122-519: The Beothuk ( / b iː ˈ ɒ t ə k / or / ˈ b eɪ . ə θ ʊ k / ; also spelled Beothuck ) were a group of Indigenous people of Canada who lived on the island of Newfoundland . The Beothuk culture formed around 1500 CE. This may have been the most recent cultural manifestation of peoples who first migrated from Labrador to present-day Newfoundland around 1 CE. The ancestors of this group had three earlier cultural phases, each lasting approximately 500 years. The Beothuk lived throughout
244-475: A collective noun is a specific term of art used as a legal term encompassing all Indigenous peoples living in Canada. Although "Indian" is a term still commonly used in legal documents for First Nations, the descriptors "Indian" and " Eskimo " have fallen into disuse in Canada, and most consider them to be pejorative . Aboriginal peoples has begun to be considered outdated and is slowly being replaced by
366-487: A national historic site , one of the first Indigenous spiritual sites in Canada to be formally recognized in this manner. The Plano cultures was a group of hunter-gatherer communities that occupied the Great Plains area of North America between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indians moved into new territory as it emerged from under the glaciers. Big game flourished in this new environment. The Plano culture
488-671: A boat called the Endeavour, which Guy used to lead a voyage into Trinity Bay in the Autumn of 1612 in an attempt to contact and establish a fur trade with the Beothuk , the native inhabitants of the island. On 6 November, Guy's party met, shared a meal and exchanged gifts with a group of Beothuk somewhere in Bull Arm , Trinity Bay . Guy returned to England in April 1613. In that same year,
610-557: A cousin of the first Governor, Nicholas Guy, became the father of the first son born in Newfoundland, from whom most of the current Guys now living in Canada are descended. John Guy returned to Newfoundland in 1614-15, when he had the indignity of being sent home in irons by the second Governor of the Colony, John Mason, who didn't really want the previous Governor being around, as he felt threatened by Guy's knowledge and respect amongst
732-766: A diet of squash, corn, and bean crops. The Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE – 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell Exchange System networked cultures and societies with the peoples on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario . Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula , Saugeen , and Laurel complexes . First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what
854-533: A distinct people. They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo. The Yupik languages are linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages , but are related to each other. Linguistic groups of Arctic people have no universal replacement term for Eskimo , inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik across the geographical area inhabited by them. Besides these ethnic descriptors, Aboriginal peoples are often divided into legal categories based on their relationship with
976-485: A grant of land in Newfoundland which he named Sea Forest, and which he divided amongst his younger sons in his will in 1624. In 1618, Guy became Mayor of Bristol, and in 1619 he was appointed an Alderman of Bristol, a post he held until his death in 1629, and he was also a member of the Bristol Merchant Venturer's Society Court of Assistants in 1620 and 1621. John Guy in his capacity as an admiral in
1098-451: A large array of plant species. These species now constitute 50–60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide. The vastness and variety of Canada's climates, ecology, vegetation, fauna , and landform separations have defined ancient peoples implicitly into cultural or linguistic divisions. Canada is surrounded north, east, and west with coastline and since the last ice age, Canada has consisted of distinct forest regions. Language contributes to
1220-749: A mixed language called Michif . Michif, Mechif or Métchif is a phonetic spelling of Métif, a variant of Métis. The Métis today predominantly speak English , with French a strong second language, as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues . A 19th-century community of the Métis people, the Anglo-Métis , were referred to as Countryborn. They were children of Rupert's Land fur trade typically of Orcadian , Scottish, or English paternal descent and Aboriginal maternal descent. Their first languages would have been Aboriginal ( Cree , Saulteaux , Assiniboine , etc.) and English. Their fathers spoke Gaelic , thus leading to
1342-624: A pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals. The area holds evidence of early human habitation in Canada dating from about 12,000 years ago. Fossils from the area include some never accounted for in North America, such as hyenas and large camels . Bluefish Caves is an archaeological site in Yukon from which a specimen of apparently human-worked mammoth bone was radiocarbon dated to 12,000 years ago. Clovis sites dated at 13,500 years ago were discovered in western North America during
