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76-533: Barclays plc ( / ˈ b ɑːr k l i z / , occasionally /- l eɪ z / ) is a British multinational universal bank , headquartered in London , England. Barclays operates as two divisions, Barclays UK and Barclays International, supported by a service company, Barclays Execution Services. Barclays traces its origins to the goldsmith banking business established in the City of London in 1690. James Barclay became

152-661: A Quaker , and Thomas Gould, started trading as goldsmith bankers in Lombard Street, London . The name "Barclays" became associated with the business in 1736, when Freame's son-in-law James Barclay became a partner. In 1728, the bank moved to 54 Lombard Street, identified by the "Sign of the Black Spread Eagle ", which in subsequent years would become a core part of the bank's visual identity. The Barclay family were connected with slavery, both as proponents and opponents. David and Alexander Barclay were engaged in

228-523: A sanctuary from where a god could enfranchise him. In very rare circumstances, the city could affranchise a slave. A notable example is that Athens liberated everyone who was present at the Battle of Arginusae (406 BC). Even once a slave was freed, he was not generally permitted to become a citizen, but would become a metic . The master then became the metic's prostatès (guarantor or guardian). The former slave could be bound to some continuing duty to

304-469: A state tax . The soft felt pileus hat was a symbol of the freed slave and manumission; slaves were not allowed to wear them: Among the Romans the cap of felt was the emblem of liberty. When a slave obtained his freedom he had his head shaved, and wore instead of his hair an undyed pileus (πίλεον λευκόν, Diodorus Siculus Exc. Leg. 22 p625, ed. Wess.; Plaut. Amphit. I.1.306; Persius , V.82). Hence

380-670: A 4:1 share split. In 2003, Barclays bought the American credit card company Juniper Bank from CIBC , re-branding it as "Barclays Bank Delaware". The same year saw the acquisition of Banco Zaragozano, the 11th-largest Spanish bank. Barclays took over sponsorship of the Premier League from Barclaycard in 2004. In May 2005, Barclays moved its group headquarters from Lombard Street in the City of London to One Churchill Place in Canary Wharf . Also in 2005 Barclays sealed

456-793: A Barclay, was admitted, and the business then became "Barclay, Bevan, Bening and Tritton". In 1896, twelve houses in London and the English provinces, notably Goslings and Sharpe , Backhouse's Bank of Darlington and Gurney's Bank of Norwich (the latter two of which also had their roots in Quaker families), united to form Barclays and Co., a joint-stock bank, which at its formation held around one quarter of deposits in English private banks. Between 1905 and 1916, Barclays extended its branch network by making acquisitions of small English banks. Further expansion followed in 1918 when Barclays amalgamated with

532-405: A civil servant but not hold higher magistracies (see, for instance, apparitor and scriba ), serve as priests of the emperor or hold any of the other highly respected public positions. If they were sharp at business, however, there were no social limits to the wealth that freedmen could amass. Their children held full legal rights, but Roman society was stratified . Famous Romans who were

608-612: A desire to die with a clear conscience as part of their reasoning for freeing their slaves. Testamentary manumission could often be disputed by heirs claiming fraud, or that an enslaved person had preyed upon a relative's weak mental or physical condition. Legally testamentary manumissions were usually respected by the courts, who understood enslaved people as part of their owner's property to distribute as they wished. Relatives who claimed fraud had to provide evidence of their claims or they would be dismissed. As in baptismal manumission, conditions of ongoing servitude were sometimes placed upon

684-538: A generous gift. As in other parts of Latin America under the system of coartación , slaves could purchase their freedom by negotiating with their master for a purchase price and this was the most common way for slaves to be freed. Manumission also occurred during baptism, or as part of an owner's last will and testament. In baptismal manumission, enslaved children were freed at baptism. Many of these freedoms came with stipulations which could include servitude often until

760-648: A group holding company, renamed Barclays Group Plc, and UK retail banking was integrated under the former BBI, and renamed Barclays Bank PLC from Barclays Bank Limited . In response to the Big Bang on the London Stock Exchange , in 1986 Barclays bought UK stockbroker de Zoete & Bevan and jobbing firm Wedd Durlacher (formerly Wedd Jefferson). They were merged with Barclays Merchant Bank to form Barclays de Zoete Wedd (BZW). Also that year Barclays sold its South African business operating under

