116-547: The Barrier Daily Truth was a local newspaper for the mining town of Broken Hill in New South Wales, Australia . It covered a range of stories that affect local residents, including industrial news relating to the mines and stories submitted by readers such as local sport stories. The paper also covered national news events of importance. It was owned by the Barrier Industrial Council and
232-525: A 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge rail link from Broken Hill to Menindee was opened, mainly to transport water from the Darling River to Broken Hill. Earlier sections of what became the Broken Hill railway line had been opened as early as 1885, reaching Trida in 1919, but a 257 kilometres (160 miles) gap remained between Trida and Menindee. It
348-593: A 1067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) narrow-gauge railway line that ran north from Broken Hill for about 40 miles (64 km) to an area of limestone deposit which was transported to Broken Hill for use in the smelters at the mines. The tramway opened in 1891 but closed in 1898 as the smelters moved to Port Pirie . In 1889 the Public Works Committee of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly recommended that
464-635: A street tramway to provide public transport around town and to the mines. Eventually the NSW Government decided to build one, which was opened in 1902. It was operated by steam trams transferred from Sydney by sea and then by rail across South Australia. After World War I it sustained increasing losses until the New South Wales Government closed the system in 1926. A curiosity was the Tarrawingee Tramway ,
580-475: A women's section was added to the paper, and sporting news and racing results were also included in the paper. This had the effect of doubling the paper's circulation in about nine months. The paper changed its name to the Barrier Daily Truth in 1908 and Volume 1, number 1 under the new title was published on 2 November 1908. The masthead on that first issue reads: Barrier Daily Truth with which
696-540: A Turkish Flag and fired upon a trainload of people who were headed to a New Years Day picnic. Since Australia was at war at the time with the Ottoman Empire , the men were first thought to be Turkish , but were later identified as being from the British colony of India (modern day Pakistan). They killed four and wounded six, before they were killed by a group of policemen and soldiers. The battle witnessed one of
812-433: A density of 11.34 g/cm , which is greater than that of common metals such as iron (7.87 g/cm ), copper (8.93 g/cm ), and zinc (7.14 g/cm ). This density is the origin of the idiom to go over like a lead balloon . Some rarer metals are denser: tungsten and gold are both at 19.3 g/cm , and osmium —the densest metal known—has a density of 22.59 g/cm , almost twice that of lead. Lead
928-492: A few radioactive isotopes. One of them is lead-210; although it has a half-life of only 22.2 years, small quantities occur in nature because lead-210 is produced by a long decay series that starts with uranium-238 (that has been present for billions of years on Earth). Lead-211, −212, and −214 are present in the decay chains of uranium-235, thorium-232, and uranium-238, respectively, so traces of all three of these lead isotopes are found naturally. Minute traces of lead-209 arise from
1044-641: A maximum transmission rate of 40 megawatts was built at Broken Hill in 1986, to draw from the National Grid. It consists of 2 static inverters working with a voltage of 8.33 kV. After this station was operational, the two other power stations closed and the equipment was gradually removed from the Central Power Station. The mothballed Southern Power Station, now owned by remnant miner Perilya, still houses five, 9 cylinder, Nordberg marine engines and two Mirrlees V16 marine engines. In 2010,
1160-558: A neutron and become thallium-204; this undergoes beta decay to give stable lead-204; on capturing another neutron, it becomes lead-205, which has a half-life of around 17 million years. Further captures result in lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208. On capturing another neutron, lead-208 becomes lead-209, which quickly decays into bismuth-209. On capturing another neutron, bismuth-209 becomes bismuth-210, and this beta decays to polonium-210, which alpha decays to lead-206. The cycle hence ends at lead-206, lead-207, lead-208, and bismuth-209. In
1276-466: A polyhedral vertex and contributes two electrons to each covalent bond along an edge from their sp hybrid orbitals, the other two being an external lone pair . They may be made in liquid ammonia via the reduction of lead by sodium . Lead can form multiply-bonded chains , a property it shares with its lighter homologs in the carbon group. Its capacity to do so is much less because the Pb–Pb bond energy
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#17327871857941392-833: A proper newspaper, and in July 1899 the newspaper became owned by the Barrier District Australasian Labor Federation and was published by William Arthur Jones. At this time it became the official organ of the Barrier District Council of the Australian Labor Federation. Later the owner became the Barrier Industrial Council. Between 1899 and 1902 the paper published very little other than local news and general Labour news. In 1902
1508-532: A public inquiry. Parts of the town received record rainfall totals since records began in 1884, with total exceeding 140 mm (5.5 in) fell in a 24-hour period on 16 March 2022. The main street resembled a river in the floods that followed resulting in the death of one man. Broken Hill has a number of heritage-listed sites, including: The town was listed in 2001 as a National Engineering Landmark by Engineers Australia as part of its Engineering Heritage Recognition Program . In 2015, Broken Hill became
1624-757: A relative oasis amid the harsh climate of the Australian outback. High evaporation rates have resulted in the policy of using the local storage for supply before using the pipeline. In 2004, due to severe drought across much of the Murray Darling Basin Catchment area, the Darling River ceased to flow and the Menindee Lakes dried out. Broken Hill essentially ran out of water, with a muddy sludge coming out of some taps around Christmas time in 2004. The high salt content of