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#17327973431521464-519: A post which gave him the responsibility for obtaining provisions for the naval vessels that visited the port of Bristol. In 1608 Guy and other members of the Society of Merchant Venturers , decided to act upon the letter received by the mayor from Chief Justice Sir John Popham concerning the colonisation of Newfoundland. Since John Cabot had discovered the island and Sir Humphrey Gilbert had formally taken possession of it for Elizabeth I of England,
1586-443: Is native to America rather than a person who is ethnically Indigenous to the boundaries of the present-day United States. In this sense, native may encompass a broad range of populations and is therefore not recommended, although it is not generally considered offensive. The Indian Act ( Revised Statutes of Canada (R.S.C.) , 1985, c. I-5) sets the legal term Indian , designating that "a person who pursuant to this Act
1708-417: Is a hunting grounds that was in use for about 5,000 years. By 7,000–5000 BCE (9,000–7,000 years ago) the west coast of Canada saw various cultures who organized themselves around salmon fishing. The Nuu-chah-nulth of Vancouver Island began whaling with advanced long spears at about this time. The Maritime Archaic is one group of North America's Archaic culture of sea-mammal hunters in
1830-409: Is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnic identity. In conversation, this would be "I am Haida ", or "we are Kwantlens ", in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities. Also coming into general use since the 1970s, First Peoples refers to all Indigenous groups, i.e. First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. Notwithstanding Canada's location within
1952-566: Is believed the inhabitants entered the Americas pursuing Pleistocene mammals such as the giant beaver , steppe wisent (bison), muskox , mastodons , woolly mammoths and ancient reindeer (early caribou). One route hypothesized is that people walked south by way of an ice-free corridor on the east side of the Rocky Mountains , and then fanned out across North America before continuing on to South America. The other conjectured route
2074-644: Is characterized by a range of projectile point tools collectively called Plano points , which were used to hunt bison . Their diets also included pronghorn , elk , deer , raccoon and coyote . At the beginning of the Archaic period , they began to adopt a sedentary approach to subsistence. Sites in and around Belmont, Nova Scotia , have evidence of Plano-Indians, indicating small seasonal hunting camps, perhaps re-visited over generations from around 11,000–10,000 years ago. Seasonal large and smaller game fish and fowl were food and raw material sources. Adaptation to
2196-563: Is indigenous to the New England and Atlantic Canada regions of North America. The culture flourished between 3,000 BCE – 1,000 BCE (5,000–3,000 years ago) and was named after their burial ceremonies, which used large quantities of red ochre to cover bodies and grave goods. The Arctic small tool tradition is a broad cultural entity that developed along the Alaska Peninsula , around Bristol Bay , and on
2318-662: Is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed each with its own culture, customs, and character. In the northwest were the Athapaskan speaking , Slavey , Tłı̨chǫ , Tutchone , and Tlingit . Along the Pacific coast were the Tsimshian ; Haida; Salish ; Kwakwakaʼwakw ; Heiltsuk ; Nootka ; Nisga'a ; Senakw and Gitxsan . In the plains were the Niisitapi ; Káínawa ; Tsuutʼina ; and Piikáni . In
2440-494: Is recorded in the list of mayors of Bristol in the Bristol City Council House for the year 1618. John Guy's widow Ann survived him until 1660, by which time she had outlived all but 2 of their 10 children (five sons and five daughters) -- their eldest daughter and youngest son still remaining alive. Archaeological excavations indicate that Cupers Cove continued to be occupied throughout the 17th century, and
2562-406: Is registered as an Indian or is entitled to be registered as an Indian." Section 5 of the act states that a registry shall be maintained "in which shall be recorded the name of every person who is entitled to be registered as an Indian under this Act." No other term is legally recognized for the purpose of registration and the term Indian specifically excludes reference to Inuit as per section 4 of
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#17327973431522684-535: Is that they migrated, either on foot or using primitive boats , down the Pacific coast to the tip of South America, and then crossed the Rockies and Andes . Evidence of the latter has been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of metres following the last ice age. The Old Crow Flats and basin was one of the areas in Canada untouched by glaciations during the Pleistocene Ice ages , thus it served as