836-548: A partner in the business in 1736. In 1896, twelve banks in London and the English provinces, including Goslings Bank , Backhouse's Bank and Gurney, Peckover and Company , united as a joint-stock bank under the name Barclays and Co. Over the following decades, Barclays expanded to become a nationwide bank. In 1967, Barclays deployed the world's first cash dispenser . Barclays has made numerous corporate acquisitions, including of London, Provincial and South Western Bank in 1918, British Linen Bank in 1919, Mercantile Credit in 1975,

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912-467: A person had not disinherited his children or spouse, a slave owner could manumit their slaves as they wished. Manumission laws varied between the various colonies in the Caribbean . For instance, the island of Barbados had some of the strictest laws, requiring owners to pay £200 for male slaves and £300 for female slaves, and show cause to the authorities. In some other colonies, no fees applied. It

988-413: A sentimental and benevolent gesture. One typical scenario was the freeing in the master's will of a devoted servant after long years of service. A trusted bailiff might be manumitted as a gesture of gratitude. For those working as agricultural labourers or in workshops, there was little likelihood of being so noticed. In general, it was more common for older slaves to be given freedom. Legislation under

1064-417: A slave's children at baptism could be one way for owners to ensure the loyalty of the children's still-enslaved parents. Enslaved people could also be freed as part of a slave owner's last will and testament. Testamentary manumission frequently involved expressions of affection on the part of the slave owner to the enslaved person as part of the rationale behind manumission. Slave owners also frequently cited

1140-432: A slave, a person must pay the cost for them to be transported out of the colony. A 1723 law stated that slaves may not "be set free upon any pretence whatsoever, except for some meritorious services to be adjudged and allowed by the governor and council". In some cases, a master who was drafted into the army would send a slave instead, with a promise of freedom if he survived the war. The new government of Virginia repealed

1216-553: A stake to Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation . Only 19% of shareholders took up their rights leaving investors China Development Bank and Qatar Investment Authority with increased holdings in the bank. Reuters reported in October 2008 that the British government would inject £40 billion (US$ 69 billion) into three banks including Barclays, which might seek over £7 billion. Barclays later confirmed that it rejected

1292-446: A very large size tend to operate as universal banks, while smaller firms specialised as commercial banks or as investment banks. This is especially true of countries with a European Continental banking tradition. Universal banking and private banking often coexist, but can exist independently. The provision of many services by universal banks can lead to long-term relationships between universal banks and their customers. Following

1368-651: A £2.6bn takeover of Absa Group Limited , South Africa's largest retail bank, acquiring a 54% stake on 27 July 2005. Then in 2006, Barclays purchased the HomEq Servicing Corporation for US$ 469 million in cash from Wachovia Corp. That year also saw the acquisition of the financial website CompareTheLoan and Barclays announcing plans to rebrand Woolwich branches as Barclays, migrating Woolwich customers onto Barclays accounts and migrating back-office processes onto Barclays systems—the Woolwich brand

1444-440: Is the act of freeing slaves by their owners. Different approaches to manumission were developed, each specific to the time and place of a particular society. Historian Verene Shepherd states that the most widely used term is gratuitous manumission, "the conferment of freedom on the enslaved by enslavers before the end of the slave system". The motivations for manumission were complex and varied. Firstly, it may present itself as

1520-488: The 1907 financial crisis , the U.S. Monetary Commission wanted to understand the major financial systems of the world. A treatise by Jakob Riesser , the director of a Berlin bank, argued that the German universal banking system possessed beneficial characteristics that allowed it to efficiently provide inexpensive capital to industry and promote growth. Alexander Gerschenkron also advanced the hypothesis that universal banking

1596-574: The American Civil War . In South Carolina , to free a slave required permission of the state legislature ; Florida law prohibited manumission altogether. Slavery in the Ottoman Empire gradually became less central to the functions of Ottoman society throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Responding to the influence and pressure of European countries in the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire began taking steps to curtail

