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86-505: In 1885 Li Hongzhang founded the Tianjin Military Academy 天津武備學堂 for Chinese army officers, with German advisers, as part of his military reforms. The move was supported by Anhui Army commander Zhou Shengchuan. The academy was to serve Anhui Army and Green Standard Army officers. Various practical military, mathematic and science subjects were taught at the academy. The instructors were German officers. Another program

172-566: A jinshi ( 進士 ) position at the young age of 24, and was admitted to the Hanlin Academy as a shujishi ( 庶吉士 ). At the same time, he also continued taking classes under Zeng Guofan to improve his knowledge. Three years later, he took the sanguan ( 散館 ) examination in the academy and earned the position of a bianxiu ( 編修 ; an editor). In January 1851, the God Worshipping Society led by Hong Xiuquan started

258-726: A coup which placed the Guangxu Emperor on the throne under the regency of the Empress Dowagers Ci'an and Cixi . In 1879, Li was awarded the honorary appointment Crown Prince's Grand Tutor ( 太子太傅 ). In 1886, on the conclusion of the Sino-French War , Li arranged a treaty with the French. Li was impressed with the necessity of strengthening the Qing Empire, and while he was Viceroy of Zhili, he raised

344-465: A few have three. Some names are given several generations later—this is the case for Emperor Jimmu and Emperor Antoku , for example. Others are provided immediately after death, like that Emperor Monmu . A shigō ( 諡号 ) , or okuri-na ( 諡 ) , name describes the accomplishments and the virtues of the rulers. There are two styles of emperors' shigō : Chinese or Han style ( 漢風諡号 ) and Japanese style ( 和風諡号 ) . Tsuigō names are derived from

430-506: A given name are subjective, repetitive, and highly stereotypical , meaning posthumous names are often chosen arbitrarily. Court historians usually provide such names according to the deceased's notable deeds. When combining an emperor's temple name and posthumous name, the temple name is placed first. For example, the Shunzhi Emperor , whose full posthumous title would be "Shizu, Emperor Zhang" ( 世祖章皇帝 ), combines his temple name and

516-642: A large well-drilled and well-armed force, and spent vast sums both in fortifying Port Arthur and the Dagu forts and in strengthening the navy. For years, he had watched the successful reforms effected in Japan and had a well-founded dread of coming into conflict with the Japanese. In 1885, Li founded the Tianjin Military Academy ( 天津武備學堂 ) to train Chinese military officers as part of his military reforms. The move

602-902: A major diplomatic role in negotiating a settlement with the Eight-Nation Alliance forces which had invaded Beijing to put down the Boxer Rebellion . His early position was that the Qing Empire was making a mistake by supporting the Boxers against the foreign powers. During the Siege of the International Legations , Sheng Xuanhuai and other provincial officials suggested that the Qing imperial court give Li full diplomatic power to negotiate with foreign powers. Li telegraphed back to Sheng Xuanhuai on 25 June, describing

688-542: A memorial and museum was built on the site of the academy in Baoding to commemorate the academy and the 11,000 cadets who studied there. In 2006, the memorial became a national-level historical site. Li Hongzhang Li Hongzhang, Marquess Suyi ( Chinese : 李鴻章 ; also Li Hung-chang ; 15 February 1823 – 7 November 1901) was a Chinese statesman, general and diplomat of the late Qing dynasty . He quelled several major rebellions and served in important positions in

774-457: A posthumous name, one or more adjectives are inserted before the deceased's title. The name of the state or domain of the owner may be added to avoid ambiguity. Early mythological rulers such as Emperor Yao were known to have posthumous names. Archaeological discoveries have shown that the titles of kings as far back as the Zhou dynasty ( c.   1046 to 256 BC) are posthumous names, as in

860-455: A relative, Li Xinzhuang ( 李心莊 ). Xu Shen and his descendants had taken Li ( 李 ) to be their family name since then. Li's father, Li Wen'an (李文安; 1801–1855), obtained a jinshi degree in the imperial examination in 1838 – the same year as Zeng Guofan . Li Wen'an also served as a langzhong ( 郎中 ) in the Ministry of Justice . Li had one elder brother and four younger brothers; he was

946-550: A researcher in his own right following the rediscovery of his manuscripts. Li left a word as his self-evaluation: "To know me and judge me is a task for the next millennium" ( 知我罪我，付之千載 ). Li was regarded favourably in the United States, owing to his reputation for welcoming foreign influence and his 1896 visit to the country. He was wrongly credited with inventing the American Chinese dish chop suey during

