrainian language schools and in Kyiv only a quarter of children went to Ukrainian language schools. The Russian language was the dominant vehicle, not just of government function, but of the media, commerce, and modernity itself. This

7752-528: The north, and Kazan Governorate in the east. The areas south of the governorate were controlled by the Ottoman Empire , and the southern border was not defined. Formally, Azov was the seat of the governorate, but in practice, the seat of the governor was located in Tambov until 1715 and in Voronezh after 1715. In 1725, the governorate was renamed Voronezh Governorate. At the time of establishment,

7854-425: The population said Ukrainian was their native language. Until the 1920s the urban population in Ukraine grew faster than the number of Ukrainian speakers. This implies that there was a (relative) decline in the use of Ukrainian language. For example, in Kyiv, the number of people stating that Ukrainian was their native language declined from 30.3% in 1874 to 16.6% in 1917. During the seven-decade-long Soviet era ,

7956-516: The present-day reflex is /ɣ/. Ahatanhel Krymsky and Aleksey Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the common spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century. Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak stated that the Old Novgorod dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus' during

8058-589: The printing of Ukrainian texts accompanying musical scores. A period of leniency after 1905 was followed by another strict ban in 1914, which also affected Russian-occupied Galicia. For much of the 19th century the Austrian authorities demonstrated some preference for Polish culture, but the Ukrainians were relatively free to partake in their own cultural pursuits in Halychyna and Bukovina , where Ukrainian

8160-577: The rural regions of the Ukrainian provinces, 80% of the inhabitants said that Ukrainian was their native language in the Census of 1897 (for which the results are given above), in the urban regions only 32.5% of the population claimed Ukrainian as their native language. For example, in Odesa (then part of the Russian Empire), at the time the largest city in the territory of current Ukraine, only 5.6% of

8262-415: The second Azov Governorate . In 1783, Bakhmut received city status, and was assigned to Yekaterinoslav Province of the re-established Novorossiysk Governorate . On 2 August 1811, a coat of arms of Bakhmut was approved, featuring symbolism evoking the salt reserves of the city. In 1863, a large synagogue was built in the city, as a place of worship for Bakhmut's Jewish community of 1,560 people. In 1875,

8364-687: The sixteenth and first half of the 17th century, when Ukraine was part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, albeit in spite of being part of the PLC, not as a result. Among many schools established in that time, the Kyiv-Mohyla Collegium (the predecessor of the modern Kyiv-Mohyla Academy ), founded by the Orthodox Metropolitan Peter Mogila , was the most important. At that time languages were associated more with religions: Catholics spoke Polish, and members of

8466-462: The term native language may not necessarily associate with the language they use more frequently. The overwhelming majority of ethnic Ukrainians consider the Ukrainian language native , including those who often speak Russian. According to the official 2001 census data, 92.3% of Kyiv region population responded "Ukrainian" to the native language ( ridna mova ) census question, compared with 88.4% in 1989, and 7.2% responded "Russian". In 2019,

8568-558: The territories controlled by these respective countries, which was followed by a new wave of Polonization and Russification of the native nobility. Gradually the official language of Ukrainian provinces under Poland was changed to Polish, while the upper classes in the Russian part of Ukraine used Russian. During the 19th century, a revival of Ukrainian self-identification manifested in the literary classes of both Russian-Empire Dnieper Ukraine and Austrian Galicia . The Brotherhood of Sts Cyril and Methodius in Kyiv applied an old word for

8670-502: The town as Artyomovsk , especially in military contexts. During the Russian invasion of Ukraine , Bakhmut became a frontline city in May, and was regularly shelled by Russian forces. In May 2022, according to local authorities, an estimated 20,000 people remained in the city. It became a major battle of the war, attracting worldwide attention due to the level of destruction in the city and the numbers of casualties on both sides. According to

8772-516: The use of Ukrainian. The educational system in Ukraine has been transformed over the first decade of independence from a system that is partly Ukrainian to one that is overwhelmingly so. The government has also mandated a progressively increased role for Ukrainian in the media and commerce. In the 2001 census , 67.5% of the country's population named Ukrainian as their native language (a 2.8% increase from 1989), while 29.6% named Russian (a 3.2% decrease). For many Ukrainians (of various ethnic origins),

8874-489: The word may derive from a Turkic/Tatar word meaning 'salt water' or 'beach'. The name dates back to 1571. Bakhmut was initially a border post, and later became a fortified town. In 1701, Peter the Great ordered the fort at Bakhmut to be upgraded and the adjacent sloboda (free village) of Bakhmut be designated a city. The new fort was completed in 1703 and housed 170 people. In 1704, Peter commanded some Cossacks to settle at

8976-587: Was a need for translators during negotiations for the Treaty of Pereyaslav , between Bohdan Khmelnytsky , head of the Zaporozhian Host , and the Russian state. By the 18th century, Ruthenian had diverged into regional variants, developing into the modern Belarusian , Rusyn , and Ukrainian languages. The accepted chronology of Ukrainian divides the language into Old Ukrainian, Middle Ukrainian, and Modern Ukrainian. Shevelov explains that much of this

