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93-672: From 1672 to 1697, a series of wars with France demonstrated the Dutch Republic's vulnerability to invasion via the Spanish Netherlands , which led to debate on how to design fortifications effective in the flat terrain of the Netherlands and where to locate them. That resulted in the concept of forward defence or so-called Barrier Fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands to provide strategic depth . It

186-581: A Hook rebellion in Holland and Flemish revolts . Maximilian prevailed with the support of Duke Albert III of Saxony and his son Philip the Handsome , husband of Joanna of Castile, could assume the rule over the Habsburg Netherlands in 1493. Philip as well as his son and successor Charles V retained the title of a " Duke of Burgundy " referring to their Burgundian inheritance, notably

279-483: A Franco-Bavarian army was defeated at Pfaffenhofen on 15 April. With most of his electorate once again occupied, on 22 April he signed the Treaty of Füssen , in which he agreed to vote for Francis Stephen as Emperor, and made peace with Austria. Prussia was now isolated; attempts by Frederick to divide his opponents by supporting Frederick Augustus of Saxony for Emperor were unsuccessful, while neither Britain or Russia

372-751: A French army invaded the Austrian Netherlands . As in 1744, they were greatly helped by divisions between the Pragmatic Allies, making it very difficult to formulate a consistent strategy. The British and Hanoverians detested each other, Austrian resources were focused in Alsace , while the Dutch were reluctant to declare war on France, and unsuccessfully tried to persuade Louis to withdraw. The Dutch however did want to protect their Barrier fortresses and Isaac Cronström thus argued to engage

465-655: A claim to the Habsburg lands. Charles was also seeking to ensure the succession of Maria Theresa not just to her family lands but the titles and powers of the Holy Roman Emperor . Although held by a Habsburg for over 300 years, it was an elective position and could not be held by a woman. The problem was exacerbated by tensions within the Holy Roman Empire , caused by dramatic increases in the size and power of Bavaria, Prussia, and Saxony, mirrored by

558-701: A hostile power to control ports in Northern Flanders like Ostend. Britain's agreement to act as guarantor of the treaty and to provide the Dutch with military support against any aggressor ultimately proved to be far more effective than the Barrier itself. After Austria allied with France in 1756 , the French threat to the Austrian Netherlands vanished and the Barrier became irrelevant. In 1781

651-474: A population of 16 million, Austria had an authorised standing army of 157,000, although financial restraints meant its true size was considerably less than that in 1740. Since they had a much greater area to defend, their army was more of "a sieve" than a shield against foreign invasion. In contrast, the Prussian Army was better trained and led than its opponents, while its standing army of 80,000

744-539: A proposed invasion of Britain , aimed at restoring the exiled Stuarts , and over the winter, 12,000 French troops and transports were assembled at Dunkirk . In the February 1744 Battle of Toulon , a combined Franco-Spanish fleet fought an indecisive action with a British naval force commanded by Admiral Mathews . Although Mathews prevented them exiting the Mediterranean and supporting the invasion attempt, he

837-562: A result, the French made rapid progress, quickly capturing most of the Dutch-held Barrier fortresses along the border, including Menen and Ypres . When an Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine invaded Alsace in early June, Louis went on the defensive in the Southern Netherlands , and travelled to Metz to meet this threat. In early August, he fell dangerously ill with smallpox , a disease often fatal at

930-564: A second column under Johann Bärenklau moved through the Tyrol , towards Munich . On 17 January, von Khevenhüller defeated a Bavarian army at Schärding while seven days later 10,000 French soldiers surrendered at Linz. On 12 February, Charles Albert of Bavaria was crowned Emperor Charles VII, the first non-Habsburg to hold the position in 300 years, although Bärenklau captured Munich the same day. Although technically all allies, Prussia, Saxony and Bavaria had no desire to see France established in

1023-470: A town of far less importance to Maria Theresa than Bohemia. Frederick was left dangerously exposed, a situation worsened in early October when Saxony joined the coalition against him as an active belligerent. Under pressure from Charles of Lorraine and a combined Austro-Saxon force under Count Traun , the Prussians were forced to retreat; by the time they entered Silesia in late November, Frederick's army

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1116-530: A winter offensive to retake Upper Austria, and attack Bavaria. While Frederick completed his conquest of Silesia, a French force under Maurice de Saxe took Prague on 26 November 1741, allowing the Bavarian elector, Charles Albert , to be crowned King of Bohemia . The year ended with Khevenhüller decisively defeating a bigger Franco-Bavarian army at Sankt Pölten and advancing up the Danube towards Linz, while