1740-470: A rich trade union history. Some of the most bitter industrial disputes have been fought in Broken Hill in 1892, 1909 and 1919. The last of these led to the formation in 1923 of the Barrier Industrial Council , a group of 18 trade unions, which became one of the most influential organisations in the politics of the city. Like many "outback" towns, Broken Hill was built on precious metals, having once had
1856-437: A significant partial positive charge on lead. The result is a stronger contraction of the lead 6s orbital than is the case for the 6p orbital, making it rather inert in ionic compounds. The inert pair effect is less applicable to compounds in which lead forms covalent bonds with elements of similar electronegativity, such as carbon in organolead compounds. In these, the 6s and 6p orbitals remain similarly sized and sp hybridization
1972-438: A single decay chain). In total, 43 lead isotopes have been synthesized, with mass numbers 178–220. Lead-205 is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of around 1.70 × 10 years. The second-most stable is lead-202, which has a half-life of about 52,500 years, longer than any of the natural trace radioisotopes. Bulk lead exposed to moist air forms a protective layer of varying composition. Lead(II) carbonate
2088-452: A structure, with every alternate layer of oxygen atoms absent. Negative oxidation states can occur as Zintl phases , as either free lead anions, as in Ba 2 Pb, with lead formally being lead(−IV), or in oxygen-sensitive ring-shaped or polyhedral cluster ions such as the trigonal bipyramidal Pb 5 ion, where two lead atoms are lead(−I) and three are lead(0). In such anions, each atom is at
2204-524: A twice weekly coach service to Adelaide . NSW Trainlink also operates a coach service, Coach 588, to Mildura , on Wednesdays and Fridays. Regional Express operates air services from Broken Hill Airport to and from Adelaide , Dubbo , Griffith , Melbourne via Mildura and Sydney . Silver City Scenic Flights provide local scenic flights over the city, longer air safaris to various destinations in outback Australia and also private air charter services from Broken Hill Airport . Local public transport
2320-542: Is Adelaide , the capital of South Australia, which is more than 500 km (310 mi) to the southwest and linked via route A32, the Barrier Highway . The town is prominent in Australia's mining, industrial relations and economic history after the discovery of silver - lead - zinc ore led to the opening of various mines , thus establishing Broken Hill's recognition as a prosperous mining town well into
2436-590: Is 6 times higher, copper 10 times, and mild steel 15 times higher); it can be strengthened by adding small amounts of copper or antimony . The melting point of lead—at 327.5 °C (621.5 °F) —is very low compared to most metals. Its boiling point of 1749 °C (3180 °F) is the lowest among the carbon-group elements. The electrical resistivity of lead at 20 °C is 192 nanoohm -meters, almost an order of magnitude higher than those of other industrial metals (copper at 15.43 nΩ·m ; gold 20.51 nΩ·m ; and aluminium at 24.15 nΩ·m ). Lead
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#17327871857942552-541: Is Australia's longest-lived mining city. In 1844, the explorer Charles Sturt saw and named the Barrier Range , and at the time referred to a "Broken Hill" in his diary. Silver ore was later discovered on this broken hill in 1883 by boundary rider Charles Rasp . The broken hill that gave its name to Broken Hill actually consisted of a number of hills that appeared to have a break in them. This broken hill no longer exists, having been mined away. The area
2668-521: Is a chemical element ; it has symbol Pb (from Latin plumbum ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable , and also has a relatively low melting point . When freshly cut, lead is a shiny gray with a hint of blue. It tarnishes to a dull gray color when exposed to air. Lead has the highest atomic number of any stable element and three of its isotopes are endpoints of major nuclear decay chains of heavier elements. Lead
2784-520: Is a neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bones. It damages the nervous system and interferes with the function of biological enzymes , causing neurological disorders ranging from behavioral problems to brain damage, and also affects general health, cardiovascular, and renal systems. Lead's toxicity was first documented by ancient Greek and Roman writers, who noted some of the symptoms of lead poisoning , but became widely recognized in Europe in
2900-401: Is a superconductor at temperatures lower than 7.19 K ; this is the highest critical temperature of all type-I superconductors and the third highest of the elemental superconductors. Natural lead consists of four stable isotopes with mass numbers of 204, 206, 207, and 208, and traces of six short-lived radioisotopes with mass numbers 209–214 inclusive. The high number of isotopes
3016-420: Is a common constituent; the sulfate or chloride may also be present in urban or maritime settings. This layer makes bulk lead effectively chemically inert in the air. Finely powdered lead, as with many metals, is pyrophoric , and burns with a bluish-white flame. Fluorine reacts with lead at room temperature, forming lead(II) fluoride . The reaction with chlorine is similar but requires heating, as
3132-723: Is a mixed sulfide derived from galena; anglesite , PbSO 4 , is a product of galena oxidation; and cerussite or white lead ore, PbCO 3 , is a decomposition product of galena. Arsenic , tin , antimony , silver , gold , copper , bismuth are common impurities in lead minerals. World lead resources exceed two billion tons. Significant deposits are located in Australia, China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Russia, United States. Global reserves—resources that are economically feasible to extract—totaled 88 million tons in 2016, of which Australia had 35 million, China 17 million, Russia 6.4 million. Typical background concentrations of lead do not exceed 0.1 μg/m in
3248-420: Is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal . Its weak metallic character is illustrated by its amphoteric nature; lead and lead oxides react with acids and bases , and it tends to form covalent bonds . Compounds of lead are usually found in the +2 oxidation state rather than the +4 state common with lighter members of the carbon group . Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead compounds . Like
3364-426: Is a strong oxidizing agent, capable of oxidizing hydrochloric acid to chlorine gas. This is because the expected PbCl 4 that would be produced is unstable and spontaneously decomposes to PbCl 2 and Cl 2 . Analogously to lead monoxide , lead dioxide is capable of forming plumbate anions. Lead disulfide and lead diselenide are only stable at high pressures. Lead tetrafluoride , a yellow crystalline powder,
