51°25′43″N 2°00′10″W / 51.4285°N 2.0027°W / 51.4285; -2.0027 Bentley's School, Calne , in Calne , Wiltshire , England, was a school founded in 1660 by John Bentley and closed in 1974 by Wiltshire County Council .
134-487: At different times it was known as the Bentley Grammar School and Calne County School . By his will dated 29 September 1660, John Bentley, of Richmond, Surrey , left one sixth of a field called Ficketts, near Lincoln's Inn , London, and a rent-charge of £12 a year on another part of the same field, for the founding of what he called "a free English School" at Calne, and appointed three trustees to make
268-621: A Special Area of Conservation and is included, at Grade I, on Historic England 's Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England . It was created by Charles I in 1634 as a deer park and now has 630 red and fallow deer that roam freely through much of the park. The park has a number of traffic and pedestrian gates leading to the surrounding areas of Sheen , Roehampton , Putney , Kingston and Ham . The London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, with Richmond North and Richmond South as two of its wards , has
402-554: A commission found widespread abuses in the tax collection process. Henry reigned for nearly 24 years and was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII . Henry VII was born on 28 January 1457 at Pembroke Castle , in the English-speaking portion of Pembrokeshire known as Little England beyond Wales . He was the only child of Lady Margaret Beaufort , who was 13 years old at the time, and Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond who, at 26, died three months before his birth. He
536-483: A competent classical schoolmaster , and the trustees began to charge school fees. H.M. Inspector of Schools found in 1846 and 1847 that the teaching was good. In 1861, a government grant to the school was stopped, because the level of the fees was too high for it to continue. In 1868, the Schools Inquiry Commission reported that the school was teaching book-keeping, Euclid , and surveying and
670-463: A converted primary school. The 172-seat theatre was built specifically as a theatre in the round . Exclusively presenting its own productions, it has acquired a national reputation for the quality of its work for staging new plays, and for discovering undeservedly forgotten old plays and neglected classics. The town has two cinemas, the arthouse Curzon in Water Lane and an Odeon cinema with
804-666: A cost of £24,000. However, as France was becoming more concerned with the Italian Wars , the French were happy to agree to the Peace of Étaples . Henry had pressured the French by laying siege to Boulogne in October 1492. Henry had been under the financial and physical protection of the French throne or its vassals for most of his life before becoming king. To strengthen his position, however, he subsidised shipbuilding, so strengthening
938-414: A fair amount of vehicle parking for both residents and visitors. The south corner leads into the main shopping area of the town; at the west corner is the old gatehouse which leads through to other remaining buildings of the palace; at the north corner is pedestrian access to Old Deer Park (plus vehicle access for municipal use). The park is a 360-acre (1.5 km ) Crown Estate landscape extending from
1072-535: A few thousand troops, but was soon captured and executed. When the King's agents searched the property of William Stanley ( Chamberlain of the Household , with direct access to Henry VII) they found a bag of coins amounting to around £10,000 and a collar of livery with Yorkist garnishings. Stanley was accused of supporting Warbeck's cause, arrested and later executed. In response to this threat within his own household,
1206-540: A fiscally prudent monarch who restored the fortunes of an effectively bankrupt exchequer . Henry VII introduced stability to the financial administration of England by keeping the same financial advisors throughout his reign. For instance, except for the first few months of the reign, the Baron Dynham and the Earl of Surrey were the only Lord High Treasurers throughout his reign. Henry VII improved tax collection in
1340-421: A growing reputation for shrewd decisiveness". On the debit side, he may have looked a little delicate as he suffered from poor health. Historians have compared Henry VII with his continental contemporaries, especially Louis XI of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon . By 1600 historians emphasised Henry's wisdom in drawing lessons in statecraft from other monarchs. In 1622 Francis Bacon published his History of
1474-552: A new borough, the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. Richmond sits opposite East Twickenham on what is technically the south bank of the River Thames , but because of the bends of the river, the town is immediately north and north-east of its nearest stretch of river. The Thames curves around the town, and then Kew, in its course; starting from Petersham , it returns to a more direct west–east direction. The river
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#17327799518721608-541: A plan to seize the throne by engaging Richard quickly because Richard had reinforcements in Nottingham and Leicester . Though outnumbered, Henry's Lancastrian forces decisively defeated Richard's Yorkist army at the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485. Several of Richard's key allies, such as Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland , and also Lord Stanley and his brother William , crucially switched sides or left
1742-493: A positive contribution to Richmond. It also organises meetings on topics of local interest and a programme of guided walks and visits, and publishes a quarterly newsletter. Anita Anand , Professor Ian Bruce , John, Lord Lee of Trafford , Sir Trevor McDonald , Ronny, Baroness van Dedem and Lord Watson of Richmond are the Society's patrons. With a third of the borough being green and open space, Richmond has much to offer in
1876-426: A small French and Scottish force, landing at Mill Bay near Dale, Pembrokeshire . He marched toward England accompanied by his uncle Jasper and John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford . Wales was historically a Lancastrian stronghold, and Henry owed the support he gathered to his Welsh birth and ancestry, being agnatically descended from Rhys ap Gruffydd . He amassed an army of about 5,000–6,000 soldiers. Henry devised
2010-456: A spouse for Henry VII's heir-apparent. The marriage did not take place during his lifetime. Otherwise, at the time of his father's arranging of the marriage to Catherine of Aragon, the future Henry VIII was too young to contract the marriage according to Canon Law and would be ineligible until age fourteen. Henry made half-hearted plans to remarry and beget more heirs, but these never came to anything. He entertained thoughts of remarriage to renew
2144-526: A total of seven screens in two locations, the foyer of one having the accolade of being the only high street building visible from Richmond Bridge, and the second set being situated nearby in Red Lion Street. The Odeon on Hill Street, built in 1930, is in Art Deco style and is Grade II listed. Numerous public houses and bars scattered throughout Richmond's town centre, and along the river and up