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1032-518: A son of his sixth brother Li Zhaoqing. Li Jingfang served as the Qing Empire's Ambassador to Japan and a Left Vice Secretary ( 左侍郎 ) in the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications ( 郵傳部 ). Li's brother Li Hanzhang ( 李瀚章 ) had a daughter named Li Peisheng ( 李佩生 ). His grandson, Li Shiu Tong , would become a sexologist known for his work and relationship with his mentor and romantic partner Magnus Hirschfeld , and would posthumously be recognized as

1118-478: A son, Li Jingyu ( 李經毓 ), who died prematurely. Lady Zhou died of illness in 1861. Li's second primary spouse, Zhao Xiaolian ( 趙小蓮 ), bore him another son, Li Jingshu ( 李經述 ). Li Jingshu inherited his father's peerage as Marquis Suyi ( 肅毅侯 ), but died early. Li Jingshu's son, Li Guojie ( 李國傑 ; 1881–1939), inherited the Marquis Suyi peerage and served in a number of official positions in the final years of

1204-605: Is a Chinese term that means posthumous name and title. The names of living Chinese people may be any combination of characters. Most often, posthumous names are chosen from a relatively small list, with their literal meaning eroding as a result. The Chinese language format for posthumous names is "[ state ] [ adjective ] [ title ]". When translated into English, they take on the format "[ title ] [ adjective ] of [ state ]", such as King Wen of Zhou ('Cultured King of Zhou'), Duke Mu of Qin ('Solemn Duke of Qin'), and King Cheng of Chu ('Accomplished King of Chu'). The literal meaning of

1290-473: Is always initial. The number of characters in posthumous names increased over time. The emperors of the Tang dynasty have posthumous names between 7 and 18 characters, while most in the Qing dynasty have more than 20 characters. For instance, the Shunzhi Emperor 's posthumous name has 25 characters. The woman with the longest posthumous name (also 25 characters) is Empress Dowager Cixi ; the shortened version of

1376-641: Is an honorary name given mainly to revered dead people in East Asian culture . It is predominantly used in Asian countries such as China , Korea , Vietnam , Japan , and Thailand . Reflecting on the person's accomplishments or reputation, the title is assigned after death and essentially replaces the name used during life. Although most posthumous names are given to royalty, some posthumous names are given to honour significant people without hereditary titles , such as courtiers or military generals . To create

1462-579: Is my duty, as Your Majesty's subject, [to point out the failures of my colleague.] I do not dare to let this pass just because of Weng Tonghe 's fame and prestige." Although Li earned Zeng Guofan's praise for drafting the memorial, he also caused Weng Tonghe (Weng Tongshu's brother) to bear a grudge against him for what he wrote. While serving under Zeng Guofan, he was put in charge of Yanjianshao Circuit ( 延建邵道 ) in Fujian Province but did not take up his appointment and remained with Zeng. In 1860, Li

1548-599: Is the only thing that matters to us here." Li was shocked and he improved his behaviour after that. In the same year, Weng Tongshu  [ zh ; ja ] ( 翁同書 ), the xunfu of Anhui, abandoned his post when he came under attack by the Taiping rebels. Zeng Guofan drew from Li's draft when he wrote a memorial to the imperial court to accuse Weng Tongshu of failing in his duty. The lines from Li's draft that were included in Zeng Guofan's actual memorial included: "It

1634-633: The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (renewed in 1892). In a famous interview published by The New York Times on September 3, 1896, Li was asked whether he favored the introduction of the newspaper into China as developed in the U.S. or in Europe. Li's answer was stunningly honest: "There are newspapers in China, but the Chinese editors, unfortunately, do not tell the truth. They do not, as your papers, tell 'the truth, whole truth, and nothing but

1720-521: The Eastern Han dynasty , has the character of ' filial ' ( 孝 ; xiào ) at the beginning of his posthumous name. 'Filial' is also used in the full posthumous names of virtually all emperors and empresses of the Tang , Song , Ming and Qing dynasties. For Qing emperors, the character xiào is placed in various positions in the string of characters. For Qing empresses given posthumous names, xiào

1806-615: The First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. In fact, it was mostly the armies that he established and controlled that did the fighting, whereas other Chinese troops led by his political rivals did not come to their aid. Rampant corruption further weakened the Chinese military. For instance, one official misappropriated ammunition funds for personal use. As a result, shells ran out during battle, forcing one navy captain, Deng Shichang , to resort to ordering his ship to ram an enemy ship. The defeat of Li's modernised armed forces by