3480-404: Is a very soft metal with a Mohs hardness of 1.5; it can be scratched with a fingernail. It is quite malleable and somewhat ductile. The bulk modulus of lead—a measure of its ease of compressibility—is 45.8 GPa . In comparison, that of aluminium is 75.2 GPa; copper 137.8 GPa; and mild steel 160–169 GPa. Lead's tensile strength , at 12–17 MPa, is low (that of aluminium
3596-445: Is common for the carbon group. The divalent state is rare for carbon and silicon , minor for germanium, important (but not prevailing) for tin, and is the more important of the two oxidation states for lead. This is attributable to relativistic effects , specifically the inert pair effect , which manifests itself when there is a large difference in electronegativity between lead and oxide , halide , or nitride anions, leading to
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3712-408: Is consistent with lead's atomic number being even. Lead has a magic number of protons (82), for which the nuclear shell model accurately predicts an especially stable nucleus. Lead-208 has 126 neutrons, another magic number, which may explain why lead-208 is extraordinarily stable. With its high atomic number, lead is the heaviest element whose natural isotopes are regarded as stable; lead-208
3828-414: Is exploited in the synthesis of other lead compounds. Few inorganic lead(IV) compounds are known. They are only formed in highly oxidizing solutions and do not normally exist under standard conditions. Lead(II) oxide gives a mixed oxide on further oxidation, Pb 3 O 4 . It is described as lead(II,IV) oxide , or structurally 2PbO·PbO 2 , and is the best-known mixed valence lead compound. Lead dioxide
3944-524: Is incorporated the Barrier Truth, established 1898. At this time the paper also changed from a weekly to a daily publication. Construction began on the building in which the Barrier Daily Truth currently resides on 31 October 1904. It was completed in February 1905 and a second story added in 1908. In the late 1970s the building was refurbished to house a modern offset press . From 1941 to 1951
4060-502: Is more prevalent than most other elements with atomic numbers greater than 40. Primordial lead—which comprises the isotopes lead-204, lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208—was mostly created as a result of repetitive neutron capture processes occurring in stars. The two main modes of capture are the s- and r-processes . In the s-process (s is for "slow"), captures are separated by years or decades, allowing less stable nuclei to undergo beta decay . A stable thallium-203 nucleus can capture
4176-469: Is near the border with South Australia on the crossing of the Barrier Highway (A32) and the Silver City Highway (B79), in the Barrier Range . It is 315 m (1,033 ft) above sea level, with a cold semi-arid climate , and an average rainfall of 265 mm (10.4 in). The closest major city is Mildura , 300 km (190 mi) to the south and the nearest State Capital City
4292-650: Is not stable, as both the lead(III) ion and the larger complexes containing it are radicals . The same applies for lead(I), which can be found in such radical species. Numerous mixed lead(II,IV) oxides are known. When PbO 2 is heated in air, it becomes Pb 12 O 19 at 293 °C, Pb 12 O 17 at 351 °C, Pb 3 O 4 at 374 °C, and finally PbO at 605 °C. A further sesquioxide , Pb 2 O 3 , can be obtained at high pressure, along with several non-stoichiometric phases. Many of them show defective fluorite structures in which some oxygen atoms are replaced by vacancies: PbO can be considered as having such
4408-741: Is over three and a half times lower than that of the C–C bond . With itself, lead can build metal–metal bonds of an order up to three. With carbon, lead forms organolead compounds similar to, but generally less stable than, typical organic compounds (due to the Pb–C bond being rather weak). This makes the organometallic chemistry of lead far less wide-ranging than that of tin. Lead predominantly forms organolead(IV) compounds, even when starting with inorganic lead(II) reactants; very few organolead(II) compounds are known. The most well-characterized exceptions are Pb[CH(SiMe 3 ) 2 ] 2 and plumbocene . The lead analog of
4524-533: Is provided by CDC Broken Hill , operating four city bus routes from Monday to Saturday. The city is also serviced by two urban taxi companies. Broken Hill has a cold semi arid climate ( BSk ) under the Köppen climate classification . Winters in Broken Hill are relatively cool; while summers are mostly hot and dry, with the odd cold front that causes a sharp temperature drop from time to time, on account of its far western longitude exposing it to cold airmasses off
4640-415: Is stable, but less so than the difluoride . Lead tetrachloride (a yellow oil) decomposes at room temperature, lead tetrabromide is less stable still, and the existence of lead tetraiodide is questionable. Some lead compounds exist in formal oxidation states other than +4 or +2. Lead(III) may be obtained, as an intermediate between lead(II) and lead(IV), in larger organolead complexes; this oxidation state
4756-413: Is still energetically favorable. Lead, like carbon, is predominantly tetravalent in such compounds. There is a relatively large difference in the electronegativity of lead(II) at 1.87 and lead(IV) at 2.33. This difference marks the reversal in the trend of increasing stability of the +4 oxidation state going down the carbon group; tin, by comparison, has values of 1.80 in the +2 oxidation state and 1.96 in
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4872-448: Is the heaviest stable nucleus. (This distinction formerly fell to bismuth , with an atomic number of 83, until its only primordial isotope , bismuth-209, was found in 2003 to decay very slowly.) The four stable isotopes of lead could theoretically undergo alpha decay to isotopes of mercury with a release of energy, but this has not been observed for any of them; their predicted half-lives range from 10 to 10 years (at least 10 times
4988-538: Is the origin of the English word " plumbing ". Its ease of working, its low melting point enabling the easy fabrication of completely waterproof welded joints, and its resistance to corrosion ensured its widespread use in other applications, including pharmaceuticals, roofing, currency, warfare. Writers of the time, such as Cato the Elder , Columella , and Pliny the Elder , recommended lead (and lead-coated) vessels for