2278-707: A treaty with France at Etaples that brought money into the coffers of England, and ensured the French would not support pretenders to the English throne, such as Perkin Warbeck. However, this treaty came at a price, as Henry mounted a minor invasion of Brittany in November 1492. Henry decided to keep Brittany out of French hands, signed an alliance with Spain to that end, and sent 6,000 troops to France. The confused, fractious nature of Breton politics undermined his efforts, which finally failed after three sizeable expeditions, at
2412-498: A year at a time. Their chief task was to see that the laws of the country were obeyed in their area. Their powers and numbers steadily increased during the time of the Tudors, never more so than under Henry's reign. Despite this, Henry was keen to constrain their power and influence, applying the same principles to the justices of the peace as he did to the nobility: a similar system of bonds and recognisances to that which applied to both
2546-416: Is a civic society and conservation group which was founded in 1957 by a group of local residents, originally to fight against the proposal to install modern lamp posts around Richmond Green. It acts as a pressure group concerned with preserving Richmond's natural and built environment, monitoring and influencing development proposals and presenting annual awards for buildings and other schemes which make
2680-549: Is a Christmas and New Year pantomime tradition and many of Britain's greatest music hall and pantomime performers have appeared here. Close to Richmond railway station is the Orange Tree Theatre which was founded in 1971 in a room above the Orange Tree pub . As audience numbers increased, there was pressure to find a more accommodating space and, in 1991, the company moved to its current premises within
2814-509: Is equally true that Henry VII was diligent about keeping detailed records of his personal finances, down to the last halfpenny; these and one account book detailing the expenses of his queen survive in the British National Archives, as do courtiers' accounts and many of the king's own letters. From these accounting books, the evidence is clear that, until the death of his wife, Henry was a more doting father and husband than
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#17327799518722948-411: Is in a Grade II listed building dating from about 1760. The Richmond Local History Society explores the local history of Richmond, Kew, Petersham and Ham. It organises a programme of talks on history topics and visits to buildings of historical interest. The Society publishes a newsletter three times a year, an indexed journal ( Richmond History ) and other publications. The Richmond Society
3082-501: Is not known precisely where Cabot landed, but he was eventually rewarded with a pension from the king; it is presumed that Cabot perished at sea after a later unsuccessful expedition. Henry VII was one of the first European monarchs to recognise the importance of the newly united Spanish kingdom; he concluded the Treaty of Medina del Campo , by which his son Arthur, Prince of Wales , was married to Catherine of Aragon . He also concluded
3216-671: Is now known, however, that an earlier match between Kent and Surrey took place in Dartford in 1709. To the west of the Green is Old Palace Lane , running gently down to the river. One of the oldest roads in Richmond, it was originally a route from the river, where goods were loaded and unloaded by crane, to the "tradesmen's entrance" to Richmond Palace. Adjoining to the left is the renowned terrace of well-preserved three-storey houses known as Maids of Honour Row. These were built in 1724 for
3350-582: Is set back off the road, lined with benches, allowing pedestrians an uninterrupted view across the Thames valley with visitors' information boards describing points of interest. Sloping down to the River Thames are the Terrace Gardens that were laid out in the 1880s and were extended to the river some 40 years later. A commanding feature on the hill is the former Royal Star and Garter Home ; in
3484-400: Is still tidal at Richmond, so, to allow major passenger and goods traffic to continue to operate during low tide, a half-tide lock was opened in 1894 and is used when the adjacent weir is in position. This weir ensures that there is always a minimum depth of water of 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) toward the middle of the river between Richmond and Teddington , whatever the state of the tide. Above
3618-503: Is the highest point within the park. From the mound there is a protected view, established in 1710, of St Paul's Cathedral in the City of London over 10 miles (16 km) to the east. At various times the mound's name has been connected with Henry VIII or with his father Henry VII. However, there is no evidence to support the legend that Henry VIII stood on the mound to watch for the sign from St Paul's that Anne Boleyn had been executed at
3752-532: Is unusual that he did not remarry. His son Henry was the only male heir left after the death of his wife; the death of Arthur therefore created a precarious political position for the House of Tudor. During Henry VII's lifetime the nobility often criticised him for re-centralising power in London and, later, the 16th-century historian Francis Bacon was ruthlessly critical of the methods by which he enforced tax law. It
3886-642: The Battle of Bosworth Field . He was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle, defending it two years later at the Battle of Stoke Field to decisively end the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487). Vindicating the Lancastrian cause, he cemented his claim by marrying the Yorkist heiress, Elizabeth of York , daughter of Edward IV. Henry restored power and stability to the English monarchy following
4020-569: The Burgundian Netherlands in retaliation for Margaret of Burgundy's support for Perkin Warbeck. The Merchant Adventurers , the company which enjoyed the monopoly of the Flemish wool trade, relocated from Antwerp to Calais . At the same time, Flemish merchants were ejected from England. The dispute eventually paid off for Henry. Both parties realised they were mutually disadvantaged by the reduction in commerce. Its restoration by
4154-548: The London Borough of Richmond upon Thames . As of 2011 it had a population of 21,469 (in the North Richmond and South Richmond wards). It has a significant commercial and retail centre with a developed day and evening economy. The name "Richmond upon Thames" often refers, incorrectly, to the town of Richmond: in fact (unlike the case of nearby Kingston upon Thames ), the suffixed form should properly apply only to
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4288-594: The Magnus Intercursus was very much to England's benefit in removing taxation for English merchants and significantly increasing England's wealth. In turn, Antwerp became an extremely important trade entrepôt (transhipment port), through which, for example, goods from the Baltic, spices from the east and Italian silks were exchanged for English cloth. In 1506, Henry extorted the Treaty of Windsor from Philip
4422-523: The Old Ship and the Britannia . Many of the major restaurant chains can be found within 500 metres of Richmond Bridge. There are also plenty of privately owned restaurants with culinary offerings from around the world, including French, German, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Russian, Spanish and Thai. The Bingham Riverhouse hotel was awarded its first Michelin star in 2010. Overlooking the Thames, it