2806-546: The Aboriginal Tasmanians , and that the government's knowledge of such violence while not actively preventing and stopping it implies a tacit approval of the violence. Adhikari collects various accounts of mass violence conducted by Europeans against the Beothuk, the most infamous of which is a raid that occurred in winter 1789. This was led by John Peyton Sr. , who was involved in many acts of violence against
2928-527: The Americas , the term Native American is hardly ever used in Canada, in order to avoid any confusion due to the ambiguous meaning of the word "American". Therefore, the term is typically used only in reference to the Indigenous peoples within the boundaries of the present-day United States . Native Canadians was often used in Canada to differentiate this American term until the 1980s. In contrast to
3050-574: The Canadian Martyrs ). Christianization as government policy became more systematic with the Indian Act in 1876, which would bring new sanctions for those who did not convert to Christianity . For example, the new laws would prevent non-Christian Aboriginal people from testifying or having their cases heard in court, and ban alcohol consumption. When the Indian Act was amended in 1884, traditional religious and social practices, such as
3172-516: The Eramosa River around 8,000–7,000 BCE (10,000–9,000 years ago). They were concentrated between Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay . Wendat hunted caribou to survive on the glacier-covered land. Many different First Nations cultures relied upon the buffalo starting by 6,000–5,000 BCE (8,000–7,000 years ago). They hunted buffalo by herding migrating buffalo off cliffs. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump , near Lethbridge, Alberta ,
3294-651: The Indian Act was the Canadian residential school system : Of all the initiatives that were undertaken in the first century of Confederation, none was more ambitious or central to the civilizing strategy of the Department, to its goal of assimilation than the residential school system… it was the residential school experience that would lead children most effectively out of their "savage" communities into "higher civilization" and "full citizenship." John Guy (governor) John Guy (25 December 1568 – February 1629)
3416-717: The Northwest Territories (NWT). Amongst notable Métis people are singer and actor Tom Jackson , Commissioner of the Northwest Territories Tony Whitford , and Louis Riel who led two resistance movements: the Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870 and the North-West Rebellion of 1885, which ended in his trial and subsequent execution. The languages inherently Métis are either Métis French or
3538-611: The Palaeo-Eskimo period, down to the Recent Indigenous (including the Beothuk) occupation. Two of the sites are associated with the historical Beothuk. Boyd's Cove, the larger of the two, is 3,000 m (32,000 sq ft) and is on top of a 6 m (20 ft) glacial moraine . The coarse sand, gravel, and boulders were left behind by glaciers . The artifacts provide answers to an economic question: why did
3660-565: The Potlatch , would be banned, and further amendments in 1920 would prevent " status Indians " (as defined in the Act ) from wearing traditional dress or performing traditional dances in an attempt to stop all non-Christian practices. Another focus of the Canadian government was to make the Aboriginal groups of Canada sedentary, as they thought that this would make them easier to assimilate. In
3782-848: The Thule culture , which emerged from western Alaska around 1,000 CE and spread eastward across the Arctic , displacing the Dorset culture (in Inuktitut , the Tuniit ). Inuit historically referred to the Tuniit as "giants", who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Researchers hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, larger weapons and other technologies used by the expanding Inuit society. By 1300,
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3904-578: The Wisconsin glaciation , 50,000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to northwest North America (Alaska). Alaska was ice-free because of low snowfall , allowing a small population to exist. The Laurentide ice sheet covered most of Canada, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years. Aboriginal genetic studies suggest that
4026-498: The subarctic . They prospered from approximately 7,000 BCE–1,500 BCE (9,000–3,500 years ago) along the Atlantic Coast of North America. Their settlements included longhouses and boat-topped temporary or seasonal houses. They engaged in long-distance trade, using as currency white chert , a rock quarried from northern Labrador to Maine . The Pre-Columbian culture, whose members were called Red Paint People ,