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1672-759: The Bank of Scotland in exchange for a 25% stake, a transaction that became effective from 1971. Barclays DCO changed its name to Barclays Bank International in 1971. From 1972 until 1980, a minority stake in Banca Barclays Castellini SpA, Milan was owned by the Castellini family. In 1980, Barclays Bank International acquired the remaining stake in Barclays Castellini from the Castellini family. In August 1975, following

1748-791: The Barclays National Bank name after protests against Barclays' involvement in South Africa and its apartheid government. Barclays introduced the Connect card in June 1987, the first debit card in the United Kingdom. In 1988, Barclays sold Barclays Bank of California, which at that time was the 17th-largest bank in California measured by assets, to Wells Fargo for US$ 125 million in cash. Edgar Pearce ,

1824-703: The London, Provincial and South Western Bank , and in 1919, when the British Linen Bank was acquired by Barclays, although the British Linen Bank retained a separate board of directors and continued to issue its own banknotes (see Banknotes of the pound sterling ). In 1925, the Colonial Bank , National Bank of South Africa and the Anglo-Egyptian Bank were amalgamated and Barclays operated its overseas operations under

1900-553: The United Kingdom ; Deutsche Bank of Germany ; ING Bank of the Netherlands ; RBC of Canada . Examples of pure investment banks generally do not exist except in America, and include the Bank of New York Mellon , Goldman Sachs , and Morgan Stanley . This bank and insurance -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Manumission Manumission , or enfranchisement ,

1976-401: The secondary banking crash , Barclays acquired Mercantile Credit Company. Barclays Bank International expanded its business in 1980 to include commercial credit and took over American Credit Corporation, renaming it Barclays American Corporation. During 1985 Barclays Bank and Barclays Bank International merged, and as part of the corporate reorganisation the former Barclays Bank plc became

2052-457: The slave trade , which had been legally valid under Ottoman law since the beginning of the empire. Ottoman Empire policy encouraged manumission of male slaves, but not female slaves. The most telling evidence for this is found in the gender ratio; among slaves traded in Islamic empire across the centuries, there were roughly two females to every male. Sexual slavery was a central part of

2128-509: The "Mardi Gra Bomber", began a terror campaign against the bank and the supermarket chain Sainsbury's in 1994. Barclays bought Wells Fargo Nikko Investment Advisors (WFNIA) in 1996 and merged it with BZW Investment Management to form Barclays Global Investors . Bob Diamond took charge of the investment banking businesses that year. Two years later, in 1998, the BZW business was broken up and

2204-407: The 1890 Brussels Conference Act for the suppression of the slave trade. However, clandestine slavery persisted well into the 20th century. Gangs were also organized to facilitate the illegal importation of slaves. Slave raids and the taking of women and children as "spoils of war" lessened but did not stop entirely, despite the public denial of their existence, such as the enslavement of girls during

2280-525: The 1990s, Barclays helped to fund President Robert Mugabe 's government in Zimbabwe . The most controversial of a set of loans provided by Barclays was the £30 million it gave to help sustain land reforms that saw Mugabe seize white-owned farmland and drive more than 100,000 black workers from their homes. Opponents have called the bank's involvement a "disgrace" and an "insult" to the millions who have suffered human rights abuses. A Barclays spokesman said

2356-588: The 19th century, slave revolts such as the Haitian Revolution of 1791–1804, and especially the 1831 rebellion led by Nat Turner , increased slaveholders' fears. Most Southern states passed laws making manumission nearly impossible until the passage of the 1865 Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , which abolished slavery "except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted," after

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2432-637: The 2nd and 3rd positions, respectively. Barclays operates in over 40 countries, employs over 80,000 people and is the fifth largest bank in Europe by total assets. Barclays UK comprises the British retail banking operations, consumer credit card business, wealth management business, and corporate banking for small, medium and large-sized businesses in the UK. Barclays International consists of Barclays Corporate and Investment Bank (formerly known as Barclays Capital ) and

2508-580: The British-based bank during World War II. Barclays, along with seven French banks, was named in a lawsuit filed in New York on behalf of Jews who were unable to reclaim money they deposited during the Nazi era. In an unusual move as part of the trend at the time for free ISPs , Barclays launched an internet service in 1999 called Barclays.net. This entity was acquired by British Telecom in 2001. In