4556-501: The Richmond Gate entrance to Richmond Park . The park is a national nature reserve , a Site of Special Scientific Interest , and a Special Area of Conservation . The largest of London's Royal Parks , it was created by Charles I in 1634 as a deer park and now has over 600 red and fallow deer . Richmond Gate remains open to traffic between dawn and dusk. King Henry's Mound , a Grade II listed Neolithic burial barrow ,
4690-484: The Tower and that he was then free to marry Jane Seymour . King Henry's Mound is in the grounds of Pembroke Lodge , which is Grade II listed. In 1847 this house became the home of the then Prime Minister , Lord John Russell , who conducted much government business there and entertained Queen Victoria , foreign royalty, aristocrats, writers ( Dickens , Thackeray , Longfellow , Tennyson ) and other notable people of
4824-605: The Tower of London . Despite such precautions, Henry faced several rebellions over the next twelve years. The first was the 1486 rebellion of the Stafford brothers , abetted by Viscount Lovell , which collapsed without fighting. Next, in 1487, Yorkists led by Lincoln rebelled in support of Lambert Simnel , a boy they claimed to be Edward of Warwick (who was actually a prisoner in the Tower). The rebellion began in Ireland, where
4958-535: The Treaty of Perpetual Peace with Scotland (the first treaty between England and Scotland for almost two centuries), which betrothed his daughter Margaret Tudor to King James IV of Scotland. By this marriage, Henry VII hoped to break the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France. Though this was not achieved during his reign, the marriage eventually led to the union of the English and Scottish crowns under Margaret's great-grandson, James VI and I , following
5092-549: The Yorkshire Dales . Apart from the great rugby stadium at Twickenham and the aircraft landing and taking off from Heathrow , the scene has changed little in two hundred years. The view from Richmond Hill now forms part of the Thames Landscape Strategy which aims to protect and enhance this section of the river corridor into London. A broad, gravelled walk runs along the crest of the hill and
5226-606: The crusade . Later on, Henry had exchanged letters with Pope Julius II in 1507, in which he encouraged him to establish peace among Christian realms, and to organise an expedition against the Turks of the Ottoman Empire . Henry VII was much enriched by trading alum , which was used in the wool and cloth trades as a chemical fixative for dyeing fabrics. Since alum was mined in only one area in Europe (Tolfa, Italy), it
5360-553: The maids of honour (trusted royal wardrobe servants) of Queen Caroline , the queen consort of George II . As a child, the Victorian explorer Richard Burton lived at No. 2. Today the northern, western and southern sides of the Green are residential while the eastern side, linking with George Street, is largely retail and commercial. Public buildings line the eastern side of the Little Green and pubs and cafés cluster in
5494-566: The navy (he commissioned Europe's first ever – and the world's oldest surviving – dry dock at Portsmouth in 1495) and improving trading opportunities. John Cabot , originally from Genoa and Venice, had heard that ships from Bristol had discovered uncharted newfound territory far west of Ireland. Having secured financial backing from Florentine bankers in London, Cabot was granted carefully phrased letters patent from Henry in March 1496, permitting him to embark on an exploratory voyage westerly. It
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5628-407: The 18th century, Richmond Bridge connected the two banks of the Thames, and many Georgian terraces were built, particularly around Richmond Green and on Richmond Hill. Those that have survived remain well-preserved and many have been designated listed buildings on account of their architectural or historic significance. The opening of Richmond railway station in 1846 was a significant event in
5762-493: The 2010s it was sold for development and converted into residential apartments. During World War I an old hotel on this site, the Star and Garter , which had been a popular place of entertainment in the 18th and 19th centuries but had closed in 1906, was taken over and used as a military hospital . After the war it was replaced by a new building providing accommodation and nursing facilities for 180 seriously injured servicemen. This
5896-485: The Calne County School. Girls were admitted but at first were taught in another house on the Green. In 1909 a new school building was built and classes became co-educational. By 1934 it was clear that the school suffered from being neither a higher elementary school or a grammar school, and that more up-to-date courses were needed. A new headmaster, Mr. M. S. Gotch, was able to make a better sixth form for
6030-731: The Earl of Pembroke, undertook to protect Edmund's widow Margaret, who was 13 years old when she gave birth to Henry. When Edward IV became King in 1461, Jasper Tudor went into exile abroad. Pembroke Castle, and later the Earldom of Pembroke , were granted to the Yorkist William Herbert , who also assumed the guardianship of Margaret Beaufort and the young Henry. Henry lived in the Herbert household until 1469, when Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (the "Kingmaker"), went over to
6164-449: The Green attracts many residents and visitors. It has a long history of hosting sporting events; from the 16th century onwards tournaments and archery contests have taken place on the Green, and there have been cricket matches since the mid-18th century, continuing to the present day. Until recently, the first recorded inter-county cricket match was believed to have been played on Richmond Green in 1730 between Surrey and Middlesex . It
6298-728: The Handsome , Duke of Burgundy. Philip had been shipwrecked on the English coast, and while Henry's guest, was bullied into an agreement so favourable to England at the expense of the Netherlands that it was dubbed the Malus Intercursus ("evil agreement"). France, Burgundy, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and the Hanseatic League all rejected the treaty, which was never in force. Philip died shortly after
6432-428: The King instituted more rigid security for access to his person. In 1499, Henry had the Earl of Warwick executed. However, he spared Warwick's elder sister Margaret, who survived until 1541 when she was executed by Henry VIII. For most of Henry VII's reign Edward Story was Bishop of Chichester . Story's register still exists and, according to the 19th-century historian W.R.W. Stephens, "affords some illustrations of
6566-695: The Lancastrians. Herbert was captured fighting for the Yorkists and executed by Warwick. When Warwick restored Henry VI in 1470, Jasper Tudor returned from exile and brought Henry to court. When the Yorkist Edward IV regained the throne in 1471, Henry fled with other Lancastrians to Brittany . He spent most of the next 14 years under the protection of Francis II, Duke of Brittany . In November 1476, Francis fell ill and his principal advisers were more amenable to negotiating with King Edward. Henry
6700-683: The London Assembly , which has been represented by Nicholas Rogers from the Conservative Party since 2021. Richmond, earlier known as Shene , was part of the large ancient parish of Kingston upon Thames in the Kingston hundred of Surrey . Split off from Kingston upon Thames from an early time, the parish of Richmond St Mary Magdalene formed the Municipal Borough of Richmond from 1890. The municipal borough