4148-570: The 17th and 18th centuries. European written accounts generally recorded friendliness of the First Nations, who profited in trade with Europeans. Such trade generally strengthened the more organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation . Throughout the 16th century, European fleets made almost annual visits to the eastern shores of Canada to cultivate the fishing opportunities. A sideline industry emerged in
4270-420: The 1820s. The results assigned them to Haplogroup X (mtDNA) and Haplogroup C (mtDNA) , respectively, which are also found in current Mi'kmaq populations in Newfoundland. DNA research indicates they were solely of First Nation Indigenous maternal ancestry, unlike some earlier studies suggesting an Indigenous/European hybrid. However, a 2011 analysis showed although the two Beothuk and living Mi'kmaq occur in
4392-457: The 1930s. Clovis peoples were regarded as the first widespread Paleo-Indian inhabitants of the New World and ancestors to all Indigenous peoples in the Americas . Archaeological discoveries in the years 1979–2009 brought forward other distinctive knapping cultures who occupied the Americas from the lower Great Plains to the shores of Chile. Localized regional cultures developed from
4514-698: The 19th century, the government began to support the creation of model farming villages, which were meant to encourage non-sedentary Aboriginal groups to settle in an area and begin to cultivate agriculture. When most of these model farming villages failed, the government turned instead to the creation of Indian reserves with the Indian Act of 1876. With the creation of these reserves came many restricting laws, such as further bans on all intoxicants, restrictions on eligibility to vote in band elections, decreased hunting and fishing areas, and inability for status Indians to visit other groups on their reserves. Farming
4636-516: The Aboriginal peoples. These policies, which were made possible by legislation such as the Gradual Civilization Act and the Indian Act , focused on European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living, agriculture, and education. Missionary work directed at the Aboriginal people of Canada had been ongoing since the first missionaries arrived in the 1600s, generally from France, some of whom were martyred ( Jesuit saints called
4758-566: The American anthropologist Frank Speck . He was conducting field studies in the area. She said her father taught her the song. Since Santu Toney was born about 1835, this may be evidence some Beothuk people survived beyond the death of Shanawdithit in 1829. Contemporary researchers tried to transcribe the song, as well as improve the recording by current methods. Native groups learned the song to use in celebrations of tradition. Scholars disagree in their definition of " genocide " in relation to
4880-470: The Beothuk avoid Europeans? The interiors of four houses and their environs produced some 1,157 nails , the majority of which were forged by the Beothuk. The site's occupants manufactured some sixty-seven projectile points (most made from nails and bones). They modified nails to use as what are believed to be scrapers to remove fat from animal hides, they straightened fish hooks and adapted them as awls, they fashioned lead into ornaments, and so on. In summary,
5002-745: The Beothuk was based on accounts by the woman Shanawdithit , who told about the people who "wintered on the Exploits River or at Red Indian Lake and resorted to the coast in Notre Dame Bay". References in records also noted some survivors on the Northern Peninsula in the early 19th century. During the colonial period, the Beothuk people allegedly endured territorial pressure from other Indigenous groups: Mi'kmaq migrants from Cape Breton Island , and Inuit from Labrador. "The Beothuk were unable to procure sufficient subsistence within
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5124-541: The Beothuk. Examples included expeditions by naval lieutenants George Cartwright in 1768 and David Buchan in 1811. Cartwright's expedition was commissioned by Governor Hugh Palliser; he found no Beothuk, but brought back important cultural information. Governor John Duckworth commissioned Buchan's expedition. Although undertaken for information gathering, this expedition ended in violence. Buchan's party encountered several Beothuk near Beothuk Lake . After an initially friendly reception, Buchan left two of his men behind with
5246-470: The Beothuk. Peyton along with two others fired upon a band of 50 Beothuk with buckshot, killing many while injuring all others, beyond some injured individuals who were physically beaten to death after being shot, any others were left to die from their injuries or freeze to death. Several Beothuk were captured by settlers from the Newfoundland Colony during the early 19th century. Demasduit
5368-745: The Beothuk. The next day, he found them murdered and mutilated. According to the Beothuk Shanawdithit's later account, the marines were killed when one refused to give up his jacket and both ran away. The Beothuks avoided Europeans in Newfoundland by moving inland from their traditional settlements. First, they emigrated to different coastal areas of Newfoundland, places the Europeans did not have fish-camps, but they were over-run. Then, they emigrated to inland Newfoundland. The Beothuks' main food sources were caribou, fish, and seals; their forced displacement deprived them of two of these. This led to