1209-417: Is disputed; one suggestion is that it was a fabrication by Frederick, designed to remove anti-Prussian opponents, chiefly Chancellor Bestuzhev-Ryumin . Anna Bestuzhev, wife of his brother Mikhail, and her friend Natalia Lopukhina , confessed to the plot after 25 days of torture; they were publicly flogged, and had their tongues removed before being exiled to Siberia . Fredrick's supporters referred to it as

1302-524: The Austrian Netherlands , along with a wider naval conflict. The war itself can be divided into three separate but connected conflicts, the first being the Silesian Wars between Prussia and Austria. In the second, Austria and Sardinia defeated Spanish attacks in Northern Italy , while the third featured an increasingly global contest between Britain and France. In the end, French conquest of

1395-460: The Austrian Netherlands , but was close to bankruptcy due to the cost of the war and a crippling British naval blockade. The stalemate led to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle which confirmed Maria Theresa in her titles but failed to resolve underlying tensions between the signatories, many of whom were unhappy with the terms. France achieved minimal gains for vast expenditure, while the Spanish gained

1488-533: The British Crown , was vulnerable to Prussian attacks, while many British politicians felt they received little benefit from the enormous subsidies paid to Austria. The result was the realignment known as the Diplomatic Revolution . Austria and France ended the rivalry which had dominated European affairs for centuries, while Prussia allied with Great Britain. These changes set the scene for

1581-476: The Duchies of Parma , Piacenza and Guastalla . Prussia, often considered the clearest winner, acquired Silesia from Austria, an outcome that undermined the long-standing Anglo-Austrian Alliance , since Maria Theresa deeply resented Britain's insistence she cede Silesia to make peace and made it her main objective to regain it. At the same time, the war demonstrated that Hanover, then held in personal union with

1674-782: The Habsburg Netherlands , which passed to the Spanish Habsburgs upon the abdication of Emperor Charles V in 1556. When part of the Netherlands separated to form the autonomous Dutch Republic in 1581, the remainder of the area stayed under Spanish rule until the War of the Spanish Succession . A common administration of the Netherlandish fiefs, centered in the Duchy of Brabant , already existed under

1767-839: The Habsburg monarchy . France , Prussia , and Bavaria saw it as an opportunity to challenge Habsburg power, while Maria Theresa was backed by Britain , the Dutch Republic , and Hanover , collectively known as the Pragmatic Allies . As the conflict widened, it drew in other participants, among them Spain , Sardinia , Saxony , Sweden , and Russia . Prussia occupied the Austrian province of Silesia in 1740, although Austria and Sardinia defeated Spanish attacks in Northern Italy. By early 1748, France held most of

1860-521: The Kingdom of Naples was unsuccessful, largely due to the incompetence of their commanders. In the north, arguments over strategy, and Spanish accusations of French cowardice at Toulon prevented them from taking full advantage of their victories earlier in the year. This was offset by similar divisions among their opponents; Charles Emmanuel was reluctant to see the Bourbons expelled from Italy, leaving

1953-606: The Marquis d'Ormea . On 1 February 1742, Schulenburg and Ormea signed the Convention of Turin which resolved (or postponed resolution) many differences and formed an alliance between the two countries. In 1742, field marshal Count Traun held his own with ease against the Spanish and Neapolitans. On 19 August 1742, Naples was forced by the arrival of a British naval squadron in Naples ' own harbour, to withdraw her 10,000 troops from

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2046-590: The Second Pacte de Famille in October, and Louis XV began plans to invade the Austrian Netherlands . The year ended with Saxony agreeing a pact of mutual defence with Austria, leaving Prussia isolated, and facing a renewed offensive as Maria Theresa sought to regain Silesia. Under the 1743 Treaty of Fontainebleau, Louis XV and his uncle, Philip V of Spain agreed on joint action against Britain. This included

2139-788: The States-General and was primarily driven by the need to keep the Dutch in the War of the Spanish Succession. In return for Dutch support of the Protestant succession and a commitment to continuing the war, Britain agreed to the Barrier, which effectively gave the Dutch permanent control of the Spanish Netherlands. It included Nieuwpoort , Ypres , Menen , Lille , Tournai , Valenciennes , Maubeuge , Charleroi , and Namur . The terms were seen as overly generous by British commercial interests since they included ports in Northern Flanders like Dendermonde and Ghent , which controlled trade along