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1892-681: The Left Vice Secretary of Works , to travel to Anhui Province and recruit civilians to form militias to counter the rebels. Lü Xianji knew that Li was familiar with the local situation in Anhui Province so he secured permission from the imperial court to bring Li along with him as an adviser and assistant. Li was later ordered to remain in Anhui to oversee the militia. In late 1853, the Taiping rebels defeated imperial forces and captured Shucheng County ; Lü Xianji committed suicide. In

1978-603: The Qing dynasty . He became an official and industrialist in the Republic of China later. Li Guojie also married the daughter of Natong ( 那桐 ; 1857–1925), who served in the Grand Secretariat and Grand Council . Li's secondary spouse, Lady Mo ( 莫氏 ), bore him three sons: Li Jingyuan ( 李經遠 ), Li Jingmai ( 李經邁 ; 1876–1938) and Li Jingjin ( 李經進 ). Among the three, only Li Jingmai survived into adulthood. He served as

2064-663: The Taiping Rebellion in Guangxi Province . Within about two years, the rebels had conquered many territories in southern China and established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom with Nanjing as their capital. In 1853, the rebels, advancing from Wuhan , captured Anqing and killed Jiang Wenqing  [ zh ; ja ] ( 蔣文慶 ), the xunfu of Anhui Province . The Xianfeng Emperor commissioned Lü Xianji  [ d ] ( 呂賢基 ),

2150-549: The Taiping Rebellion in 1864, Li assumed a civil office as the xunfu of Jiangsu Province for about two years. However, on the outbreak of the Nian Rebellion in Henan and Shandong provinces in 1866, he was ordered to lead troops into battle again. After some misadventures, Li managed to suppress the movement. In recognition of his contributions, he was appointed as Assistant Grand Secretary ( 協辦大學士 ). In 1867, Li

2236-679: The Tianjin Convention with Japan, and directed Chinese foreign policy in Korea. Among Li's projects to open China to the world on Chinese terms was support for the Chinese Educational Mission , which sent Chinese boys to the United States for education, starting in 1872. The mission was aborted in 1881. On the death of the Tongzhi Emperor in 1875, Li introduced a large army into the capital and effected

2322-765: The Yangtze River in British steamboats – the rebels did not attack because Britain was a neutral party – and arrived in Shanghai, where they were commissioned as the Huai Army . Zeng Guofan recommended Li to serve as the xunfu of Jiangsu Province. After gaining ground in Jiangsu, Li focused on enhancing the Huai Army's capabilities, including equipping them with Western firearms and artillery. Within two years,

2408-601: The Chinese defeat in the war, Li was disgraced and stripped of his peacock feather. The Qing imperial court initially wanted to send Zhang Yinhuan ( 張蔭桓 ) and Shao Youlian  [ zh ; ja ; ko ] ( 邵友濂 ) as their representatives to negotiate with the Japanese, but the Japanese rejected them. Li was selected to take on this mission and was given back his peacock feather. On 24 March 1895, while negotiating with Japan's Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi and Foreign Affairs Minister Mutsu Munemitsu in Shimonoseki , Li

2494-662: The First Class ( 一等肅毅候 ). This peerage was inherited by Li Guojie, who was assassinated in Shanghai on 21   February 1939, allegedly as a result of his support for the Nanking Reformed Government . Li's ancestral family name was actually Xǔ ( 許 ). His ancestors had migrated from Hukou , Jiangxi Province to Hefei , Anhui Province . Li's eighth-great-grandfather, Xu Yingxi ( 許迎溪 ), had given up his second son, Xu Shen ( 許慎 ), for adoption by

2580-553: The Huai Army's strength increased from 6,000 to about 60–70,000 men. Li's Huai Army combined forces later with Zeng Guofan's Xiang Army and Charles George Gordon 's Ever Victorious Army and prepared to attack the Taiping rebels. From 1863 to 1864, Li led the Huai Army to attack and recapture Suzhou , Changzhou and other rebel-controlled territories. For his contributions, Li was awarded the honorary appointment Crown Prince's Grand Protector ( 太子太保 ) and an imperial yellow jacket . After retaking Changzhou, and capturing and executing

2666-488: The Japanese undermined his political standing, as well as the wider cause of the Self-Strengthening Movement . Li had received the privilege of wearing a three-eyed peacock feather in his hat – a rare exception because three-eyed peacock feathers had previously been restricted to only members of the imperial clan – during Empress Dowager Cixi 's 60th birthday celebrations in 1894. However, after

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2752-813: The New Army, which was a significant factor in Yuan Shikai's rise to power at the end of the Qing dynasty and the pivotal role he played in the Xinhai Revolution . In 1912, after Yuan became the provisional president of the Republic of China, the academy was briefly moved to Beijing and became the Army Academy. In October 1912, the academy was relocated back to Baoding and formally became the Baoding Military Academy. In 1993,