2584-709: The Consumer, Cards & Payments business. The investment banking business provides advisory, financing and risk management services to large companies, institutions and government clients. It is a primary dealer in Gilts , U.S. Treasury securities and various European Government bonds . The bank's name has never included an apostrophe (Barclay's) in its spelling. It was first registered in 1896 as "Barclay and Company, Limited", changed to "Barclays Bank Limited" in 1917 and to "Barclays Bank PLC" in 1982. Barclays traces its origins back to 17 November 1690, when John Freame ,

2660-720: The EU rules do not apply to its 67%-owned Zimbabwean subsidiary because it was incorporated outside the EU. In August 2000, Barclays took over the recently de-mutualised Woolwich PLC, formerly the Woolwich Building Society, in a £5.4 billion acquisition. Woolwich thus joined the Barclays group of companies, and the Woolwich name was retained after the acquisition. The company's head office remained in Bexleyheath , south-east London , four miles (6 km) from

2736-538: The Equity and Corporate Finance Divisions were sold to Credit Suisse First Boston : Barclays retained the debt-focused Fixed Income business and Structured Capital Markets which formed the foundation of the rebranded Barclays Capital ( BarCap ). Barclays Capital had offices in over 29 countries and employed over 20,000 people, with over 7,000 people working in its IT division. In 1998, Barclays Bank agreed to pay $ 3.6m to Jews whose assets were seized from French branches of

2812-711: The Government's offer and would instead raise £6.5 billion of new capital (£2 billion by cancellation of dividend and £4.5 billion from private investors). Barclays launched a further round of capital raising, approved by special resolution on 24 November 2008, as part of its overall plan to achieve higher capital targets set by the UK's Financial Services Authority to ensure it would remain independent. Barclays raised £7 billion from investors from Abu Dhabi and Qatar. Existing Barclays shareholders complained they were not offered full pre-emption rights in this round of capital raising, even threatening to revolt at

2888-499: The Jamaica manumission deeds shows that manumission was comparatively rare on the island around 1770, with only an estimated 165 slaves winning their freedom through this fashion. While manumission had little demographic impact on the size of the enslaved population, it was important to the growth and development of the free population of colour, in Jamaica, during the second half of the eighteenth century. African slaves were freed in

2964-509: The North American colonies as early as the 17th century. Some, such as Anthony Johnson , went on to become landowners and slaveholders themselves. Slaves could sometimes arrange manumission by agreeing to "purchase themselves" by paying the master an agreed amount. Some masters demanded market rates; others set a lower amount in consideration of service. Regulation of manumission began in 1692, when Virginia established that to manumit

3040-487: The Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution, and the most resistant to change. Outside of explicit sexual slavery, most female slaves had domestic occupations, and often, this also included sexual relations with their masters . This was a lawful motive for their purchase, and the most common one. It was similarly a common motivation for their retention. The Ottoman Empire and 16 other countries signed

3116-402: The UK government, which was offered to boost its capital ratio. Barclays believed that "maintaining its independence from government was in the best interests of its shareholders". In July 2008, Barclays attempted to raise £4.5 billion through a non-traditional rights issue to shore up its weakened Tier 1 capital ratio , which involved a rights offer to existing shareholders and the sale of

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3192-621: The US. However, a Barclays spokesman denied the rumours. In February 2008, Barclays bought the credit card brand Goldfish for US$ 70 million gaining 1.7 million customers, and US$ 3.9 billion in receivables. Barclays also bought a controlling stake in the Russian retail bank Expobank for US$ 745 million. Later in the year Barclays commenced its Pakistan operations with initial funding of US$ 100 million. Barclays sought to raise capital privately, avoiding direct equity investment from

3268-640: The Virginia legislature passed laws forbidding them from moving into the state (1778), and requiring newly freed slaves to leave the Commonwealth within one year unless special permission was granted (1806). In the Upper South in the late 18th century, planters had less need for slaves, as they switched from labour-intensive tobacco cultivation to mixed-crop farming. Slave states such as Virginia made it easier for slaveholders to free their slaves. In