2232-663: The Treaty of Worms , intended to expel Spain from Italy. In return for Sardinian support in Lombardy , the Austrians ceded all their territories west of the river Ticino and Lake Maggiore , along with lands south of the Po . In return, Charles Emmanuel renounced his claim to the strategic Duchy of Milan , guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, and provided 40,000 troops, paid for by Britain. France and Spain responded with

2325-719: The United Kingdom of the Netherlands . A stronger and more complex Barrier was constructed along the new Netherlands/France border, supervised by the Duke of Wellington , a program that was largely complete by 1820, but the fortresses became part of Belgium after its independence in 1830 . Spanish Netherlands The Spanish Netherlands ( Spanish : Países Bajos Españoles ; Dutch : Spaanse Nederlanden ; French : Pays-Bas espagnols ; German : Spanische Niederlande ) (historically in Spanish: Flandes ,

2418-468: The "Botta Conspiracy", alleging the involvement of Austrian envoy Antoniotto Botta Adorno . When Tsarina Elizabeth demanded Botta be punished, Maria Theresa refused, and the episode poisoned the relationship between Austria and Russia. Frederick managed to divide his two main opponents, but Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin remained in place, leaving the overall position unchanged. On 13 September, Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia , Maria Theresa and Britain agreed

2511-507: The 1648 Peace of Münster gave the Dutch a monopoly over the Scheldt and made its extent a matter of debate, particularly with Britain. The Scheldt estuary was a key transportation point for European import and export. Its control was a valuable commercial asset and allowed the merchants of Amsterdam to undermine the trade of the commercial rival, Antwerp , severely. The first Treaty was signed on 29 October 1709 between Great Britain and

2604-643: The Allies to fight on ground of his own choosing. On 11 May, he won a hard-fought victory at Fontenoy , a success that established French dominance in the Netherlands, and caused bitter disputes between the British and Dutch. On 4 June, Frederick won a major victory at Hohenfriedberg , but despite this, Austria and Saxony continued the war. Prussian requests for French support were ignored; Louis had been warned by his ministers state finances were increasingly strained, making it important to focus their efforts. One area

2697-481: The Allies to win a narrow victory . This was the last time a British monarch would personally lead troops in battle. While the Pragmatic Army were able to continue their retreat, they had to abandon their wounded, and although reinforced by Charles of Lorraine were unable to agree what to do next. Charles later described Allied headquarters as a 'republic', while Adrien Maurice de Noailles told Louis XV he

2790-436: The Austrian Netherlands gave them clear dominance on land, while Britain's victories at sea cemented its place as the dominant naval power. For much of the 18th century, French military strategy focused on potential threats on its eastern and northern borders, which required a strong land army. Its colonies were left to fend for themselves, or given minimal resources, anticipating they would likely be lost anyway. This strategy

2883-838: The Austrian Succession was a European conflict fought between 1740 and 1748, primarily in Central Europe , the Austrian Netherlands , Italy , the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea . Related conflicts include King George's War in North America , the War of Jenkins' Ear , the First Carnatic War , and the First and Second Silesian Wars . Its pretext was the right of Maria Theresa to succeed her father, Emperor Charles VI , as ruler of

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2976-643: The Austrians had an army at Tábor , while Neipperg was recalled from Silesia to defend Vienna. Apparently close to defeat, on 21 September Maria Theresa made an emotional speech to the Hungarian Diet in Pressburg . They approved a levée en masse , which ultimately produced 22,000 troops, rather than the promised 60,000, but was an assertion of loyalty long remembered. Maria Theresa was also helped by deep divisions among her opponents and Frederick's duplicity. Hoping to weaken Saxony, on 9 October he signed

3069-626: The Austrians, Charles VII fled to Augsburg , from where he initiated talks with Vienna and London , feeling he had been abandoned by his French allies. Divided at the top, and their troops weakened by disease, the Franco-Bavarian forces offered limited resistance to the Austrian advance; on 9 May, the Bavarians were defeated outside Simbach , by Charles of Lorraine. In mid-June, the Pragmatic Army arrived at Aschaffenburg , on

3162-843: The Burgundian inheritance in the Low Countries. Charles V was born and raised in the Low Countries and often stayed at the Palace of Coudenberg in Brussels. By the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 , Charles V declared the Seventeen Provinces a united and indivisible Habsburg dominion. Between 1555 and 1556, the House of Habsburg split into an Austro-German and a Spanish branch as a consequence of Charles's abdications:

3255-600: The Continent. They sought to offset the disadvantage this created in Europe by allying themselves with one or more Continental powers whose interests were antithetical to those of their enemies, particularly France. In the War of the Austrian Succession, the British were allied with Austria; by the time of the Seven Years' War , they were allied with its enemy, Prussia . In contrast to France, once Britain became engaged in

3348-479: The Empire, nor to see one another gain relative ground. Maria Theresa ended Austria's secret truce with Frederick, first releasing the details. The Austrians assembled a second army of 28,000 to retake Prague, under Charles of Lorraine . News of the secret truce badly damaged the relationship between Frederick and his allies, but Emperor Charles asked him to relieve the pressure by invading Moravia. Frederick had used

3441-402: The French due to Louis' illness. By mid-September, Frederick had captured Prague, Tabor , Budweis and Frauenberg ; he now advanced up the river Moldau , hoping to catch the Austrians between his forces, and the Franco-Bavarian army he assumed was in pursuit. However, the Bavarians contented themselves with re-occupying Munich, while the French settled down to besiege Freiburg im Breisgau ,

3534-448: The French in the open field. George Wade , supreme commander of the allied army, disagreed. He was under strict orders of the British government to not risk losing his connection to Ostend and not to risk British or Hanoverians troops becoming prisoners of war, which also meant that he refused to put them on garrison duty. The British feared another Jacobite uprising and therefore wanted to be able to send their troops home in time. As

3627-568: The Habsburgs as the dominant power, while his territorial ambitions could only be achieved at Austrian expense. As a result, neither side could make significant progress in this area. Frederick's position continued to deteriorate; on 8 January, Austria, Britain, the Dutch Republic and Saxony signed the Treaty of Warsaw , which was clearly aimed at Prussia. This was accompanied by ominous signs of Russian military activity in Livonia , followed by

3720-517: The Klein–Schnellendorf agreement with Neipperg and in what is now considered a memorable act of diplomatic subterfuge, the Austrians surrendered Neisse after a mock defence. Under the prevailing rules of war, this allowed them to receive a pass to the nearest friendly territory and thus be used against Prussia's allies elsewhere, rather than being taken prisoner. Her best general, von Khevenhüller incorporated them into an army being assembled for

3813-676: The Low Countries and the Free County of Burgundy in the Holy Roman Empire. The Habsburgs often used the term Burgundy to refer to their hereditary lands (e.g. in the name of the Imperial Burgundian Circle established in 1512), actually until 1795, when the Austrian Netherlands were lost to the French Republic . The Governor-general of the Netherlands was responsible for the administration of

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3906-622: The Montemar force to provide for home defence. The Spanish force under Montemar was now too weak to advance in the Po Valley and a second Spanish army was sent to Italy via France. Sardinia had allied herself with Austria in the Convention of Turin and at the same time neither state was at war with France and this led to curious complications, combats being fought in the Isère valley between

3999-434: The Netherlands under Habsburg rule was repeatedly invaded by the French and an increasing portion of the territory came under French control in successive wars. By the Treaty of the Pyrenees of 1659 the French annexed most of Artois , and Dunkirk was ceded to the English. By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (ending the War of Devolution in 1668) and Nijmegen (ending the Franco-Dutch War in 1678), further territory up to

4092-404: The Netherlands were left to his son Philip II of Spain , while his brother King Ferdinand I succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor . The Seventeen Provinces, de jure still fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire, from that time on de facto were ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs as part of the Burgundian heritage. Philip's stern Counter-Reformation measures sparked the Dutch Revolt in

4185-529: The Pragmatic Sanction in 1735. Attempts to offset this involved Austria in the 1733–1735 War of the Polish Succession and the Russo-Turkish War of 1735–1739 , and it was weakened by the losses incurred. The situation was compounded by a failure to prepare Maria Theresa for her new role, and many European statesmen were skeptical Austria could survive the contest that would follow Charles' death, which finally came about in October 1740. On land, fighting focused on three main theatres, Central Europe , Italy , and

4278-409: The Pragmatic Sanction, acknowledged Francis as Emperor, and evacuated Saxony. After 1745, Germany ceased to be an active military theatre; although Frederick knew Maria Theresa still intended to regain Silesia, both sides needed a period of peace in order to re-organise. French objectives were less clear; for centuries, the central plank of its foreign policy was weakening the Habsburgs , but it began