2838-724: The Penghu Islands. On 17 April 1895, Li signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki with the Japanese, thus ending the First Sino-Japanese War. In 1896, Li attended the coronation of Nicholas II of the Russian Empire on behalf of the Qing Empire and toured Europe, Canada and the United States, where he advocated reform of the American immigration policies that had greatly restricted Chinese immigration after

2924-480: The Qing Empire's Ambassador to Austria-Hungary and a Right Vice Secretary ( 右侍郎 ) in the Ministry of Civil Affairs ( 民政部 ). Li had three daughters. One of them, Li Ju'ou ( 李菊藕 ), married Zhang Peilun (1848–1903) and bore the father of the writer Eileen Chang (1920–1995). The other two daughters married Guo Enhou ( 郭恩垕 ), the magistrate of Weifang County , and Ren Dehe ( 任德和 ), the zhushi ( 主事 ) of Yixing County . Li also adopted Li Jingfang (1855–1934),

3010-399: The Qing government was Wenzhong ( 文忠 ). He was also referred to as Li Zhongtang ( 李中堂 ) and Li Fuxiang ( 李傅相 ); "Zhongtang" and "Fuxiang" referred to his honorary appointments as Grand Secretary and Crown Prince's Grand Tutor respectively. He also held the noble peerage First Class Count Suyi ( 一等肅毅伯 ) and was posthumously honoured as First Class Marquis Suyi ( 一等肅毅侯 ). Li

3096-674: The Qing imperial court, including the Viceroy of Zhili , Huguang and Liangguang . Although he was best known in the West for his generally pro-modern stance and importance as a negotiator, Li antagonised the British with his support of Russia as a foil against Japanese expansionism in Manchuria and fell from favour with the Chinese after their defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War . His image in China remains controversial, with criticism on one hand for political and military defeats and praise on

3182-740: The Russian government to build a three-million rubles "Li Hongzhang Foundation" to make Li and Zhang Yinheng to support the Sino-Russia railway treaty and Lushun-Dalian Rent Treaty , and a payment of 0.5 million rubles was confirmed. Ma Wenzhong questioned whether the Russian account was reliable. [REDACTED]   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). " Li Hung Chang ". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 681–682. Posthumous name A posthumous name

3268-596: The Western powers and Japan. Liang Qichao 's 1902 biography of Li blamed him for China's woes and set the tone for further castigation. In Liang's view, Li was the chief culprit for the Self-Strengthening Movement, which these nationalists condemned for collaborating with the European imperialists and suppressing the masses. Liang Qichao's son, Liang Sicheng , denounced Li in 1951 for "selling out"

3354-404: The adjective usually needs to be translated. All Chinese posthumous names for rulers end in one or two of the characters for " emperor ", huángdì ( 皇帝 ), which can be shortened to Dì , except about a dozen less-recognized ones who have had only Dì and not Huáng . Starting with Emperor Xiaowen of Han (more commonly Emperor Wen), every single Han emperor, except the first of

3440-720: The appointment of a daotai (道台; circuit administrator) and the privilege of wearing a single-eyed peacock feather in his hat. Later, he led troops into the Huai River area, but could not get along with his subordinates and was forced to abandon his mission. In the winter of 1858, Li was reassigned to serve in Zeng Guofan 's office, where he was in charge of drafting documents. Li led a carefree life, flouted rules and regulations, and often woke up late. Zeng Guofan once chided him, "Shaoquan, now that you're working in my office, I only have this piece of advice for you: 'Commitment'

3526-732: The budget for the Tianjin Military Academy, which was shared with the Tianjin Naval Academy. The Tianjin Military Academy in 1886 adopted as part of its curriculum the Romance of the Three Kingdoms . Among its alumni were Wang Yingkai and Duan Qirui . Among its staff was Yinchang . In 1902, Yuan Shikai , the Viceroy of Zhili Province and the Minister of Beiyang , founded an officer academy in Baoding,

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3612-604: The capital of Zhili Province . Baoding was the headquarters for his New Army , which until 1901 was based in Xiaozhan, near Tianjin . The Boxer Protocol required the Qing government to demilitarize Tianjin and the New Army was relocated to Baoding. From 1902 to 1912, the officer academy in Baoding took on a number of different names, including the Beiyang Army Expedited Martial Studies Academy . The academy trained officers for

3698-488: The cases of King Wu and King Wen . Posthumous names commonly made tracing linear genealogies simpler and kept a bloodline apparent. In the Zhou dynasty, the posthumous name was usually only one character, such as Wen ('cultured') or Wu ('martial'). Over time, rulers began adding more characters to their ancestors' posthumous names. By the time of the first emperor of Tang , the length had grown to seven characters, which