6834-624: The London borough. The area was known in the medieval period as Shene, a name first recorded (as Sceon ) in the 10th century, and which survives in the neighbouring districts of East Sheen (also known as Sheen) and North Sheen . The manor entered royal hands, and the manor house eventually became known as Sheen Palace, before being largely destroyed by fire in 1497. Henry VII rebuilt it and in 1501 named it Richmond Palace , in allusion to his earldom of Richmond and his ancestral honour of Richmond in Yorkshire . The associated settlement took
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#17327799518726968-883: The Marches for his son Arthur, which was intended to govern Wales and the Marches , Cheshire and Cornwall . He was content to allow the nobles their regional influence if they were loyal to him. For instance, the Stanley family had control of Lancashire and Cheshire, upholding the peace on the condition that they stayed within the law. In other cases, he brought his over-powerful subjects to heel by decree. He passed laws against "livery" (the upper classes' flaunting of their adherents by giving them badges and emblems) and "maintenance" (the keeping of too many male "servants"). These laws were used shrewdly in levying fines upon those that he perceived as threats. However, his principal weapon
7102-750: The Ottoman Empire, and selling it to the Low Countries and in England. This trade made an expensive commodity cheaper, which raised opposition from Pope Julius II, since the Tolfa mine was a part of papal territory and had given the Pope monopoly control over alum. Henry's most successful diplomatic achievement as regards the economy was the Magnus Intercursus ("great agreement") of 1496. In 1494, Henry embargoed trade (mainly in wool) with
7236-576: The Plantagenets was suspected of coveting the throne. Henry had Parliament repeal Titulus Regius , the statute that declared Edward IV's marriage invalid and his children illegitimate, thus legitimising his wife. Amateur historians Bertram Fields and Sir Clements Markham have claimed that he may have been involved in the murder of the Princes in the Tower, as the repeal of Titulus Regius gave
7370-506: The Princes a stronger claim to the throne than his own. Alison Weir points out that the Rennes ceremony, two years earlier, was plausible only if Henry and his supporters were certain that the Princes were already dead. Henry secured his crown principally by dividing and undermining the power of the nobility, especially through the aggressive use of bonds and recognisances to secure loyalty. He also enacted laws against livery and maintenance ,
7504-597: The Queen's College, Oxford , and the trustees gave instructions that at least seven boys were to be taught both Latin and Greek. In 1833, the Consols were sold to provide a new schoolroom and master's house. In 1834, the Brougham Commissioners reported that Bentley's had ceased to be a classical school and that no Bridgman Exhibition had been claimed for thirty years. In 1836, the income was too small to hire
7638-580: The Royal Family. The future king Edward VIII was born at White Lodge in 1894; his brother Prince Albert, Duke of York (the future George VI) and the Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother) lived there in the 1920s. The Royal Ballet School (formerly Sadler's Wells Ballet) has been based since 1955 at the lodge, where younger ballet students continue to be trained. Also in
7772-438: The Wardrobe, Trumpeters' House (built around 1700), and the Gate House, built in 1501. This has five bedrooms and was made available on a 65-year lease by the Crown Estate Commissioners in 1986. Beyond the grounds of the old palace, Richmond remained mostly agricultural land until the 18th century. White Lodge , in the middle of what is now Richmond Park , was built as a hunting lodge for George II , and during this period
7906-481: The Yorkist heiress Margaret Plantagenet Countess of Salisbury suo jure . He took care not to address the baronage or summon Parliament until after his coronation, which took place in Westminster Abbey on 30 October 1485. After his coronation Henry issued an edict that any gentleman who swore fealty to him would, notwithstanding any previous attainder, be secure in his property and person. Henry honoured his pledge of December 1483 to marry Elizabeth of York and
8040-491: The absorption of the town into a rapidly expanding London. In 1890, the town of Richmond, formerly part of the ancient parish of Kingston upon Thames in the county of Surrey , became a municipal borough , which later extended to include Kew , Ham , Petersham and part of Mortlake ( North Sheen ). The municipal borough was abolished in 1965, when local-government reorganisation transferred Richmond from Surrey to Greater London . Since 1965, Richmond has formed part of
8174-438: The alliance with Spain; Joanna, Dowager Queen of Naples (a niece of Queen Isabella of Castile), Queen Joanna of Castile , and Margaret, Dowager Duchess of Savoy (sister-in-law of Joanna of Castile) were all considered. In 1505 he was sufficiently interested in a potential marriage to Joanna of Naples that he sent ambassadors to Naples to report on the 27 year-old Joanna's physical suitability. The wedding never took place, and
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#17327799518728308-483: The architect Quinlan Terry , who was commissioned to restore the area (1984–87). Within the river itself at this point are the leafy Corporation Island and the two small Flowerpot Islands . The Thames-side walkway provides access to residences, pubs and terraces, and various greens , lanes and footpaths through Richmond. The stretch of the Thames below Richmond Hill is known as Horse Reach and includes Glover's Island . There are towpaths and tracks along both sides of
8442-427: The area, including along the Thames towpath and in Richmond Park. Richmond Park also has bridle paths , and horses can be rented from a number of stables around the perimeter of the park. Henry VII of England Henry VII (28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509), also known as Henry Tudor , was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death in 1509. He
8576-442: The arts and sciences by renting extra rooms around the town for classrooms. Following the Education Act 1944 , the school accepted voluntary controlled status, meaning that it had little autonomy. In 1946, the County Council bought a site at Wessington for a new school building and a boarding house, not built by 1952. In 1947 the school was renamed as the Bentley Grammar School. In 1974, Wiltshire County Council decided to close
8710-483: The avaricious and parsimonious character of the king". It seems that Henry was skilful at extracting money from his subjects on many pretexts, including that of war with France or war with Scotland. The money so extracted added to the King's personal fortune rather than being used for the stated purpose. Unlike his predecessors, Henry VII came to the throne without personal experience in estate management or financial administration. Despite this, during his reign he became
8844-526: The battlefield. Richard III's death at Bosworth Field effectively ended the Wars of the Roses. To secure his hold on the throne, Henry declared himself king by right of conquest retroactively from 21 August 1485, the day before Bosworth Field. Thus, anyone who had fought for Richard against him would be guilty of treason and Henry could legally confiscate the lands and property of Richard III, while restoring his own. Henry spared Richard's nephew and designated heir, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln , and made