4371-409: The Prussian presence in Moravia remained a threat to Vienna. However, Habsburg policy was generally to avoid fighting on too many fronts at the same time; Prussia was the most dangerous, and most difficult to defeat. Although recovering Silesia remained a priority for decades, Maria Theresa was willing to agree a temporary truce with Prussia to improve her position elsewhere. This suited Frederick, who

4464-410: The Scheldt, rather than blocking potential invasion routes. The 1710 British general election replaced the existing Whig government with a Tory administration that derived much of its support from the powerful City of London , a merchants' guild. There were demands for the greater protection of British commercial access and the removal of Ostend and Dendermonde from the list. A revised version

4557-404: The Spanish sphere of influence. With Albert's death in 1621 they returned to formal Spanish control, although the childless Isabella remained on as governor until her death in 1633. The failing wars intended to regain the 'heretical' northern Netherlands meant significant loss of (still mainly Catholic) territories in the north, which was consolidated in 1648 in the Peace of Westphalia , and given

4650-438: The War of Austrian Succession and that the purpose of the barrier was to give the Dutch enough time to mobilize and fortify their own borders. According to them, nobody in the Dutch Republic was under the illusion that the barrier would itself stop French armies. However, the forts themselves were only part of the Dutch defence system; political and diplomatic treaties were more important, particularly since Britain could not allow

4743-626: The allied army of 40,000 Spaniards and Neapolitans under the command of the Duke of Montemar had advanced towards Modena , Francesco III d'Este, Duke of Modena had allied himself with them, but the vigilant Austrian commander, Count Otto Ferdinand von Traun had out-marched them, captured Modena and forced the Duke to make a separate peace. The aggressiveness of the Spanish in Italy forced Empress Maria Theresa of Austria and King Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia into negotiations in early 1742. These negotiations were held at Turin. Maria Theresa sent her envoy Count Schulenburg and King Charles Emmanuel sent

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4836-402: The authority of the House of Habsburg reconciling previous anti-Spanish sentiments. In the early 17th century, there was a flourishing court at Brussels . Among the artists who emerged from the court of the "Archdukes", as they were known, was Peter Paul Rubens . Under Isabella and Albert, the Spanish Netherlands actually had formal independence from Spain, but always remained unofficially within

4929-491: The battlefield. His deputy von Schwerin managed to drag out a victory, both sides losing nearly 25% of their strength. On 5 June, Frederick signed an alliance against Austria with France, who crossed the Rhine on 15 August. A combined Franco-Bavarian force now advanced along the Danube , towards Vienna , capturing Linz on 14 September. Joined by a Saxon army of 20,000, they advanced on Prague from three different points, initially meeting little resistance. Before long,

5022-418: The borders of Hanover and Prussia to each other, and British diplomats tried to persuade Austria to end the Second Silesian War. Franco-Prussian relationships were marked by mutual distrust, while Maria Theresa resented British attempts to persuade her to accept the loss of Silesia. In central Italy an army of Spaniards and Neapolitans was collected for the purpose of conquering the Duchy of Milan . In 1741,

5115-453: The costs and Austria the other 60% and an additional lump sum to maintain the Barrier and its garrisons, which were reduced to seven, with a mixed garrison at Dendermond. The treaty also renewed the 1648 Peace of Münster over the Scheldt but promised 'equal treatment" for Dutch and British commerce. The treaty was signed on 15 November 1715 and further detailed by two Austrian-Dutch agreements of 30 and 31 January 1716. The Dutch Republic ended

5208-441: The current Franco-Belgian border was ceded, including Cambrai , Walloon Flanders , as well as half of the County of Hainaut (including Valenciennes ). Later, in the War of the Reunions and the Nine Years' War , France annexed other parts of the region that were restored to Spain by the Treaty of Rijswijk 1697. During the War of the Spanish Succession , in 1706 the Habsburg Netherlands became an Anglo-Dutch condominium for

5301-406: The death of Emperor Charles VII on 20 January. Since Maria Theresa's husband, Grand Duke Francis, was the best-supported candidate to replace him, this was a major setback for the Franco-Prussian alliance. Charles' son and heir, Maximilian III Joseph made one last effort to drive the Austrians out of Bavaria, but his demoralised and ill-equipped army was out-manoeuvered by Count Batthyány , while

5394-453: The governor of the Spanish Netherlands, Maximilian of Bavaria , permitted the Dutch to garrison eight cities, including Namur and Mons . But in February 1701, the French quickly occupied them. Re-establishing the Barrier was the primary Dutch objective during the War of the Spanish Succession and was specified in Article 5 of the Treaty of The Hague (1701) , which reformed the Grand Alliance . The Barrier also had an economic element, since