3784-514: The country. History textbooks in the People's Republic of China labelled Li as a " feudalist " and a traitor to the Chinese people. It was not until the 1980s that mainland historians began a serious debate of the sort which had been taking place in Taiwan. Sergei Witte dismissed some rumours during Li's visit to Europe that Li was bribed . However, according to the Russian account, Li had urged

3870-443: The deceased king was called Daehaeng daewang ( 대행대왕 ; 大行大王 ). The Ministry of Culture and Education ( 예조 ; 禮曹 ) was in charge of the naming. The Ministry of Culture and Education selected three candidates and reported them to the next king, who chose the name he liked best. The deposed kings' names were made up of three parts: the temple name ( 묘호 ), eulogistic names ( 존호 ), and posthumous names ( 시호 ). A deposed king

3956-468: The declaration of war a "false edict". This tactic gave the " Southeast Mutual Protection " provincial officials a justification not to follow Empress Dowager Cixi 's declaration of war. Li refused to accept orders from the government for more troops when they were needed to fight against the foreigners, which he had available. Li controlled the Chinese telegraph service, whose despatches asserted falsely that Chinese forces had exterminated all foreigners in

4042-531: The disfavored monarchs of the Joseon dynasty did not receive posthumous names. Posthumous names can be praises ( 褒字 ) or deprecations ( 貶字 ). There are more praises than deprecations, so posthumous names are also commonly called respectful names ( 尊號 ; zūnhào ) in Chinese. Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian extensively outlines the rules behind choosing the names. Most qualifications for

4128-500: The district-level examination. Li then travelled to Beijing. Along the way, he wrote ten poems under the collection Entering the Capital ( 入都 ) to express his feelings. In 1844, Li obtained a juren ( 舉人 ) position in the district-level examination, but failed to make it in the metropolitan-level examination. He then started taking classes under Zeng Guofan . In 1847, he sat for the metropolitan-level examination again and obtained

4214-418: The earlier emperor's name: The posthumous name of some emperors was derived from the combination of characters from two previous emperors' posthumous names: Official posthumous names are still used in Japan. This tradition began with Emperor Meiji . Since the death of Emperor Meiji ( 明治天皇 , Meiji Tennō ) in 1912, the posthumous name of an emperor has always been the era name of his reign. In such cases,

4300-573: The fall of the Qin. Posthumous names were used by non- Han rulers of the Sixteen Kingdoms , Nanzhao , Liao dynasty , Western Xia , Jin dynasty , Yuan dynasty , Qing dynasty , Silla , Japan, and Vietnam. King names of Hồng Bàng dynasty and Mahan followed the posthumous naming but are considered later works. Some rulers, such as Wu Zetian or rebel leaders, had similarly styled regnal names when they were alive. Most monarchs inherited

4386-438: The following year, Jiang Zhongyuan ( 江忠源 ), the xunfu of Anhui Province, committed suicide after Lu Prefecture fell to the rebels. Li then became a subordinate of Fu Ji  [ zh ] ( 福濟 ), the new xunfu , who ordered him to lead troops to attack the rebels, with Li often leading them in person. Li recaptured two counties and Lu Prefecture from the rebels within the following year. For his achievements, he earned

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4472-759: The last three characters of his posthumous reputation, which is the form most commonly seen in formal documents. Some monarchs' and royal members' posthumous names were extended, such as Hongwu Emperor , Nurhaci , Crown Prince Hyomyeong , Sunjo of Joseon , and Empress Dowager Cixi . Some monarchs did not follow these guidelines; for example, monarchs of Ju , Chu , and Qi used place names, while some monarchs of Yue had Chinese transliterated posthumous words, and some monarchs of Goguryeo , Silla , and Baekje had differently styled posthumous names. Some early Japanese monarchs also had Japanese-style posthumous names ( 和風諡号 ) . Shihao ( traditional Chinese : 諡號 ; simplified Chinese : 谥号 ; pinyin : shì hào )

4558-420: The living name. In the Malay sultanates and other related sultanates and kingdoms of Southeast Asia, the posthumous names of the sultans and rulers always begin with the word Marhum ( Jawi : مرحوم ), an Arabic loanword meaning 'the late ruler'. The word Marhum is followed by either the place of death or the burial site. Mahmud II of Johor , who was killed while being carried on a royal litter in 1699,