5104-525: Is the so-called inert pair effect : the 6s electrons of lead become reluctant to participate in bonding, stabilising the +2 oxidation state and making the distance between nearest atoms in crystalline lead unusually long. Lead's lighter carbon group congeners form stable or metastable allotropes with the tetrahedrally coordinated and covalently bonded diamond cubic structure. The energy levels of their outer s- and p-orbitals are close enough to allow mixing into four hybrid sp orbitals. In lead,
5220-446: Is usefully exploited: lead tetraacetate is an important laboratory reagent for oxidation in organic synthesis. Tetraethyllead, once added to automotive gasoline, was produced in larger quantities than any other organometallic compound, and is still widely used in fuel for small aircraft . Other organolead compounds are less chemically stable. For many organic compounds, a lead analog does not exist. Lead's per-particle abundance in
5336-594: The Barrier Daily Truth also published Wilcannia 's weekly newspaper Western Grazier . On Saturday, 28 March 2020, within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic , the Barrier Daily Truth suspended daily publication. Staff volunteered to produce a weekly newspaper and then received payment via the Australian Government's Jobkeeper program. By March 2024, the paper had reduced its output by four pages per edition due to staffing shortages. A month later
5452-458: The Barrier Range while searching for an inland sea; so naming it because it blocked his journey north. Pastoralists first began settling the area in the 1850s, and the main trade route to the area was along the Darling River . Broken Hill was founded in 1883 by boundary rider Charles Rasp , who patrolled the Mount Gipps fences. In 1883 he discovered what he thought was tin , but
5568-540: The Bight . The average maximum during the summer is about 33 °C (91 °F) with an average of 25% humidity, although storms and cooler weather do occur. Broken Hill averages 157.3 clear days per year. Dust storms are a common problem in the desert, but in the late 1930s the people of Broken Hill, led by Mr Keast of the Zinc Corporation mine, created green reserves to surround the town thus protecting it from
5684-630: The Phoenicians worked deposits in the Iberian peninsula ; by 1600 BC, lead mining existed in Cyprus , Greece , and Sardinia . Rome's territorial expansion in Europe and across the Mediterranean, and its development of mining, led to it becoming the greatest producer of lead during the classical era , with an estimated annual output peaking at 80,000 tonnes. Like their predecessors,
5800-671: The Solar System is 0.121 ppb (parts per billion). This figure is two and a half times higher than that of platinum , eight times more than mercury , and seventeen times more than gold . The amount of lead in the universe is slowly increasing as most heavier atoms (all of which are unstable) gradually decay to lead. The abundance of lead in the Solar System since its formation 4.5 billion years ago has increased by about 0.75%. The solar system abundances table shows that lead, despite its relatively high atomic number,
5916-804: The fall of Rome and did not reach comparable levels until the Industrial Revolution . Lead played a crucial role in the development of the printing press , as movable type could be relatively easily cast from lead alloys. In 2014, the annual global production of lead was about ten million tonnes, over half of which was from recycling. Lead's high density, low melting point, ductility and relative inertness to oxidation make it useful. These properties, combined with its relative abundance and low cost, resulted in its extensive use in construction , plumbing , batteries , bullets , shots , weights , solders , pewters , fusible alloys , lead paints , leaded gasoline , and radiation shielding . Lead
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#17327871857946032-401: The nucleus , and more shielded by smaller orbitals. The sum of the first four ionization energies of lead exceeds that of tin, contrary to what periodic trends would predict. This is explained by relativistic effects , which become significant in heavier atoms, which contract s and p orbitals such that lead's 6s electrons have larger binding energies than its 5s electrons. A consequence
6148-468: The +4 state. Lead(II) compounds are characteristic of the inorganic chemistry of lead. Even strong oxidizing agents like fluorine and chlorine react with lead to give only PbF 2 and PbCl 2 . Lead(II) ions are usually colorless in solution, and partially hydrolyze to form Pb(OH) and finally [Pb 4 (OH) 4 ] (in which the hydroxyl ions act as bridging ligands ), but are not reducing agents as tin(II) ions are. Techniques for identifying
6264-674: The 1990s. Despite experiencing a slowing economic situation into the late 1990s and 2000s, Broken Hill itself was listed on the National Heritage List in 2015 and remains Australia's longest running mining town. Broken Hill, historically considered one of Australia's boomtowns , has been referred to as "The Silver City", and less commonly as the "Oasis of the West", and the "Capital of the Outback ". Although over 1,100 km (680 mi) west of Sydney and surrounded by desert,
6380-458: The 19th and early 20th century Broken Hill was home to a community of Afghans. Afghans worked as camel drivers in parts of outback Australia, and they made a significant contribution to economic growth when transport options were limited. The camel drivers formed the first sizeable Muslim communities in Australia, and in Broken Hill they left their mark in the form of the first mosque in New South Wales (1880). Lead Lead (pronounced "led")
6496-524: The BHP mines at Broken Hill ceased 28 February 1939. BHP was not the only mining operation at Broken Hill though, and mining continued at the southern and northern ends of the Line of Lode. In the early 20th century, Broken Hill was a centre of mining innovation resulting in a viable froth flotation process. Currently the southern and northern operations are run by Perilya Limited, who plan to open further mines along
6612-422: The Central Power Station (CPS) buildings were handed back to Broken Hill City Council for a proposed re-development as a film studio, due to the perceived need for a facility in Broken Hill by some local people in preparation for the production of Mad Max: Fury Road . The historic machinery was all removed and presumably scrapped and the giant pits that the motors were housed in were filled with concrete to convert