5487-449: The inheritance, this agreement required approval by the various Habsburg territories and the Imperial Diet . Charles succeeded Joseph in 1711 and two years later issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 , which confirmed the principle of female inheritance. However, it also modified the 1703 agreement by placing the rights of his own children first and after his first child Maria Theresa was born in 1717, Charles' internal and external policy

5580-444: The interval to reorganise his cavalry, previously neglected in favour of the infantry, and who performed poorly at Mollwitz; they would prove more effective in the 1742 campaign. In December 1741, von Schwerin had captured Olmütz ; Frederick took Glatz , before moving onto Groß Seelowitz in March 1742. This allowed him to threaten Vienna; a few Prussian patrols even appeared in the suburbs, before withdrawing. In early May, he took

5673-514: The invasion. They held on to the fortresses of Glogau , Breslau , and Brieg , but abandoned the rest of the province and withdrew into Moravia , with both sides taking up winter quarters. In under two weeks Prussia had occupied most of the richest province in the Holy Roman Empire, containing a population of over one million, and the commercial centre of Breslau along with mining, weaving and dyeing industries. However, Frederick underestimated Maria Theresa's determination to reverse her loss, while

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5766-416: The mainly Calvinist Netherlandish provinces, which led to the outbreak of the Eighty Years' War in 1568. In January 1579 the seven northern provinces formed the Protestant Union of Utrecht , which declared independence from the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands by the 1581 Act of Abjuration . The Spanish branch of the Habsburgs could retain the rule only over

5859-400: The name "Flanders" was used as a pars pro toto ) was the Habsburg Netherlands ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs from 1556 to 1714. They were a collection of States of the Holy Roman Empire in the Low Countries held in personal union by the Spanish Crown . This region comprised most of the modern states of Belgium and Luxembourg , as well as parts of northern France ,

5952-467: The north bank of the river Main . Here they were joined by George II , who was attending the enthronement of a new Elector of Mainz in Wiesbaden . By late June, the Allies were running short of supplies and withdrew towards the nearest supply depot at Hanau , the road to which ran through Dettingen, now a part of Karlstein am Main , where 23,000 French troops blocked the road. Despite a strong position, mistakes made by their commander Gramont , allowed

6045-462: The offensive, and moved into north-east Bohemia; by 16 May, he had 10,000 infantry at Kuttenberg , and another 18,000 men under Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau a day's march behind. On the afternoon of 16 May, Charles of Lorraine's cavalry ran into Leopold's rearguard. Leopold recognized he was in contact with the Austrian main force and so accelerated his march ahead to close the gap with Frederick. At 2:00 am on 17 May, his exhausted troops stopped at

6138-519: The outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756. The immediate cause of the war was the death in 1740 of Emperor Charles VI (1685–1740) and the inheritance of the Habsburg monarchy , often collectively referred to as Austria. The 1703 Mutual Pact of Succession provided that if the Habsburgs became extinct in the male line, these possessions would go first to Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia , daughters of Emperor Joseph I , then those of Charles, his younger brother. Since Salic law excluded women from

6231-426: The partly Catholic Southern Netherlands , completed after the Fall of Antwerp in 1585. Better times came, when in 1598 the Spanish Netherlands passed to Philip's daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia and her husband Archduke Albert VII of Austria . The couple's rule brought a period of much-needed peace and stability to the economy, which stimulated the growth of a separate South Netherlandish identity and consolidated

6324-412: The peculiar inferior status of Generality Lands (jointly ruled by the United Republic, not admitted as member provinces): Zeelandic Flanders (south of the River Scheldt ), the present Dutch province of North Brabant and Maastricht (in the present-day Dutch province of Limburg ). As the power of the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs waned in the latter decades of the 17th century, the territory of

6417-455: The post-1683 expansion of Habsburg power into lands previously held by the Ottoman Empire . These were the centrifugal forces behind a war that reshaped the traditional European balance of power ; the various legal claims were largely pretexts and seen as such. Bavaria and Saxony refused to be bound by the decision of the Imperial Diet, while in 1738 France agreed to back the 'just claims' of Charles Albert of Bavaria despite previously accepting

6510-422: The protection the Barrier offered proved illusory. The Austrians were reluctant to pay for fortresses they did not control, and the fortresses were conquered by France during the War of the Austrian Succession . However, not all modern historians consider the barrier ineffective. Historians like Wijn and Van Nimwegen emphasise that it took 3 years of campaigning for the French to conquer all barrier fortresses during