4644-458: The middle. The characters used are mainly those used for emperors. For example, Prince Gong of the Qing dynasty was posthumously named Zhong ( 忠 ) and thus is referred to as Prince Gongzhong ( 恭忠親王 ; Gōngzhōng qīnwáng ). Prince Chun was posthumously named Xian ( 賢 ), and is therefore referred to as Prince Chunxian ( 醇賢親王 ; Chúnxián qīnwáng ). The posthumous name could include more than one character. For example, Prince Shuncheng Lekdehun

4730-403: The most commonly used was Zhìshèngxiānshī ( 至聖先師 ). Sometimes a person is given a posthumous name not by the court, but by his family or disciples. Such names are private posthumous names ( 私諡 ; sīshì ). For example, the sīshì given to Tao Qian was Jìngjié ( 靖節 ). The emperors of China continued to receive posthumous names of increasing length as a matter of ritual long after

4816-408: The name of locations and era names , among others. Those Japanese emperors are also sometimes called teigō ( 帝号 , 'emperor name(s)') . Those who were named after the place where the emperor was born, lived or frequented: Those who were named after an emperor whose admirable characteristics resemble those of an earlier one by adding Go ( 後 , lit.   ' later ' ) as a prefix to

4902-407: The name was 孝欽顯皇后 ('the Distinguished Empress who was Admirably Filial'). According to the noble system since the Zhou dynasty , the immediate family members of the emperor were given the titles like King, Prince, Duke, or Earl, with or without actual control over a region. After their death, they would be referred to by the same title, with the posthumous name (usually one character) inserted in

4988-409: The naming convention had been abandoned in casual speech and writing. The Guangxu Emperor , who died in 1908 and was the last emperor to receive a posthumous name, has a 21-character title: "Emperor Tongtian Chongyun Dazhong Zhizheng Jingwen Weiwu Renxiao Ruizhi Duanjian Kuanqin Jing". Puyi , the last emperor of China, did not receive a posthumous name upon his death in 1967. In Silla , every monarch

5074-590: The other for his success against the Taiping Rebellion , his diplomatic skills defending Chinese interests in the era of unequal treaties , and his role pioneering China's industrial and military modernisation. He was presented the Royal Victorian Order by Queen Victoria . The French newspaper Le Siècle described him as "the yellow Bismarck ." Li Hongzhang was also known by other names. His courtesy names were Zifu ( 子黻 ) and Jianfu ( 漸甫 ). His art names were Shaoquan ( 少荃 ), Yisou ( 儀叟 ) and Shengxin ( 省心 ). The posthumous name awarded to him by

5160-487: The posthumous names belong to the category of tsuigō . After his death, Hirohito was formally renamed Emperor Shōwa ( 昭和天皇 , Shōwa Tennō ) after his era ; Japanese people now refer to him by only that name, and not by his given name Hirohito. Most Japanese people never refer to emperors by their given names, as it is considered disrespectful . A non-royal deceased person may be given a posthumous Buddhist name known as kaimyō but is, in practice, still referred to by

5246-428: The prejudices of conservative leaders. He visited the industrial area in Barrow , North West England , and toured Lake Windermere on the steamer Tern operated by the Furness Railway Company . He also witnessed the 1896 Royal Naval Fleet Review at Spithead . It was during his visit to Britain in 1896 that Queen Victoria made him a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order . In 1900, Li once more played

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5332-403: The rebel leader Chen Kunshu , Li received a jiduwei peerage in recognition of his achievements. An incident connected with the surrender of Suzhou soured Li's relationship with Gordon. According to an earlier arrangement with Gordon, the rebel leaders agreed to yield Nanjing to imperial forces on the condition that their lives would be spared. However, after the capture of Nanjing, Li ordered

5418-405: The rebel leaders to be executed. This breach of faith infuriated Gordon so much that he grabbed a rifle and wanted to shoot Li, but Li fled. By the end of 1864, the Taiping Rebellion had basically been suppressed by imperial forces. Li was awarded a noble peerage as " First Class Count Suyi " ( 一等肅毅伯 ) and the privilege of wearing a double-eyed peacock feather in his hat. After the suppression of

5504-440: The recognition the government , to Empress Sunjeonghyo ; Crown Prince Euimin ; and Gu, Prince Imperial Hoeun . In Japan, posthumous names are divided into two types: shigō (Japanese: 諡号 ) and tsuigō ( 追号 ) . In addition to the title, Tennō ( 天皇 , 'heavenly sovereign', usually translated as 'emperor') is a part of all Japanese emperors' posthumous names, most of them consisting of two kanji characters, although