3344-790: The Woolwich in 2000 and the North American operations of Lehman Brothers in 2008. Barclays has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index . It has a secondary listing on the New York Stock Exchange . It is considered a systemically important bank by the Financial Stability Board . According to a 2011 paper, Barclays was the most powerful transnational corporation in terms of ownership and thus corporate control over global financial stability and market competition , with Axa and State Street Corporation taking

3420-445: The act of manumissio vindicta , Latin for "freedom by the rod" (emphasis added): The master brought his slave before the magistratus , and stated the grounds ( causa ) of the intended manumission. "The lictor of the magistratus laid a rod ( festuca ) on the head of the slave, accompanied with certain formal words, in which he declared that he was a free man ex Jure Quiritium ", that is, " vindicavit in libertatem ". The master in

3496-527: The bank has had customers in Zimbabwe for decades and abandoning them now would make matters worse, "We are committed to continuing to provide a service to those customers in what is clearly a difficult operating environment". Barclays also provided two of Mugabe's associates with bank accounts, ignoring European Union sanctions on Zimbabwe. The men are Elliot Manyika and minister of public service Nicholas Goche. Barclays has defended its position by insisting that

3572-517: The bank volunteered the names of Jewish employees, as well as ceding an estimated one hundred Jewish bank accounts to the German occupiers. The Paris branch used its funds to increase the operational power of a large quarry that helped produce steel for the Germans. There was no evidence of contact between the head office in London and the branch in Paris during the occupation. Marcel Cheradame was kept as

3648-407: The baptismal record and must be assessed through other evidence. Although slave owners often characterized these baptismal manumissions as a result of their generous beneficence, there are records of payments by parents or godparents to ensure the child's freedom. Mothers were almost never manumitted alongside their children, even when the mothers gave birth to their master's own children. Manumitting

3724-498: The branch manager until he retired in the sixties. In May 1958, Barclays was the first UK bank to appoint a female bank manager. Hilda Harding managed Barclays' Hanover Square branch in London until her retirement in 1970. In 1965, Barclays established a US affiliate, Barclays Bank of California, in San Francisco . Barclays launched the first credit card in the UK, Barclaycard , in 1966. On 27 June 1967, Barclays deployed

3800-495: The closure of their operation in Peterborough and its re-siting to Glasgow, laying off nearly 900 members of staff. On 30 August 2007, Barclays was forced to borrow £1.6 billion (US$ 3.2 billion) from the Bank of England sterling standby facility. This is made available as a last-resort when banks are unable to settle their debts to other banks at the end of daily trading. Despite rumours about liquidity at Barclays,

3876-544: The consortium led by Royal Bank of Scotland Group free to proceed with its counter-bid for ABN AMRO. To help finance its bid for ABN AMRO, Barclays sold a 3.1% stake to China Development Bank and a 3% stake to Temasek Holdings , the investment arm of the Singaporean government. Also in 2007, Barclays agreed to purchase Equifirst Corporation from Regions Financial Corporation for US$ 225 million. That year also saw Barclays Personal Investment Management announcing

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3952-509: The early Roman Empire put limits on the number of slaves that could be freed in wills ( lex Fufia Caninia , 2 BC), which suggests that it had been widely used. Freeing slaves could serve the pragmatic interests of the owner. The prospect of manumission worked as an incentive for slaves to be industrious and compliant. Roman slaves were paid a wage ( peculium ), which they could save up to buy themselves freedom. Manumission contracts found, in some abundance at Delphi (Greece), specify in detail

4028-624: The end of an owner's life. Children freed at baptism were also frequently the children of still-enslaved parents. A child who was freed at baptism but continued to live with enslaved family was far more likely to be re-enslaved. Baptismal manumission could be used as evidence of a person's freed status in a legal case but they did not always have enough information to serve as a carta de libertad . Female slave owners were more likely than males to manumit their slaves at baptism. The language used by women slave owners who freed their slaves also differed substantially from that of men, with many women using

4104-432: The enslaved person, by obligating them to care for another relative. In Iberoamerican law, a person had discretion over one-fifth of their estate with the rest going to children, spouses, and other relatives. An enslaved person could be sold in order to cover debts of the estate, but not if they had already paid part of their purchase price towards manumission as this was considered a legally binding agreement. As long as