6603-402: The remainder of the conflict. By the peace treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt in 1713/14 ending the war, the Southern Netherlands returned to the Austrian Habsburg monarchy forming the Austrian Netherlands . From 1581 the Habsburg Netherlands consisted of the following territories, all part of modern Belgium unless otherwise stated: War of the Austrian Succession The War of

6696-586: The retention of Austrian fortresses in Southern Silesia meant a quick victory could not be achieved. Early in the year, an Austrian army under von Neipperg relieved Neisse , and marched on Brieg , threatening to cut the Prussians off. On 10 April, just outside Brieg, they were defeated at the Battle of Mollwitz ; Frederick made serious mistakes in his first battle, and was so close to defeat that his subordinates ordered him to avoid capture and leave

6789-730: The rule of the Burgundian Duke Philip the Good with the implementation of a stadtholder and the first convocation of the States General of the Netherlands in 1464. His granddaughter Mary had confirmed a number of privileges to the States by the Great Privilege signed in 1477. After the government takeover by her husband Archduke Maximilian I of Austria , the States insisted on their privileges, culminating in

6882-399: The small village of Chotusitz , still three hours from Kutná Hora. Fought later the same day, the Battle of Chotusitz was inconclusive, but technically a Prussian victory, since the Austrians withdrew. On 24 May, French Field Marshal de Broglie won a minor action at Sahay . The two victories left the strategic situation unchanged, since Charles was still able to move against Prague, while

6975-469: The southern Netherlands , and western Germany , with the capital being Brussels . The Army of Flanders was given the task of defending the territory. The Imperial fiefs of the former Burgundian Netherlands had been inherited by the Austrian House of Habsburg from the extinct House of Valois-Burgundy upon the death of Mary of Burgundy in 1482. The Seventeen Provinces formed the core of

7068-601: The stage for the Seven Years' War. Frederick II succeeded his father Frederick William as king of Prussia on 31 May 1740 at the age of 28. Although Prussia had increased in importance over the prior few decades, its disparate and scattered territories prevented it wielding significant power, a reality Frederick intended to change. The death of Emperor Charles VI on 20 October 1740 provided him with an ideal opportunity to acquire Silesia, but he needed to do so before Augustus of Saxony and Poland could pre-empt him. With

7161-762: The time; although he later recovered, this temporarily paralysed the French command system. With the bulk of the Austrian army occupied in Eastern France, Frederick launched the Second Silesian War on 15 August, and by the end of the month, all 80,000 of his troops were in Bohemia. Although Maria Theresa's main objective was to regain Silesia, the speed of the Prussian advance took the Austrians by surprise. On 23 August, Prince Charles withdrew from Alsace to defend Bohemia, with little interference from

7254-565: The treaty was declared void by Emperor Joseph II . During the French Revolutionary Wars , French forces invaded and overran the Dutch Republic and established the Batavian Republic . The Netherlands remained directly or indirectly under French control for nearly two decades. After Napoleon I 's defeat in 1815, the Netherlands united with the former Austrian Netherlands and Prince-Bishopric of Liège to become

7347-509: The war due to concern at British commercial growth post-1713. Since the war in Northern Italy was largely fought to support Spanish aims, this left the Netherlands as the only remaining theatre where France could achieve strategic victory. Another significant development was the start of the realignment of alliances that became the Diplomatic Revolution in 1756. Under the August 'Convention of Hanover', Frederick and George II mutually guaranteed

7440-514: The war in 1713 effectively bankrupt, but the Dutch goal had been achieved. The Barrier was to provide a basis for peace in Europe by perpetuating the balance of power, and was to forge a foundation for the alliance between Austria, Great Britain and the Dutch Republic. Its central role enabled the Dutch Republic to participate in European power politics after 1713. Although judged favourably by contemporaries, it has later been argued by historians that

7533-554: The war, it took advantage of the Royal Navy to expand it into the colonies. The British pursued a dual strategy of naval blockade and bombardment of enemy ports, and also utilized their ability to move troops by sea to the utmost. They would harass enemy shipping and attack enemy outposts, frequently using colonists from nearby British colonies in the effort. This plan worked better in North America than in Europe, but set

7626-565: Was 'heavily indebted to the irresolutions of George II.' They ended by doing nothing, and in October, took up winter quarters in the Netherlands. Frederick had responded to Dettingen by renewing his search for allies, and building up his army once again. In July, the Russian court discovered an alleged plot to overthrow Empress Elizabeth , and restore three-year old Ivan VI , with his mother Grand Duchess Anna Leopoldovna as his regent. Whether this amounted to anything more than drunken gossip