5490-622: The Beothuk. While some scholars believe that the Beothuk died out as an unintended consequence of European colonization, others argue that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against them, including historian Mohamed Adhikari , legal scholar Sydney Harring, and professor of peace and conflict studies Paul Cormier. If such a campaign did occur, it was explicitly without official sanction after 1759, any such action thereafter being in violation of Governor John Byron 's proclamation that " I do strictly enjoin and require all His Majesty's subjects to live in amity and brotherly kindness with
5612-539: The Boyd's Cove Beothuk took debris from an early modern European fishery and fashioned materials. Source: Groswater Palaeoeskimo Dorset Paleoeskimo Recent All Beothuk sites of note are in coastal areas, implying that prior to European settlement most Indigenous settlements were along the coast. This adds evidence to the claim that the Beothuk were cut off from their food sources which led to many of them starving to death as they were pushed inland. Many sites consist of
5734-856: The Crown (i.e. the state). Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal government (as opposed to the provinces) the sole responsibility for "Indians, and Lands reserved for the Indians." The government inherited treaty obligations from the British colonial authorities in Eastern Canada and signed treaties itself with First Nations in Western Canada (the Numbered Treaties ). The Indian Act , passed by
5856-561: The European fishermen who had dried and cured their catch before taking it to Europe at the end of the season. Contact between Europeans and the Beothuk was usually negative for one side, with a few exceptions like John Guy 's party in 1612. Settlers and the Beothuk competed for natural resources such as salmon, seals, and birds. In the interior, fur trappers established traplines, disrupted the caribou hunts, and ransacked Beothuk stores, camps, and supplies. The Beothuk would steal traps to reuse
5978-577: The Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century. The Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures. Boundary disputes were common and led to aggressive actions. Warfare was common among Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit, such as the Nunamiut ( Uummarmiut ) who inhabited the Mackenzie River delta area, often engaged in common warfare. The Central Arctic Inuit lacked
6100-466: The Métis, their heritage and Aboriginal ancestry have often been absorbed and assimilated into their surrounding populations. From the late 18th century, European Canadians (and the Canadian government) encouraged assimilation of Aboriginal culture into what was referred to as " Canadian culture ." These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with a series of initiatives that aimed at complete assimilation and subjugation of
6222-615: The New World began. Lower sea levels in the Queen Charlotte sound and Hecate Strait produced great grass lands called archipelago of Haida Gwaii . Hunter-gatherers of the area left distinctive lithic technology tools and the remains of large butchered mammals, occupying the area from 13,000– 9,000 years ago . In July 1992, the Government of Canada officially designated X̱á:ytem (near Mission, British Columbia ) as
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#17327973431526344-946: The Pre-Dorset, and the Independence traditions . These two groups, ancestors of Thule people , were displaced by the Inuit by 1000 CE. The Old Copper complex societies dating from 3,000 BCE – 500 BCE (5,000–2,500 years ago) are a manifestation of the Woodland culture , and are pre-pottery in nature. Evidence found in the northern Great Lakes regions indicates that they extracted copper from local glacial deposits and used it in its natural form to manufacture tools and implements. The Woodland cultural period dates from about 1,000 BCE – 1,000 CE, and has locales in Ontario , Quebec , and Maritime regions. The introduction of pottery distinguishes
6466-569: The Royal Navy fought against Turkish pirates operating in the English Channel during 1620, for which the grateful merchants of Bristol, provided him with a sum of money as a vote of thanks for his efforts. He was elected as one of the 2 Members of Parliament for Bristol in 1620, and remained its MP until 1621. In a debate on 27 February on the scarcity of money he spoke of the abundance of English coin in foreign parts, and recommended that
6588-525: The Woodland culture from the earlier Archaic stage inhabitants. Laurentian people of southern Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada. They created pointed-bottom beakers decorated by a cord marking technique that involved impressing tooth implements into wet clay. Woodland technology included items such as beaver incisor knives, bangles, and chisels. The population practising sedentary agricultural life ways continued to increase on