8978-448: The border by her father: he would never see her again. Margaret Tudor wrote letters to her father declaring her homesickness, but Henry could do nothing but mourn the loss of his family and honour the terms of the peace treaty he had agreed to with the King of Scotland. Henry VII died of tuberculosis at Richmond Palace on 21 April 1509 and was buried in the chapel he commissioned in Westminster Abbey next to his wife, Elizabeth. He
9112-444: The civil war. He is credited with many administrative, economic and diplomatic initiatives. His supportive policy toward England's wool industry and his standoff with the Low Countries had long-lasting benefits to the English economy. He paid very close attention to detail, and instead of spending lavishly he concentrated on raising new revenues. He stabilised the government's finances by introducing several new taxes. After his death,
9246-420: The construction of King's College Chapel, Cambridge , started under Henry VI, guaranteeing finances which would continue even after his death. Henry VII's policy was to maintain peace and to create economic prosperity. Up to a point, he succeeded. The Treaty of Redon was signed in February 1489 between Henry and representatives of Brittany. Based on the terms of the accord, Henry sent 6,000 troops to fight (at
9380-420: The corner by Paved Court and Golden Court – two of a number of alleys that lead from the Green to the main commercial thoroughfare of George Street. These alleys are lined with mostly privately owned boutiques . Partway up Richmond Hill is the Poppy Factory , staffed mainly by disabled ex-servicemen and women, which produces the remembrance poppies sold each November for Remembrance Day . The view from
9514-419: The council. Richmond town is divided into two wards – North Richmond, which has three Liberal Democrat councillors, and South Richmond, with two Liberal Democrat councillors and one from the Green Party . Richmond town forms part of the Richmond Park constituency for the UK Parliament . The MP , since 2019, is Sarah Olney from the Liberal Democrats. Richmond is also part of the South West constituency for
9648-542: The death of Henry's granddaughter Elizabeth I . Henry also formed an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (1493–1519) and persuaded Pope Innocent VIII to issue a papal bull of excommunication against all pretenders to Henry's throne. In 1506, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller Emery d'Amboise asked Henry VII to become the protector and patron of the Order, as he had an interest in
9782-660: The demolition of 297 houses. The Richmond War Memorial , which now commemorates both wars, was installed in 1921 at the end of Whittaker Avenue, between the Old Town Hall and the Riverside. The town of Richmond is in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, which is governed by Richmond upon Thames London Borough Council . The most recent election was in May 2022 when the Liberal Democrats retained control of
9916-406: The east bank with its neighbouring district of East Twickenham . Today, this bridge, together with the well-preserved Georgian terraces that surround Richmond Green and line Richmond Hill to its crest, now has listed building status. As Richmond continued to prosper and expand during the 19th century, much luxurious housing was built on the streets that line Richmond Hill, as well as shops in
10050-585: The east of the town near North Sheen railway station. A range of convenience shopping, restaurants and cafes can be found on the crest of Richmond Hill lining Friars Stile Road, as well as along Kew Road towards the Botanical Gardens , and on Sheen Road. Richmond also offers a wide variety of office accommodation and is the UK/European headquarters of several multi-national companies, including eBay , PayPal and The Securitas Group , as well as
10184-655: The envoys were forced to depart. By 1483, Henry's mother was actively promoting him as an alternative to Richard III , despite her being married to Lord Stanley , a Yorkist. At Rennes Cathedral on Christmas Day 1483, Henry pledged to marry Elizabeth of York , the eldest daughter of Edward IV. She was Edward's heir since the presumed death of her brothers, the Princes in the Tower , King Edward V and Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York . With money and supplies borrowed from his host, Francis II of Brittany, Henry tried to land in England, but his conspiracy unravelled resulting in
10318-493: The execution of his primary co-conspirator, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham . Now supported by Francis II's prime minister, Pierre Landais , Richard III attempted to extradite Henry from Brittany, but Henry escaped to France. He was welcomed by the French, who readily supplied him with troops and equipment for a second invasion. Henry gained the support of the Woodvilles, in-laws of the late Edward IV, and sailed with
10452-491: The expense of Brittany) under the command of Lord Daubeney. The purpose of the agreement was to prevent France from annexing Brittany. According to John M. Currin, the treaty redefined Anglo-Breton relations. Henry started a new policy to recover Guyenne and other lost Plantagenet claims in France. The treaty marks a shift from neutrality over the French invasion of Brittany to active intervention against it. Henry later concluded
10586-423: The former kings of this land, being wearie of the citie, used customarily thither to resort as to a place of pleasure, and serving highly to their recreation". It was rebuilt between 1414 and 1422, but destroyed by fire in 1497. Following that fire, Henry VII built a new residence at Sheen, and in 1501 he named it Richmond Palace. The theatre company to which Shakespeare belonged performed some plays there during
10720-412: The gentry and the nobles who tried to exert their elevated influence over these local officials. All Acts of Parliament were overseen by the justices of the peace. For example, they could replace suspect jurors in accordance with the 1495 act preventing the corruption of juries. They were also in charge of various administrative duties, such as the checking of weights and measures. By 1509, justices of
10854-631: The great lords' practice of having large numbers of "retainers" who wore their lord's badge or uniform and formed a potential private army. Henry began taking precautions against rebellion while still in Leicester after Bosworth Field. Edward, Earl of Warwick , the ten-year-old son of Edward IV's brother George, Duke of Clarence , was the senior surviving male of the House of York. Before departing for London, Henry sent Robert Willoughby to Sheriff Hutton in Yorkshire, to arrest Warwick and take him to
10988-432: The head offices of a number of national, regional and local businesses. London's Evening Standard has described Richmond as "the beating heart of London's growing technology industry". The Thames is a major contributor to the interest that Richmond inspires in many people. It has an extensive frontage around Richmond Bridge, containing many bars and restaurants. Richmond Riverside owes much of its neo-Georgian style to
11122-527: The hill, with enough variety to cater to most tastes. One of the oldest is The Cricketers, serving beer since 1770, though the original building was burned down in 1844. It was soon replaced by the present building. Samuel Whitbread , founder of Whitbread Brewery , part-owned it with the Collins family who had a brewery in Water Lane, close to the old palace. Grade II listed pubs include the White Cross ,