7719-406: Was accepted that no fortified place could hold out indefinitely. The Republic was nearly overrun in 1673 by the speed that the French captured major fortresses like Maastricht , and it was saved only by flooding. The Barrier was intended to slow down an attacking army to allow the Dutch time to reinforce their defences without the expense of a large standing army. After the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick ,

7812-693: Was disproportionately large, at around 4% of its 2.2 million population. To add to these advantages, in April 1739 Frederick ensured Austria faced war on two fronts when Louis XV of France agreed to attack from the west, while Prussia did so from the north. In early December 1740, the Prussian army assembled along the river Oder and on 16 December invaded Silesia without a formal declaration of war. Since Austrian military resources were concentrated in Hungary and Italy , they had fewer than 3,000 troops in Silesia, although this increased to 7,000 shortly before

7905-458: Was dominated by ensuring her succession ahead of his two nieces. Prior to their respective marriages to Frederick Augustus of Saxony and Charles Albert of Bavaria in 1719, both nieces were obliged to formally renounce their rights to the inheritance. Charles assumed the rivalry between Saxony and Bavaria would secure his daughter's throne, since neither would be prepared to allow the other to inherit, but instead he gave his two greatest rivals

7998-461: Was driven by a combination of geography, and the superiority of the British navy, which made it difficult for the French navy to provide significant supplies and support to French colonies. The expectation was military victory in Europe would compensate for any colonial losses; in 1748, France recovered possessions like Louisbourg , in return for withdrawing from the Austrian Netherlands. The British tried to avoid large-scale commitments of troops on

8091-514: Was forced to retreat, which led to his dismissal. Success allowed Spain to land troops in Northern Italy, and in April they captured the important port of Villefranche-sur-Mer , then part of Savoy . However, storms sank or severely damaged many French ships, while most of Louis' ministers opposed what they considered an expensive and futile diversion of resources. The invasion was cancelled on 11 March, Louis formally declared war on Britain, and in May,

8184-513: Was proclaimed Emperor Francis I on 13 September. Bolstered by this significant political victory, Maria Theresa continued her attempts to regain Silesia, only to be defeated once again at the Battle of Soor on 30 September. On 15 December, the Prussians forced Saxony out of the war with victory in the Battle of Kesselsdorf , leading to the Treaty of Dresden on 25th. Austria accepted Frederick's ownership of Silesia, while Saxony paid him an indemnity of one million crowns; in return, Prussia accepted

8277-485: Was reduced to 36,000, half of whom then died of dysentery. Despite the surrender of Freiburg and French advances in the Southern Netherlands, Austria seemed well-positioned at the end of 1744. Frederick's retreat damaged his reputation and weakened his army, but the most significant impact was on Franco-Prussian relations, with Louis accused of failing to support Prussia. In Italy, an Austrian attack on

8370-573: Was short of money and men and also suspected France was preparing a separate peace. In June, the Treaty of Breslau ended the First Silesian War; Prussian troops withdrew from Bohemia, and Austria recaptured Prague in December. At the beginning of the year, Louis XV insisted Broglie be given command of the Franco-Bavarian forces, creating tension with the Bavarians, and their general von Seckendorff . With most of his lands occupied by

8463-436: Was signed on 29 January 1713, which reduced the number of Barrier fortresses to 15; Britain agreed to ensure compliance from the future ruler of the Spanish Netherlands . The third and final treaty confirmed terms contained in the 1714 Treaty of Rastatt between Austria and France by establishing a permanent Austro-Dutch military force of 30,000 to 35,000 men stationed in the Austrian Netherlands . The Dutch would pay 40% of

8556-517: Was the Netherlands, particularly after British troops were recalled to deal with the Jacobite rising of 1745 . The other was Italy, where a Franco-Spanish army under Maillebois and Infante Philip defeated the Sardinians at Bassignano on 27 September, then captured Alessandria , Valenza and Casale Monferrato . As a result, France made no effort to block the election of Duke Francis, who

8649-540: Was willing to mediate for him with Austria. Bavaria's exit allowed France to focus on the Low Countries, which Saxe persuaded Louis XV provided the best opportunity of defeating Britain, whose financial backing was crucial to the Pragmatic Alliance. He proposed to attack Tournai , a vital link in the trading network for Northern Europe, and strongest of the Dutch Barrier Forts , this forcing

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