9078-442: Was abolished, and Voronezh Governorate was established. It consisted of nine uyezds, Biryuchensky , Bobrovsky , Korotoyaksky, Nizhnedevitsky , Pavlovsky , Valuysky , Voronezhsky , Zadonsky , and Zemlyansky . In 1802, Bogucharsky , Ostrogozhsky , and Starobelsky Uyezds of Slobodsko-Ukrainian Governorate and Novokhopyorsky Uyezd of Saratov Governorate were transferred to Voronezh Governorate. In 1824, Starobelsky Uyezd

9180-537: Was corrupt. His party was seen by many as the least bad option." He said that most residents of the city considered themselves "people of the Donbas " first and foremost, and that while they valued autonomy, separatist sentiments were extremely rare. Oleksiy Reva  [ uk ] , who became mayor of Bakhmut in 1990 during the last years of the Soviet period, has become the longest-running mayor of any city in Ukraine. Ukrainian media, describing Reva, said "He survived

9282-410: Was established on December 29 [ O.S. December 18], 1708, by Tsar Peter the Great 's edict . As with the rest of the governorates, neither the borders nor internal subdivisions of Azov Governorate were defined; instead, the territory was defined as a set of cities and the lands adjacent to those cities. The governorate bordered Kiev Governorate in the west, Moscow Governorate in

9384-481: Was eventually liberated by the Red Army on 5 September 1943. In 1990, Oleksiy Reva  [ uk ] became mayor of Bakhmut during the last years of the Soviet period. In the 1991 Ukrainian independence referendum , the overwhelming majority of Bakhmut residents voted for independence from the Soviet Union. In January 1999, a charitable Jewish foundation in the city, as well as the Artemivsk city council and

9486-556: Was exiled for seven years to Arkhangelsk . The Ukrainian magazine Osnova was discontinued. In 1863, the tsarist interior minister Pyotr Valuyev proclaimed in his decree that "there never has been, is not, and never can be a separate Little Russian language". Although the name of Ukraine is known since 1187, it was not applied to the language until the mid-19th century. The linguonym Ukrainian language appears in Yakub Holovatsky 's book from 1849, listed there as

9588-448: Was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to an intensive migration of the population within the territory of today's Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was also supported by George Shevelov 's phonological studies, which argue that specific features were already recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic (seen as ancestors to Ukrainian) as far back as these varieties can be documented. As

9690-407: Was gradually Polonized. In Ruthenia, the language of administrative documents gradually shifted towards Polish. Polish has had heavy influences on Ukrainian (particularly in Western Ukraine ). The southwestern Ukrainian dialects are transitional to Polish. As the Ukrainian language developed further, some borrowings from Tatar and Turkish occurred. Ukrainian culture and language flourished in

9792-562: Was inevitable that successful careers required a good command of Russian, while knowledge of Ukrainian was not vital, so it was common for Ukrainian parents to send their children to Russian-language schools, even though Ukrainian-language schools were usually available. The number of students in Russian-language in Ukraine schools was constantly increasing, from 14 percent in 1939 to more than 30 percent in 1962. The Communist Party leader from 1963 to 1972, Petro Shelest , pursued

9894-490: Was lessened only slightly after 1985. The management of dissent by the local Ukrainian Communist Party was more fierce and thorough than in other parts of the Soviet Union. As a result, at the start of the Mikhail Gorbachev reforms perebudova and hlasnist’ (Ukrainian for perestroika and glasnost ), Ukraine under Shcherbytsky was slower to liberalize than Russia itself. Although Ukrainian still remained

9996-549: Was proclaimed in 1990 that Russian language was the all-Union state language and that the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. Still it was implicitly understood in the hopes of minority nations that Ukrainian would be used in the Ukrainian SSR, Uzbek would be used in the Uzbek SSR , and so on. However, Russian was used as the lingua franca in all parts of

10098-407: Was returned to Slobodsko-Ukrainian Governorate. In 1923, after a series of reforms, Voronezh Governorate consisted of twelve uyezds: Bobrovsky, Bogucharsky, Kalacheyevsky , Nizhnedevitsky, Novokhopyorsky, Ostrogozhsky, Pavlovsky, Rossoshansky , Usmansky, Valuysky, Voronezhsky, and Zadonsky. In 1924, Zadonsky, Kalacheyevsky, and Pavlovsky Uyezds were abolished. On 14 May 1928 Voronezh Governorate

10200-434: Was settled by thousands of colonists from the Balkans , predominantly Serbs . Bakhmut was fortified, to serve the colony's purpose of frontier protection. In 1764, the Bakhmut hussar regiment  [ uk ; ru ] was formed by merging two Serbian settler regiments, with its headquarters in Bakhmut. After the abolition of Slavo-Serbia, in 1765 Bakhmut was assigned to Novorossiya Governorate . In 1775, it became part of

10302-400: Was substantially less the case for western Ukraine, which escaped the artificial famine , Great Purge , and most of Stalinism . And this region became the center of a hearty, if only partial, renaissance of the Ukrainian language during independence. Since 1991, Ukrainian has been the official state language in Ukraine, and the state administration implemented government policies to broaden

10404-547: Was widely used in education and official documents. The suppression by Russia hampered the literary development of the Ukrainian language in Dnipro Ukraine, but there was a constant exchange with Halychyna, and many works were published under Austria and smuggled to the east. By the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the collapse of Austro-Hungary in 1918, Ukrainians were ready to openly develop

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