6728-626: The Egyptians had used lead for sinkers in fishing nets , glazes , glasses , enamels , ornaments . Various civilizations of the Fertile Crescent used lead as a writing material , as coins , and as a construction material . Lead was used by the ancient Chinese as a stimulant , as currency , as contraceptive , and in chopsticks . The Indus Valley civilization and the Mesoamericans used it for making amulets ; and
6844-728: The Government take over the line and it subsequently became a narrow-gauge part of the New South Wales Government Railways (NSWGR) run under contract by the Silverton Tramway Company . An excursion train on the Silverton Tramway was fired on by two immigrant supporters of the wartime Ottoman Empire in 1915. They shot dead four people and wounded seven more before being killed by police and military officers. In 1919,
6960-621: The Line of Lode. In 1892 Broken Hill Gaol was built, designed by the Colonial Architect , James Barnet , who also designed the Sydney Museum , among others. Its construction cost £15,000, and was carried out by Dobbee and Son. It opened on 8 November 1892 as a 90-bed facility with five prison wardens and initially holding two female and 19 male prisoners. The Battle of Broken Hill took place on New Year's Day 1915 when two Afghan men, pushing an ice-cream cart, hoisted
7076-475: The Romans obtained lead mostly as a by-product of silver smelting. Lead mining occurred in central Europe , Britain , Balkans , Greece , Anatolia , Hispania , the latter accounting for 40% of world production. Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters. Lead coffins, cast in flat sand forms and with interchangeable motifs to suit the faith of the deceased, were used in ancient Judea . Lead
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#17327871857947192-571: The Silver City Energy Storage 200 MW / 1600 MWh (8-hour) compressed-air energy storage (CAES) facility in the Potosi mine is proposed for Broken Hill to balance local electricity. Broken Hill has never had a permanent local water supply that meets the town's needs. By 1888 when the town's population had reached 5,000, the state government built a series of small storage tanks. By the 1890s, mining development had increased to
7308-517: The area around Broken Hill are thought to have been the Wiljakali Indigenous Australians , once thought to have only intermittently lived in the area because of the lack of permanent water sources. The first British to enter the area was the 1844 expedition led by soldier and explorer Charles Sturt . He was guided there along Stephens Creek by an Indigenous teenager from Menindee called Topar . Sturt saw and named
7424-607: The atmosphere; 100 mg/kg in soil; 4 mg/kg in vegetation, 5 μg/L in fresh water and seawater. The modern English word lead is of Germanic origin; it comes from the Middle English leed and Old English lēad (with the macron above the "e" signifying that the vowel sound of that letter is long). The Old English word is derived from the hypothetical reconstructed Proto-Germanic * lauda- ('lead'). According to linguistic theory, this word bore descendants in multiple Germanic languages of exactly
7540-461: The average age of the populace as the young leave seeking work. In 2021, Broken Hill had an unemployment rate of 5.5%, which was higher than the state average of 4.9%. Broken Hill has always had a small indigenous community. In recent decades, the proportion of the population identifying as Aboriginal has increased markedly; from 0.6% in 1971 to 10.0% in 2021, partly owing to the migration of non-indigenous Australians away from Broken Hill. In
7656-416: The buildings into a warehouse type layout. The Broken Hill City Council has received considerable funding and spent a large amount of money and resources on establishing a film studio in the buildings but as at late 2014 these buildings remain largely empty and unused as the production of Fury Road shifted to Namibia , Africa, following higher than expected rainfall. The high potential for solar power given
7772-399: The closure and consolidation of mining operations. The estimated urban population of Broken Hill in 2021 was 17,588. The impact on Broken Hill's economy of the shrinking mining industry and the more efficient mining rates resulted in a higher proportion of part-time employment, higher employment participation rate by females, a general reduction in overall household incomes, and an increase in
7888-489: The course of the Earth's history, have remained in the crust instead of sinking deeper into the Earth's interior. This accounts for lead's relatively high crustal abundance of 14 ppm; it is the 36th most abundant element in the crust. The main lead-bearing mineral is galena (PbS), which is mostly found with zinc ores. Most other lead minerals are related to galena in some way; boulangerite , Pb 5 Sb 4 S 11 ,
8004-419: The current age of the universe). Three of the stable isotopes are found in three of the four major decay chains : lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208 are the final decay products of uranium-238 , uranium-235 , and thorium-232 , respectively. These decay chains are called the uranium chain , the actinium chain , and the thorium chain . Their isotopic concentrations in a natural rock sample depends greatly on
8120-428: The diiodide . Many lead(II) pseudohalides are known, such as the cyanide, cyanate, and thiocyanate . Lead(II) forms an extensive variety of halide coordination complexes , such as [PbCl 4 ] , [PbCl 6 ] , and the [Pb 2 Cl 9 ] n chain anion. Lead(II) sulfate is insoluble in water, like the sulfates of other heavy divalent cations . Lead(II) nitrate and lead(II) acetate are very soluble, and this
8236-614: The direct link to Sydney was completed. In 1937 the NSWGR placed the Silver City Comet into service – the first air-conditioned train in Australia, which ran between Broken Hill and Parkes . During World War II, land transportation between South Australia and the eastern states became important because of the threat posed by submarines and mines to coastal shipping. Extensive transshipment yards were constructed at Broken Hill in 1942 to allow transshipment of munitions. With