11256-418: The historically Yorkist nobility, headed by the powerful Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare , proclaimed Simnel king and provided troops for his invasion of England. The rebellion was defeated and Lincoln killed at the Battle of Stoke . Henry showed remarkable clemency to the surviving rebels: he pardoned Kildare and the other Irish nobles, and he made the boy, Simnel, a servant in the royal kitchen where he
11390-447: The history of Richmond, Ham, Petersham and Kew. Its rotating exhibitions , education activities and a programme of events cover the whole of the modern borough. The museum's highlights include 16th-century glass from Richmond Palace and a painting, The Terrace and View from Richmond Hill, Surrey by Dutch draughtsman and painter Leonard Knyff (1650–1722), which is part of the Richmond upon Thames Borough Art Collection. Admission to
11524-515: The increased taxes. Henry also increased wealth by acquiring land through the act of resumption of 1486 which had been delayed as he focused on defence of the Church, his person and his realm. The capriciousness and lack of due process that indebted many would tarnish his legacy and were soon ended upon Henry VII's death, after a commission revealed widespread abuses. According to the contemporary historian Polydore Vergil , simple "greed" underscored
11658-491: The largest of which are Marks & Spencer , Boots , Tesco Metro and Waitrose . The remaining town centre stores are largely single units. Mostly independent businesses line the narrow alleyways running off George Street towards Richmond Green and up Richmond Hill, and there is a farmers' market in Heron Square on Saturdays. Richmond has one large stand-alone supermarket, Sainsbury's , with parking for 420 cars, to
11792-477: The least poverty in London. The town of Richmond has the largest commercial centre in the borough and is classified as a major centre according to the London Plan . It is an established up-market shopping destination. Its compact centre has approximately 50,000 m of retail floor-space that is largely focused on George Street , The Quadrant and Hill Street. It comprises almost exclusively high street chains,
11926-410: The lock and weir there is a small footbridge . Richmond is well endowed with green and open spaces accessible to the public. At the heart of the town sits Richmond Green , which is roughly square in shape and together with the Little Green, a smaller green space stretching from its southeast corner, is 12 acres (5 hectares) in area. The Green is surrounded by well-used metalled roads that provide for
12060-508: The means by which royal control was over-asserted in Henry's final years. Following Henry VII's death, Henry VIII executed Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley , his two most hated tax collectors, on trumped-up charges of treason. Henry VII established the pound avoirdupois as a standard of weight; it later became part of the Imperial and customary systems of units. In 1506 he resumed
12194-402: The middle of the work, Edward himself died at the manor, in 1377. Richard II was the first English king to make Sheen his main residence, which he did in 1383. Twelve years later, Richard was so distraught at the death of his wife Anne of Bohemia at the age of 28 that, according to Holinshed , the 16th-century English chronicler, he "caused it [the manor] to be thrown down and defaced; whereas
12328-521: The museum is free. The Riverside Gallery , also at the Old Town Hall, features temporary exhibitions by local artists including paintings, prints and photographs. Admission is free. Richmond has two theatres. Richmond Theatre on Little Green is a late Victorian structure designed by Frank Matcham and restored and extended by Carl Toms in 1990. The theatre has a weekly schedule of plays and musicals, usually given by professional touring companies, and pre- West End shows can sometimes be seen. There
12462-483: The necessary arrangements. It is unclear why he chose Calne, although one of his trustees, William Penniger, bore a Wiltshire name. In 1665 a house and garden on the Green at Calne were bought and remained the school's home until 1833. In 1683, the new school became a grammar school , on the orders of the Commissioners of Charitable Uses, who required Latin to be taught. In 1690, the land near Lincoln's Inn
12596-472: The negotiations. Henry's principal problem was to restore royal authority in a realm recovering from the Wars of the Roses. There were too many powerful noblemen and, as a consequence of the system of so-called bastard feudalism , each had what amounted to private armies of indentured retainers ( mercenaries masquerading as servants). Following the example of Edward IV, Henry VII created a Council of Wales and
12730-488: The nobility of the Middle Ages . In 1502, Henry VII's life took a difficult and personal turn in which many people he was close to died in quick succession. His first son and heir apparent, Arthur, Prince of Wales, died suddenly at Ludlow Castle , very likely from a viral respiratory illness known at the time as the " English sweating sickness ". This made Henry VII's second son, Henry, Duke of York , heir apparent to
12864-447: The number of large houses in their own grounds – such as Asgill House and Pembroke Lodge – increased significantly. These were followed by the building of further important houses, including Downe House , Wick House and The Wick on Richmond Hill , as this area became an increasingly fashionable place in which to live. Richmond Bridge was completed in 1777 to replace a ferry crossing that connected Richmond town centre on
12998-508: The other Beaufort line of descent through Lady Margaret's uncle, Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset . Henry also made some political capital out of his Welsh ancestry in attracting military support and safeguarding his army's passage through Wales on its way to the Battle of Bosworth. He came from an old, established Anglesey family that claimed descent from Cadwaladr , in legend, the last ancient British king. On occasion Henry displayed
13132-634: The park and Grade II listed is Thatched House Lodge , which is still a royal residence. Since 1963 it has been the home of Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy , a first cousin of Queen Elizabeth II . General Dwight D Eisenhower , who later became President of the United States , lived there during the Second World War . The Museum of Richmond , in Richmond's Old Town Hall , close to Richmond Bridge, has displays relating to
13266-415: The peace were key enforcers of law and order for Henry VII. They were unpaid, which, in comparison with modern standards, meant a smaller tax bill for law enforcement. Local gentry saw the office as one of local influence and prestige and were therefore willing to serve. Overall, this was a successful area of policy for Henry, both in terms of efficiency and as a method of reducing the corruption endemic within
13400-409: The physical description Henry sent with his ambassadors of what he desired in a new wife matched the description of his wife Elizabeth. After 1503, records show that Henry VII never again used the Tower of London as a royal residence; all royal births under Henry VIII took place in palaces. Henry VII falls among the minority of British monarchs that never had any known mistresses and, for the times, it