5590-468: The rulers of Goryeo and Joseon end in two of the characters for Daewang ( 대왕 ; 大王 ; lit.  great king). This is a longer name made up of adjectives characteristic of the king's rule. Details of the system of posthumous names were recorded during the Joseon dynasty. During the Joseon dynasty, officials discussed and decided on the king's posthumous name five days after the king's funeral. Before his temple and posthumous names were chosen,

5676-401: The same as those used for emperors. The length, however, was restricted to one or two characters. The posthumous name is sometimes rendered canonization in English, for the scholar-official to Confucianism is considered analogous to the saint in the Catholic Church . However, the process is shorter. Confucius has been given long posthumous names in almost every prominent dynasty; one of

5762-425: The school. Students also took exams. The Weihaiwei and Shanhaiguan military schools copied the Tianjin Military Academy's curriculum. The maritime defence fund supplied the budget for the Tianjin Military Academy, which was shared with the Tianjin Naval Academy. Because of his prominent role in Chinese diplomacy in Korea and strong political connections in Manchuria , Li found himself directing Chinese forces during

5848-467: The second son in his family. His elder brother, Li Hanzhang  [ zh ; ja ; ko ] ( 李瀚章 ; 1821–1899), served as a xunfu and zongdu in a number of provinces. His third brother, Li Hezhang ( 李鶴章 ; 1825–1880), served as a military officer. His fourth brother was Li Yunzhang ( 李蘊章 ), his fifth brother was Li Fengzhang ( 李鳳章 ), and his sixth brother was Li Zhaoqing ( 李昭慶 ; 1835–1873). Li's first primary spouse, Lady Zhou ( 周氏 ), bore him

5934-513: The siege and convinced many foreign readers. In 1901, Li was the principal Chinese negotiator with the foreign powers which captured Beijing. On 7 September 1901, he signed the Boxer Protocol ending the Boxer Rebellion, and obtained the departure of the Eight-Nation Alliance at the price of huge indemnities for the Chinese. Exhausted from the negotiations, he died from liver inflammation two months later at Xianliang Temple in Beijing. The Guangxu Emperor posthumously honoured Li as Marquis Suyi of

6020-446: The throne and did not give negative posthumous names to the previous monarch. Later monarchs lengthened or changed some names. Emperor Aizong of Jin and the Chongzhen Emperor were referred to by different names by different people. Qin Hui of the Song dynasty had a name with a positive connotation, was then given a negative one, and later had the positive name restored. After the Song dynasty, few received negative names. In Korea,

6106-468: The title of emperor, thus the posthumous names of Gojong and Sunjong end in two of the characters for Hwangje ( 황제 ; 皇帝 ; lit.  emperor). Crown Prince Hyomyeong has been given the longest posthumous name in Korea. He was posthumously elevated in status and given the title Emperor Munjo with 117 characters in posthumous names in 1899. In the Republic of Korea, the Jeonju Lee Royal Family Association has issued posthumous names, without

6192-522: The truth.' The editors in China are great economizers of the truth; they tell only a part of it. They do not have, therefore, the great circulations that your papers have. Because this economy of the truth, our papers fail in the mission of a great press, to be one of the means of civilization." While in Britain, he toured parts of the country by train, keeping with his desire to inspire railway development in his own country while constantly fighting against

6278-497: The visit. In 1913, William Francis Mannix wrote and published a fabricated Memoirs of Li Hung Chang which received widespread praise before being exposed as a forgery in 1923. His biographer William J. Hail argued that Li "did perhaps all he could for a land where the conservatism of the people, a reactionary officialdom, and unrestrained international rivalry made each step forward a matter of great difficulty," and praised him as "always progressive, yet patient and conciliatory, it

6364-615: Was also conferred the honorary position of "Grand Secretary of Wenhua Hall" ( 文華殿大學士 ). From the time he became Viceroy of Zhili and Beiyang Trade Minister until his death, with a few intervals of retirement, he shaped the Qing Empire's foreign policy to a large extent. In 1876, he signed the Yantai Treaty with Sir Thomas Wade to end a diplomatic crisis with Britain caused by the murder of Augustus Raymond Margary in Yunnan Province . He also arranged treaties with Peru and

6450-568: Was appointed as the Viceroy of Huguang , where he remained until 1870, when the Tianjin Massacre necessitated his transfer to Tianjin to handle the diplomatic crisis with the French. He was given the concurrent appointments as Viceroy of Zhili Province and Beiyang Trade Minister ( 北洋通商大臣 ) to oversee various issues in Zhili, Shandong and Fengtian provinces, including trade, tariffs, diplomacy, coastal defence, and modernisation . He