8352-525: The eastern and southern Africans used lead in wire drawing . Because silver was extensively used as a decorative material and an exchange medium, lead deposits came to be worked in Asia Minor from 3000 BC; later, lead deposits were developed in the Aegean and Laurion . These three regions collectively dominated production of mined lead until c. 1200 BC . Beginning c. 2000 BC,
8468-578: The element its chemical symbol Pb . The word * ɸloud-io- is thought to be the origin of Proto-Germanic * bliwa- (which also means 'lead'), from which stemmed the German Blei . The name of the chemical element is not related to the verb of the same spelling, which is derived from Proto-Germanic * laidijan- ('to lead'). Metallic lead beads dating back to 7000–6500 BC have been found in Asia Minor and may represent
8584-490: The extensive daily hours of sunshine in the town led to construction of the 53 MW Broken Hill Solar Plant by AGL Energy . It was funded and supported by the Australian Government and New South Wales Government in a bid to encourage the move away from coal generated power in favour of renewable energy . The plant was completed in 2016 and was one of the largest in Australia at the time. From 2020,
8700-400: The first city in Australia to be included on the National Heritage List . By the 1920s most of the nine mines on the Line of Lode had their own steam-powered electrical generators to power the surface and underground workings. As Broken Hill is in a desert with little water and virtually no fuel, steam generation was an expensive option. In 1927 a plan for a central power-generating facility
8816-413: The first example of metal smelting . At that time, lead had few (if any) applications due to its softness and dull appearance. The major reason for the spread of lead production was its association with silver, which may be obtained by burning galena (a common lead mineral). The Ancient Egyptians were the first to use lead minerals in cosmetics, an application that spread to Ancient Greece and beyond;
8932-469: The first shots on Australian soil during World War I . In 1918, the Italian Ambassador to Australia, Emilio Eles, with the help of the Australian police and the army, organised the roundup of Italian deserters working there as miners, to be forcibly sent back to Italy to fight in the war. Broken Hill is also known for its input into the formation of the labour movement in Australia, and has
9048-430: The group. Lead dihalides are well-characterized; this includes the diastatide and mixed halides, such as PbFCl. The relative insolubility of the latter forms a useful basis for the gravimetric determination of fluorine. The difluoride was the first solid ionically conducting compound to be discovered (in 1834, by Michael Faraday ). The other dihalides decompose on exposure to ultraviolet or visible light, especially
9164-449: The inert pair effect increases the separation between its s- and p-orbitals, and the gap cannot be overcome by the energy that would be released by extra bonds following hybridization. Rather than having a diamond cubic structure, lead forms metallic bonds in which only the p-electrons are delocalized and shared between the Pb ions. Lead consequently has a face-centered cubic structure like
9280-447: The late 19th century AD. A lead atom has 82 electrons , arranged in an electron configuration of [ Xe ]4f 5d 6s 6p . The sum of lead's first and second ionization energies —the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons—is close to that of tin , lead's upper neighbor in the carbon group . This is unusual; ionization energies generally fall going down a group, as an element's outer electrons become more distant from
9396-560: The latter being stable only above around 488 °C. Litharge is the most commonly used inorganic compound of lead. There is no lead(II) hydroxide; increasing the pH of solutions of lead(II) salts leads to hydrolysis and condensation. Lead commonly reacts with heavier chalcogens. Lead sulfide is a semiconductor , a photoconductor , and an extremely sensitive infrared radiation detector . The other two chalcogenides, lead selenide and lead telluride , are likewise photoconducting. They are unusual in that their color becomes lighter going down
9512-441: The latter is not; this allows for lead–lead dating . As uranium decays into lead, their relative amounts change; this is the basis for uranium–lead dating . Lead-207 exhibits nuclear magnetic resonance , a property that has been used to study its compounds in solution and solid state, including in the human body. Apart from the stable isotopes, which make up almost all lead that exists naturally, there are trace quantities of
9628-461: The lighter members of the group, lead tends to bond with itself ; it can form chains and polyhedral structures. Since lead is easily extracted from its ores , prehistoric people in the Near East were aware of it . Galena is a principal ore of lead which often bears silver. Interest in silver helped initiate widespread extraction and use of lead in ancient Rome . Lead production declined after
9744-585: The mines and timber for the timber sets used underground in mining. The Silverton Tramway Company was the most profitable railway company on the Australia Stock Exchange. The main sidings and locomotive servicing facilities were in Railwaytown, a suburb of Broken Hill, with sidings running to the south and north to serve the mines. The main passenger station was at Sulphide Street . From the later 1890s, Broken Hill Council campaigned for
9860-539: The neutrons are arranged in complete shells in the atomic nucleus, and it becomes harder to energetically accommodate more of them. When the neutron flux subsides, these nuclei beta decay into stable isotopes of osmium , iridium , platinum . Lead is classified as a chalcophile under the Goldschmidt classification , meaning it is generally found combined with sulfur. It rarely occurs in its native , metallic form. Many lead minerals are relatively light and, over
9976-701: The paper was shuttered. Some issues of the paper published in 1908, and many issues published between 1941 and 1954 have been digitised as part of the Australian Newspapers Digitisation Program , a project of the National Library of Australia in cooperation with the State Library of New South Wales . Broken Hill, New South Wales Broken Hill is a city in the far west region of outback New South Wales , Australia. An inland mining city, it
10092-551: The point that there was a severe water shortage and the mines and the people fought for water. Emergency water supplies were shipped by rail from the Darling River . In 1891, the Stephens Creek Reservoir was completed by a private company. The cost of water was high but not excessive and people were willing to pay because the environment was arid. Another reservoir was built at Umberumberka, however variable rainfall meant supplemental supplies by rail and rationing