13534-436: The possibilities for such family indulgences greatly diminished. Henry became very sick and nearly died, allowing only his mother Margaret Beaufort near him: "privily departed to a solitary place, and would that no man should resort unto him." Further compounding Henry's distress, within months of her mother's death, his older daughter Margaret, who had previously been betrothed to King James IV of Scotland, had to be escorted to
13668-407: The realm by introducing ruthlessly efficient mechanisms of taxation. He was supported in this effort by his chancellor, Archbishop John Morton , whose " Morton's Fork " was a catch-22 method of ensuring that nobles paid increased taxes: those nobles who spent little must have saved much, and thus could afford the increased taxes; in contrast, those nobles who spent much obviously had the means to pay
13802-628: The red dragon. He took it, as well as the standard of St. George , on his procession through London after the victory at Bosworth. A contemporary writer and Henry's biographer, Bernard André , also made much of Henry's Welsh descent. In 1456, Henry's father Edmund Tudor was captured while fighting for Henry VI in South Wales against the Yorkists . He died shortly afterwards in Carmarthen Castle . His younger brother, Jasper Tudor ,
13936-436: The reign of Elizabeth I . As Queen, Elizabeth spent much of her time at Richmond, as she enjoyed hunting stags in the "Newe Parke of Richmonde" (now Old Deer Park). She died at the palace on 24 March 1603. The palace was no longer in residential use after 1649, but in 1688, James II ordered its partial reconstruction, this time as a royal nursery . The bulk of the palace had decayed by 1779, but surviving structures include
14070-537: The river, and they are much used by pedestrians, joggers and cyclists. Westminster Passenger Services Association boats, licensed by London River Services , sail daily between Kew and Hampton Court Palace , calling at Richmond in each direction. Richmond Green has been described as "one of the most beautiful urban greens surviving anywhere in England". It is roughly square in shape, and its open grassland, framed with broadleaf trees , extends to roughly twelve acres (5 hectares). On summer weekends and public holidays
14204-452: The same name, although for some years the two names were often used in conjunction (for example, "Shene otherwise called Richemount"). Henry I lived briefly in the King's house in "Sheanes". In 1299, Edward I , the "Hammer of the Scots", took his whole court to the manor house at Sheen, a little east of the bridge and on the riverside, and it thus became a royal residence; William Wallace
14338-479: The scenic view of the River Thames from Richmond. Richmond was founded following King Henry VII 's building in the 16th century of Richmond Palace (so-named in 1501), from which the town derives its name. (The palace's manor itself took its name from King Henry's earldom of Richmond, North Yorkshire , the original Richmond.) The town and palace became particularly associated with Queen Elizabeth I ( r. 1558–1603 ), who spent her last days there. During
14472-498: The school and establish a new comprehensive school in its place. The Wessington site is now occupied by Kingsbury Green Academy . Richmond, Surrey Richmond is a town in south-west London, 8.2 miles (13.2 km) west-southwest of Charing Cross . It stands on the River Thames , and features many parks and open spaces , including Richmond Park , and many protected conservation areas , which include much of Richmond Hill . A specific Act of Parliament protects
14606-529: The throne. Henry IV's action was of doubtful legality, as the Beauforts were previously legitimised by an act of Parliament , but it weakened Henry's claim. Nonetheless, by 1483 Henry was the senior male claimant heir to the House of Lancaster remaining after the deaths in battle, by murder or execution of Henry VI (son of Henry V and Catherine of Valois), his son Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales , and
14740-402: The throne. The King, normally a reserved man who rarely showed much emotion in public unless angry, surprised his courtiers with his intense grief and sobbing at his son's death. His concern for the Queen is evidence that the marriage was a happy one, as is his reaction to Queen Elizabeth's death the following year, when he shut himself away for several days, refusing to speak to anyone. Henry VII
14874-473: The time, including Giuseppe Garibaldi . It was later the childhood home of Lord John Russell's grandson, the philosopher, mathematician and social critic Bertrand Russell . It is now a popular restaurant with views across the Thames Valley. Built as a hunting lodge for George II by the architect Roger Morris , White Lodge was completed in 1730. Its many famous residents have included members of
15008-569: The top westward to Windsor has long been famous, inspiring paintings by masters such as J. M. W. Turner and Sir Joshua Reynolds and also poetry. One particularly grand description of the view can be found in Sir Walter Scott 's novel The Heart of Midlothian (1818). It is a common misconception that the folk song " Lass of Richmond Hill " relates to this hill, but the young woman in the song lived in Hill House at Richmond in
15142-547: The town along the riverside as far as the boundary with the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, a UNESCO World Heritage Site . This contains wide green lawns and sports facilities, and the Grade I listed former King's Observatory erected for George III in 1769. The town's main shopping street, George Street , is also named after the king. The town centre lies just below 33 ft (10 m) above sea level. South of
15276-658: The town centre to serve the increasing population. In July 1892, the Corporation formed a joint-stock company , the Richmond (Surrey) Electric Light and Power Company, and this wired the town for electricity by around 1896. Like many other large towns in Britain, Richmond lost many young people in the First and Second World Wars . In the Second World War, 96 people were killed in air raids , which also resulted in
15410-409: The town centre, rising from Richmond Bridge to an elevation of 165 ft (50 m), is Richmond Hill. Just beyond the summit of Richmond Hill is Richmond Park , an area of 2,360 acres (9.55 km ; 3.7 sq mi) of wild heath and woodland originally enclosed for hunting, and now forming London's largest royal park . The park is a national nature reserve , a Site of Special Scientific Interest and
15544-533: The way of leisure activities. Skiffs (fixed seat boats) can be hired by the hour from local boat builders close to the bridge, with opportunities to row upstream towards the historic properties Ham House and Marble Hill House . Richmond Canoe Club, founded in 1944 and now Britain's biggest canoe club, is also on the towpath south of Richmond Bridge. Richmond is part of the London Cycle Network , offering on and off-road cycle paths throughout
15678-517: The wedding took place in 1486 at Westminster Abbey. He was 29 years old, she was 20. They were third cousins, as both were great-great-grandchildren of John of Gaunt . Henry married Elizabeth of York with the hope of uniting the Yorkist and Lancastrian sides of the Plantagenet dynastic disputes, and he was largely successful. However, such a level of paranoia persisted that anyone (John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, for example) with blood ties to