6536-413: Was attacked by an assassin, Koyama Toyotarō  [ ja ; ko ; zh ] ( 小山豐太郎 ), who shot him in the left cheek. Koyama was arrested by Japanese police later and he claimed that he desired for the war to continue. Due to the public embarrassment caused by the attack, the Japanese agreed to the immediate ceasefire Li had urged in the days before, though fighting would continue on Taiwan and in

6622-622: Was born in a scholar-gentry family in Qunzhi Village ( 群治村 ), Modian Township ( 磨店鄉 ), 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) northeast of central Hefei , Anhui Province , China. In 1843, he sat for the entry-level imperial examination in Lu Prefecture and obtained a yougong ( 優貢 ; or gongsheng 貢生 ) position. His father, who was serving as an official in the imperial capital Beijing , was eager to see his son succeed, so he encouraged his son to come to Shuntian Prefecture to take

6708-438: Was given the title of wang ( Korean :  왕 ; Hanja :  王 ; lit.  king) with two characters in posthumous names from Jijeung of Silla . On the other hand, all posthumous names for kings of Balhae were restricted to one character. Most of the kings of Goryeo and Joseon were more often given temple names than posthumous names, unlike in the dynasties of ancient Korea. All posthumous names for

6794-428: Was his fate to bear blame for failures which might have been avoided if he had had his way." The leader of China's New Culture Movement , Hu Shih , was also sympathetic, remarking that if Li had been allowed the opportunity, his achievements for China might have equalled the achievements of his Japanese counterpart, Itō Hirobumi , at the 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki . Chinese nationalists criticised Li's relations with

6880-481: Was not given any posthumous names with temple names unless reinstated. They were degraded to the rank of a gun ( 군 ; 君 ; lit.  prince); Yeonsan-gun and Gwanghae-gun are notable examples. Some men did not ascend to the throne in their lifetime but were proclaimed kings after they died by their descendants who became kings. In Joseon, nine men were raised to the status of emeritus kings. Gojong of Joseon proclaimed Korea an empire in 1897, receiving

6966-409: Was posthumously honoured as Prince Shuncheng Gonghui ( 多罗顺承恭惠郡王 ). Yinxiang, Prince Yi was granted a posthumous name consisting of 9 characters, Zhongjing chengzhi qinshen lianming xian ( 忠敬诚直勤慎廉明贤 ). It was also common for people with no hereditary titles, primarily accomplished scholar-officials or ministers, to be given posthumous names by the imperial court. The characters used are mainly

7052-679: Was posthumously known as Marhum Mangkat dijulang, which literally means 'the late ruler who died while being carried'. Other Malay posthumous names include: Since the death of King Chulalongkorn in 1910, the king has been named for his reigning era formally used in the Royal Gazette . Some were given posthumous names to elevate their title, such as in the case of King Ananda , who was posthumously titled Phra Athamaramathibodin. Kings Ananda and Bhumibol do not have specific reign names, and other kings, such as Chulalongkorn, are referred to using personal names. Most Thai people never refer to

7138-530: Was put in command of the naval forces in Anhui and Jiangsu provinces to counter the Taiping rebels. After Zeng Guofan's Xiang Army recaptured Anqing from the rebels in 1861, Zeng wrote a memorial to the imperial court to praise Li, calling him "a talent with great potential", and sent Li back to Hefei to form a militia. Li managed to recruit enough men to form five battalions in 1862. Zeng Guofan ordered him to bring his troops along with him to Shanghai . Li and his men sailed past rebel-controlled territory along

7224-460: Was started at the academy for five years in 1887 to train teenagers as new army officers. Mathematics, practical and technical subjects, sciences, foreign languages, Chinese Classics and history were taught at the school. Exams were administered to students. The instruction for Tianjin Military Academy was copied at the Weihaiwei and Shanhaiguan military schools. The 'maritime defense fund' supplied

7310-528: Was supported by Huai Army commander Zhou Shengchuan  [ zh ; ja ] . The academy was to serve Huai Army and Green Standard Army officers. Various practical military, mathematics and science subjects were taught at the academy. The instructors were German military officers. Another programme was started at the academy for five years in 1887 to train teenagers as new military officers. Mathematics, practical and technical subjects, sciences, foreign languages, Chinese classics and history were taught at

7396-628: Was taxing to pronounce or write. Therefore, emperors after the Tang dynasty are commonly referred to by either their temple name (Tang through Yuan dynasties) or era name (Ming and Qing dynasties), both of which are always two characters long. The use of posthumous names temporarily stopped when emperor Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty proclaimed it disrespectful for the descendants of emperors to judge their elders by assigning them descriptive titles. The Han dynasty resumed using posthumous names after

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