4180-558: The extraordinary meeting. Sheikh Mansour and Qatar Holding agreed to open up £500 million of their new holdings of reserve capital instruments for clawback . Existing investors now took this up. Bob Diamond led the effort to purchase the North American business of Lehman Brothers after its bankruptcy in September 2008, securing Barclays a presence in U.S. Equities and Investment Banking. On 16 September 2008, Barclays announced its agreement to purchase, subject to regulatory approval,

4256-469: The investment-banking and trading divisions of Lehman Brothers (including its New York skyscraper) which was a United States financial conglomerate that had filed for bankruptcy. Universal bank The concept is most relevant in the United Kingdom and the United States , where historically there was a distinction drawn between pure investment banks and commercial banks . In the US, this

4332-486: The laws in 1782, and declared freedom for slaves who had fought for the colonies during the American Revolutionary War of 1775–1783. Another law passed in 1782 permitted masters to free their slaves of their own accord. Previously, a manumission had required obtaining consent from the state legislature, an arduous process which was rarely successful. As the population of free Negroes increased,

4408-425: The loan was necessary due to a technical problem with their computerised settlement network. A Barclays spokesman was quoted as saying "There are no liquidity issues in the U.K markets. Barclays itself is flush with liquidity." On 9 November 2007, Barclays shares dropped 9% and were even temporarily suspended for a short period of time, due to rumours of a £4.8 billion (US$ 10 billion) exposure to bad debts in

4484-433: The master and was commonly required to live near the former master ( paramone ). Ex-slaves were able to own property outright, and their children were free of all constraint. Under Roman law , a slave had no personhood and was protected under law mainly as his or her master's property. In Ancient Rome , a slave who had been manumitted was a libertus ( feminine liberta ) and a citizen. Manumissions were subject to

4560-423: The meantime held the slave, and after he had pronounced the words " hunc hominem liberum volo ," he turned him round (momento turbinis exit Marcus Dama, Persius, Sat. V.78) and let him go ( emisit e manu , or misit manu , Plaut. Capt. II.3.48), whence the general name of the act of manumission. The magistratus then declared him to be free [...] A freed slave customarily took the former owner's family name, which

4636-495: The name Barclays Bank (Dominion, Colonial and Overseas)—Barclays DCO. In 1938, Barclays acquired the first Indian exchange bank, the Central Exchange Bank of India, which had opened in London in 1936 with the sponsorship of Central Bank of India . In 1941, during the German occupation of France , a branch of Barclays in Paris, headed by Marcel Cheradame, worked directly with the invading force. Senior officials at

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4712-519: The original head office in Woolwich . Barclays closed 171 branches in the UK in 2001, many of them in rural communities: Barclays called itself "The Big Bank", but this name was quickly given a low profile after a series of embarrassing PR stunts. On 31 October 2001, Barclays and CIBC agreed to combine their Caribbean operations to establish a joint venture company known as FirstCaribbean International Bank (FCIB). In April 2002, Barclays enacted

4788-498: The phrase servos ad pileum vocare is a summons to liberty, by which slaves were frequently called upon to take up arms with a promise of liberty ( Liv. XXIV.32). "The figure of Liberty on some of the coins of Antoninus Pius , struck A.D. 145, holds this cap in the right hand". The cap was an attribute carried by Libertas , the Roman goddess of freedom, who was also recognized by the rod ( vindicta or festuca ), used ceremonially in

4864-453: The phrasing “for the love I have for her” as well as other expressions of intimacy as part of the reasoning for freeing their slaves as written on the baptismal record or carta de libertad . Male slave owners were far less likely to speak in intimate terms about their reasoning for freeing their slaves. Many children manumitted at baptism were likely the illegitimate children of their male owners, though this can be difficult to determine from

4940-555: The prerequisites for liberation. A History of Ancient Greece explains that in the context of Ancient Greece , affranchisement came in many forms. A master choosing to free his slave would most likely do so only "at his death, specifying his desire in his will". In rare cases, slaves who were able to earn enough money in their labour were able to buy their own freedom and were known as choris oikointes . Two 4th-century bankers, Pasion and Phormion, had been slaves before they bought their freedom. A slave could also be sold fictitiously to