15812-474: The widow of Henry V, Catherine of Valois . One of their sons was Edmund, Henry's father. Edmund was created Earl of Richmond in 1452, and "formally declared legitimate by Parliament". The descent of Henry's mother, Margaret, through the legitimised House of Beaufort bolstered Henry's claim to the English throne. She was a great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (fourth son of Edward III ), and his third wife Katherine Swynford . Swynford
15946-481: Was "good as far as it goes", but that there were only 41 boys, aged from eight to fourteen. In the 1890s, the Charity Commissioners reorganized Bentley's School by lowering the fees and bringing in commercial and science subjects, including chemistry, a modern language, and agriculture, and making it a school for boys from eight to sixteen. In 1901, it was combined with a technical institute and became
16080-413: Was Gaunt's mistress for about 25 years. When they married in 1396 they already had four children, including Henry's great-grandfather John Beaufort . Gaunt's nephew Richard II legitimised Gaunt's children by Swynford by letters patent in 1397. In 1407, Henry IV , Gaunt's son by his first wife, issued new letters patent confirming the legitimacy of his half-siblings but also declaring them ineligible for
16214-459: Was a scarce commodity and therefore especially valuable to its landholder, the Pope. With the English economy heavily invested in wool production, Henry VII became involved in the alum trade in 1486. With the assistance of the Italian merchant banker Lodovico della Fava and the Italian banker Girolamo Frescobaldi , Henry VII became deeply involved in the trade by licensing ships, obtaining alum from
16348-605: Was born. Henry was then raised by his uncle Jasper Tudor , a Lancastrian, and William Herbert , a supporter of the Yorkist branch of the House of Plantagenet. During Henry's early years, his uncles and the Lancastrians fought a series of civil wars against the Yorkist claimant, Edward IV . After Edward retook the throne in 1471, Henry spent 14 years in exile in Brittany . He attained the throne when his forces, supported by France , Scotland and Wales , defeated Richard III at
16482-540: Was executed in London in 1305, and it was in Sheen that the Commissioners from Scotland went down on their knees before Edward. Edward II , following his defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, founded a monastery for Carmelites at Sheen. When the boy-king Edward III came to the throne in 1327, he gave the manor to his mother Isabella . Edward later spent over £ 2,000 on improvements, but in
16616-531: Was expanded in 1892 by the addition of Kew , Petersham and the North Sheen part of Mortlake ; in 1933, Ham was added to the borough. In 1965, the parish and municipal borough were abolished by the London Government Act 1963 , which transferred Richmond to Greater London . Together with the former Municipal Borough of Twickenham and the former Municipal Borough of Barnes , it formed
16750-493: Was in charge of roasting meats on a spit. In 1490, a young Fleming , Perkin Warbeck , appeared and claimed to be Richard of Shrewsbury , the younger of the "Princes in the Tower". Warbeck won the support of Edward IV's sister Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy . He led attempted invasions of Ireland in 1491 and England in 1495, and persuaded James IV of Scotland to invade England in 1496. In 1497 Warbeck landed in Cornwall with
16884-575: Was probably baptised at St Mary's Church, Pembroke , though no documentation of the event exists. Henry's paternal grandfather, Owen Tudor , originally from the Tudors of Penmynydd , Isle of Anglesey in Wales, had been a page in the court of King Henry V . He rose to become one of the "Squires to the Body to the King" after military service at the Battle of Agincourt . Owen is said to have secretly married
17018-678: Was shattered by the loss of Elizabeth, and her death affected him severely. Henry wanted to maintain the Spanish alliance. Accordingly, he arranged a papal dispensation from Pope Julius II for Prince Henry to marry his brother's widow Catherine, a relationship that would have otherwise precluded marriage in the Church. After obtaining the dispensation, Henry had second thoughts about the marriage of his son and Catherine. Catherine's mother Isabella I of Castile had died and Catherine's sister Joanna had succeeded her; Catherine was, therefore, daughter of only one reigning monarch and so less desirable as
17152-416: Was sold for £1,200, although only four of the six trustees transacted the sale. Investing some of the money in a mortgage led to a Court of Chancery claim in 1727 which was not settled until 1742. They trustees came out of this with enough money to buy annuities worth £50 a year on land near Chippenham and to put £300 into Consols . In 1734, Sir Francis Bridgman gave the school two exhibitions to be held at
17286-538: Was sold in 2013 after the charitable trust running the home concluded that the building no longer met modern requirements and could not be easily or economically upgraded. The trust opened an additional home in Solihull , West Midlands, and the remaining residents in Richmond moved in 2013 to a new purpose-built building in Surbiton . At the top of Richmond Hill , opposite the former Royal Star and Garter Home, sits
17420-543: Was succeeded by his second son, Henry VIII (reigned 1509–47), who would initiate the Protestant Reformation in England. His mother died two months later on 29 June 1509. Amiable and high-spirited, Henry was friendly if dignified in manner, and it was clear that he was extremely intelligent. His biographer, Professor Stanley Chrimes, credits him – even before he had become king – with "a high degree of personal magnetism, ability to inspire confidence, and
17554-569: Was the Court of Star Chamber . This revived an earlier practice of using a small (and trusted) group of the Privy Council as a personal or Prerogative Court, able to cut through the cumbersome legal system and act swiftly. Serious disputes involving the use of personal power, or threats to royal authority, were thus dealt with. Henry VII used justices of the peace on a large, nationwide scale. They were appointed for every shire and served for
17688-510: Was the first monarch of the House of Tudor . Henry's mother, Margaret Beaufort , was a descendant of John of Gaunt , son of King Edward III , and founder of the House of Lancaster , a cadet branch of the House of Plantagenet . Henry's father, Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond , was a half-brother of King Henry VI of England (also a Lancastrian) and a member of the Welsh Tudors of Penmynydd . Edmund died three months before his son
17822-457: Was thus handed over to English envoys and escorted to the Breton port of Saint-Malo . While there, he feigned stomach cramps and delayed his departure long enough to miss the tides. An ally of Henry's, Viscount Jean du Quélennec [ fr ] , soon arrived, bringing news that Francis had recovered, and in the confusion Henry was able to flee to a monastery. There he claimed sanctuary until
17956-407: Was widely known and there is evidence that his outwardly austere personality belied a devotion to his family. Letters to relatives have an affectionate tone not captured by official state business, as evidenced by many written to his mother Margaret. Many of the entries show a man who loosened his purse strings generously for his wife and children – and not just for necessities. After Elizabeth's death,
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