10208-418: The preparation of sweeteners and preservatives added to wine and food. The lead conferred an agreeable taste due to the formation of "sugar of lead" ( lead(II) acetate ), whereas copper vessels imparted a bitter flavor through verdigris formation. This metal was by far the most used material in classical antiquity, and it is appropriate to refer to the (Roman) Lead Age. Lead was to the Romans what plastic
10324-414: The presence of the Pb ion in water generally rely on the precipitation of lead(II) chloride using dilute hydrochloric acid. As the chloride salt is sparingly soluble in water, in very dilute solutions the precipitation of lead(II) sulfide is instead achieved by bubbling hydrogen sulfide through the solution. Lead monoxide exists in two polymorphs , litharge α-PbO (red) and massicot β-PbO (yellow),
10440-422: The presence of these three parent uranium and thorium isotopes. For example, the relative abundance of lead-208 can range from 52% in normal samples to 90% in thorium ores; for this reason, the standard atomic weight of lead is given to only one decimal place. As time passes, the ratio of lead-206 and lead-207 to lead-204 increases, since the former two are supplemented by radioactive decay of heavier elements while
10556-639: The purchase of the Sulphide Corporation by the Zinc Corporation in 1948, the modern Cockle Creek Smelter was constructed south of Newcastle . This started to take lead and zinc concentrates directly from Broken Hill via rail in the 1960s via the W44 concentrate train , marking the first major use of the rail link to the eastern seaboard. In 1970 the 1,067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) gauge railway from Broken Hill to Port Pirie
10672-432: The r-process (r is for "rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay. This occurs in environments with a high neutron density, such as a supernova or the merger of two neutron stars . The neutron flux involved may be on the order of 10 neutrons per square centimeter per second. The r-process does not form as much lead as the s-process. It tends to stop once neutron-rich nuclei reach 126 neutrons. At this point,
10788-541: The resulting chloride layer diminishes the reactivity of the elements. Molten lead reacts with the chalcogens to give lead(II) chalcogenides. Lead metal resists sulfuric and phosphoric acid but not hydrochloric or nitric acid ; the outcome depends on insolubility and subsequent passivation of the product salt. Organic acids, such as acetic acid , dissolve lead in the presence of oxygen. Concentrated alkalis dissolve lead and form plumbites . Lead shows two main oxidation states: +4 and +2. The tetravalent state
10904-470: The same time zone used in nearby South Australia . This is because at the time the Australian dominions adopted standard time, Broken Hill's only direct rail link was with Adelaide, not Sydney . Similarly, Broken Hill is regarded as part of South Australia for the purposes of postal parcels rates and telephone charges. Broken Hill also used to be a break of gauge station where the state railway systems of South Australia and New South Wales met. Broken Hill
11020-518: The same meaning. There is no consensus on the origin of the Proto-Germanic * lauda- . One hypothesis suggests it is derived from Proto-Indo-European * lAudh- ('lead'; capitalization of the vowel is equivalent to the macron). Another hypothesis suggests it is borrowed from Proto-Celtic * ɸloud-io- ('lead'). This word is related to the Latin plumbum , which gave
11136-553: The samples proved to be silver and lead . The orebody they came from proved to be the largest and richest of its kind in the world. Rasp and six associates founded the Broken Hill Proprietary Company (BHP), later BHP Billiton, and now BHP again, in 1885 as the Syndicate of Seven . By 1915 BHP had realised that its ore reserves were limited and began to diversify into steel production . Mining at
11252-491: The similarly sized divalent metals calcium and strontium . Pure lead has a bright, shiny gray appearance with a hint of blue. It tarnishes on contact with moist air and takes on a dull appearance, the hue of which depends on the prevailing conditions. Characteristic properties of lead include high density , malleability, ductility, and high resistance to corrosion due to passivation . Lead's close-packed face-centered cubic structure and high atomic weight result in
11368-588: The simplest organic compound , methane , is plumbane . Plumbane may be obtained in a reaction between metallic lead and atomic hydrogen. Two simple derivatives, tetramethyllead and tetraethyllead , are the best-known organolead compounds. These compounds are relatively stable: tetraethyllead only starts to decompose if heated or if exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet light. With sodium metal, lead readily forms an equimolar alloy that reacts with alkyl halides to form organometallic compounds such as tetraethyllead. The oxidizing nature of many organolead compounds
11484-600: The town has prominent park and garden displays and offers a number of attractions, such as the Living Desert Sculptures. The town has a high potential for solar power , given its extensive daylight hours of sunshine. In the Broken Hill region the major Aboriginal language groups are the Paakantji , Mayyankapa, and Nyiimpaa. Unlike the rest of New South Wales, Broken Hill (and the surrounding region) observes Australian Central Standard Time ( UTC+9:30 ),
11600-403: The very rare cluster decay of radium-223, one of the daughter products of natural uranium-235, and the decay chain of neptunium-237, traces of which are produced by neutron capture in uranium ores. Lead-213 also occurs in the decay chain of neptunium-237. Lead-210 is particularly useful for helping to identify the ages of samples by measuring its ratio to lead-206 (both isotopes are present in
11716-456: The water led to a lot of damage to evaporative air conditioners and rusted out hot water systems at an alarming rate. Due to the over-extraction of water from the tributaries to the Darling River in the early part of the 21st century, the Menindee pipeline became an insecure supply for the city, in its harsh semi-arid climate. In April 2019, a new New South Wales Government -funded pipeline