5016-443: The proportion of free black people nationally increased to ~14% of the total black population. New York and New Jersey adopted gradual abolition laws that kept the free children of slaves as indentured servants into their twenties. After the 1793 invention of the cotton gin , which enabled the development of extensive new areas for cotton cultivation, the number of manumissions decreased because of increased demand for slave labour. In

5092-441: The same protections, independence, or rights as men, either in the public or private spheres. In reflection of unwritten, yet strictly enforced contemporary social codes, women were also legally prevented from participating in public and civic society. For example: through the illegality of women voting or holding public office. The freed slaves' rights were limited or defined by particular statutes . A freed male slave could become

5168-455: The slave trade in 1756. David Barclay of Youngsbury (1729–1809), on the other hand, was a noted abolitionist , and Verene Shepherd , the Jamaican historian of diaspora studies , singles out the case of how he chose to free his slaves in that colony . In 1776, the firm was styled "Barclay, Bevan and Bening" and remained so until 1785, when another partner, John Tritton, who had married

5244-781: The sons of freedmen include the Augustan poet Horace and the 2nd century emperor, Pertinax . A notable freedman in Latin literature is Trimalchio , the ostentatiously nouveau riche character in the Satyricon , by Petronius . In colonial Peru, the laws around manumission were influenced by the Siete Partidas , a Castilian law code. According to the Siete Partidas , masters who manumitted their slaves should be honored and obeyed by their former slaves for giving such

5320-481: The two decades after the American Revolutionary War , so many slaveholders accomplished manumissions by deed or in wills that the proportion of free black people to the total number of black people rose from less than 1% to 10% in the Upper South. In Virginia, the proportion of free black people increased from 1% in 1782 to 7% in 1800. Together with several Northern states abolishing slavery during that period,

5396-516: The world's first cash machine , in Enfield ; Barclays Bank, Enfield . The British actor Reg Varney was the first person to use the machine. In 1969, a planned merger with Martins Bank and Lloyds Bank was blocked by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission , but the acquisition of Martins Bank on its own was later permitted. Also that year, the British Linen Bank subsidiary was sold to

5472-482: Was a result of the Glass–Steagall Act of 1933. In both countries, however, since the 1980s the regulatory barrier to the combination of investment banks and commercial banks has largely been removed, and a number of universal banks have emerged in both jurisdictions. In other countries, the concept is less relevant as there was no regulatory distinction between investment banks and commercial banks. Thus, banks of

5548-628: Was critical to Germany's industrialization. More recently, Emory University economist Caroline Fohlin has questioned the validity of the Gerschenkron hypothesis. Notable examples of universal banks include Bank of America , Citigroup , JPMorgan Chase , and Wells Fargo of the United States; UBS and Credit Suisse of Switzerland ; BNP Paribas , Crédit Agricole and Société Générale of France ; Barclays , HSBC , Lloyds Banking Group , NatWest Group and Standard Chartered of

5624-488: Was not uncommon for ex-slaves to purchase family members or friends in order to free them. For example, ex-slave Susannah Ostrehan became a successful businesswoman in Barbados and purchased many of her acquaintances. For Jamaica, manumission went largely unregulated until the 1770s, when manumitters had to post a bond in order to ensure those that they freed did not become wards of the parish. One quantitative analysis of

5700-531: Was the nomen (see Roman naming conventions ) of the master's gens . The former owner became the patron ( patronus ) and the freed slave became a client ( cliens ) and retained certain obligations to the former master, who owed certain obligations in return. A freed slave could also acquire multiple patrons. A freed slave became a citizen. Not all citizens, however, held the same freedoms and privileges. In particular contrast, women could become citizens , but female Roman citizenship did not allow anywhere near

5776-827: Was to be used for Barclays mortgages. Barclays also exited retail-banking operations in the Caribbean-region which extended as far back as 1837 through selling of its joint venture stake in FirstCaribbean International Bank (FCIB) to CIBC for between $ 989 million and $ 1.08 billion. In March 2007, Barclays announced plans to merge with ABN AMRO , the largest bank in the Netherlands. However, on 5 October 2007 Barclays announced that it had abandoned its bid, citing inadequate support by ABN shareholders. Fewer than 80% of shares had been tendered to Barclays' cash-and-shares offer. This left

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