11832-584: The world's richest deposits of lead, zinc and silver. Although now depleted somewhat, mining still yields around two million tonnes annually. Some mine tours are available. Sheep farming is now one of the principal industries in the area and there are considerably more sheep than people – almost 2 million Merino sheep. On 10 January 2007, the Broken Hill City Council was dismissed by the NSW Minister for Local Government following
11948-416: The worst of the storms. Dew points in the summer average between 4.6 and 7.8 °C (40.3 and 46.0 °F). In 1933, Broken Hill was the third largest urban incorporated area in New South Wales, having a population of 26,925. Broken Hill's population peaked at around 30,000 in the early 1960s and has shrunk by one third since the heyday of the 1970s zinc boom, with the decrease attributed to migration from
12064-544: Was a problem until the Adelaide narrow gauge railway link was finished in 1888. Since the New South Wales Government would not allow the South Australian Government to continue its 1067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) narrow-gauge railway across the border to the mines, the last 31 kilometres (19 miles) were built and operated by a private company, the Silverton Tramway Company . "Silverton"
12180-605: Was commissioned. The pipeline was constructed in a joint venture between John Holland Group , MPC Kinetic Group and TRILITY, running 270 km (170 mi) from Wentworth on the Murray River. There are four pumping stations along the route and a 720-megalitre (25-million-cubic-foot; 190-million-US-gallon) bulk water storage facility 25 kilometres (16 mi) south of Broken Hill. The pipeline can supply up to 37.4 megalitres (1.3 million cubic feet; 9.9 million US gallons) of raw water per day. The city's isolation
12296-697: Was enlarged in 1950 to cope with increased demand from the North Mine. At the same time, a new power station run by the Southern Power Corporation (owned by Consolidated Zinc ) was erected near the New Broken Hill Consolidated Mine to provide power to the southern end of the Line of Lode. Both stations were connected to a common grid that serviced the mines on the Line of Lode . A HVDC back-to-back station with
12412-566: Was finally closed in 1925, resulting in a continuous route from Sydney to Broken Hill. The terminus for the train was at Crystal Street station , 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) from the Silverton Tramway Company's Sulphide Street station . The rolling stock was transported by sea to South Australia and the railway was supervised by the superintendent of the Broken Hill Government Tramways. In 1927,
12528-492: Was incorporated into the name because the railway was originally intended to serve the mining town of Silverton . However, by the time the railway reached Silverton it was already being eclipsed by the newer and bigger mine at Broken Hill. The main purpose of the railway was to transport concentrates and ores from the mines to the smelters and port facilities on the coast at Port Pirie , South Australia. Backloading to Broken Hill transported supplies, principally coal for boilers at
12644-565: Was introduced in 1996; it arrives from Sydney on Mondays at 19:10, departing Broken Hill on Tuesdays at 07:45 for the return to Sydney. NSW TrainLink also operates a daily road coach service, departing the Broken Hill Tourist Information Centre at 03:45, connecting at Dubbo with the Central West XPT to Sydney. The return journey arrives daily at 22:45. On 24 June 2019, NSW TrainLink introduced
12760-418: Was known as the Broken Hill by early pastoralists. Miners called the ore body the Line of Lode. A unique mineral recently identified from Broken Hill has been named Nyholmite after Ron Nyholm (1917–1971). Lead with the isotope signature of the Broken Hill deposits has been found across the entire continent of Antarctica in ice cores dating back to the late nineteenth century. The earliest human settlers in
12876-477: Was one of the few small newspapers in Australia to remain locally owned. The Barrier Truth started in 1898 as a weekly English language news sheet. It was printed by Thomas Nicholls, for the proprietor Nicholas James Buzacott from 1898 to 1908. Initially it was printed in Adelaide until 10 September 1898 and it began to be printed locally in Broken Hill. In 1899 the news sheet format was abandoned in favour of
12992-438: Was originally known as Willyama. Broken Hill's massive orebody , which formed about 1,800 million years ago, has proved to be among the world's largest silver – lead – zinc mineral deposits. The orebody is shaped like a boomerang plunging into the earth at its ends and outcropping in the centre. The protruding tip of the orebody stood out as a jagged rocky ridge amongst undulating plain country on either side. This
13108-478: Was proposed by F. J. Mars, consulting electrical engineer with the Central Mine. The proposed powerhouse would provide electricity and compressed air. The mines agreed and formed Western New South Wales Electric Power Pty Ltd to construct and operate the plant. The Sulzer diesel-powered plant was completed in 1931. This was one of the earliest examples of the use of diesel power generation in Australia. The plant
13224-490: Was still needed. In 1952, Broken Hill's demands for a permanent water supply were met with the completion of a 61 cm (24 in) pipeline from Menindee . The pipeline could supply 1.6 megalitres (57,000 cu ft; 420,000 US gal) of water per hour. Water storage facilities that are part of the Menindee Lakes Scheme on the Darling River secured the water supply to Broken Hill, making it
13340-641: Was superseded by a more heavily built 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) gauge line, broadly following the narrow gauge route but with easier gradients and broader curves. This completed the long-awaited transcontinental rail corridor from Sydney to Perth. Broken Hill railway station is one of the stops of the Indian Pacific passenger service, operated by the Journey Beyond , from Sydney to Perth via Adelaide . The weekly NSW TrainLink Outback Xplorer service
13456-534: Was used to make sling bullets from the 5th century BC. In Roman times, lead sling bullets were amply used, and were effective at a distance of between 100 and 150 meters. The Balearic slingers , used as mercenaries in Carthaginian and Roman armies, were famous for their shooting distance and accuracy. Lead was used for making water pipes in the Roman Empire ; the Latin word for the metal, plumbum ,
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