6710-564: The act. Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution ; however, its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive. The term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland . Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit , though the Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit, and ethnographers agree they are
6832-636: The anthropological definition of the word. They lived in conical dwellings known as mamateeks , which were fortified for the winter season. These were constructed by arranging poles in a circle, tying them at the top, and covering them with birch bark. The floors were dug with hollows used for sleeping. A fireplace was made at the centre. During spring, the Beothuk used red ochre to paint not only their bodies but also their houses, canoes , weapons, household appliances, and musical instruments. This practice led Europeans to refer to them as "Red Indians". The use of ochre had great cultural significance. The decorating
6954-463: The areas left to them." It has been alleged that French bounties induced the Mi'kmaq to kill Beothuk. This is, however, disputed by most historians and has since come to be known as the "Mercenary Myth". Beothuk numbers dwindled rapidly due to a combination of factors, including: By 1829, with the death of Shanawdithit, the people were declared extinct. Oral histories suggest a few Beothuk survived around
7076-485: The barbarous system of killing prevails amongst our people towards the Native Indians — whom our People always kill, when they can meet them ". Adhikari comments how the intentional nature of the destructive violence from colonizers is part of the evidence that makes this a case of genocide. Harring draws parallels between the genocidal violence inflicted upon the Beothuk and the genocidal violence inflicted upon
7198-498: The bodies in birch bark, they buried the dead in isolated locations. In one form, a shallow grave was covered with a rock pile. At other times they laid the body on a scaffold , or placed it in a burial box, with the knees folded. The survivors placed offerings at burial sites to accompany the dead, such as figurines, pendants, and replicas of tools. About 1000 CE, Norse explorers led by Leif Erikson encountered Indigenous people in northern Newfoundland, who may have been ancestors of
7320-544: The colonists. His withdrawal was also in part the result of the troubles caused by the pirates led by Peter Easton. Five years later a visitor to Newfoundland wrote that the Bristol citizens had "planted a large circuit of the country, and builded there many fine houses, and done many other good services" Guy became disillusioned due to the lack of support from the London merchants, and remained in Bristol, though he later received
7442-432: The development of an English dialect referred to as " Bungee ". S.35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 mentions the Métis yet there has long been debate over legally defining the term Métis, but on September 23, 2003, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Métis are a distinct people with significant rights ( Powley ruling ). Unlike First Nations people, there has been no distinction between status and non-status Métis;
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#17327973431527564-483: The eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2,500 BCE (4,500 years ago). These Paleo-Arctic peoples had a highly distinctive toolkit of small blades ( microblades ) that were pointed at both ends and used as side- or end-barbs on arrows or spears made of other materials, such as bone or antler . Scrapers , engraving tools and adze blades were also included in their toolkits. The Arctic small tool tradition branches off into two cultural variants, including
7686-432: The exportation of money should be forbidden. He received and wrote several letters about the interests of the merchant venturers company. His fellow MP for Bristol - John Whitson, the founder of the Red Maids School, Bristol - wrote in October 1621 on the "business of Sir Ferdinando Gorges" referring to the restraint of trade with New England as a result of articles and orders of the president and council for New England, which
7808-427: The fall, they set up deer fences, sometimes 30–40 miles (48–64 km) long, used to drive migrating caribou toward waiting hunters armed with bows and arrows. The Beothuk are also known to have made a pudding out of tree sap and the dried yolk of the eggs of the great auk . They preserved surplus food for use during winter, trapped various fur-bearing animals, and worked their skins for warm clothing. The fur side
7930-494: The federal Parliament in 1876, has long governed its interactions with all treaty and non-treaty peoples. Members of First Nations bands who are subject to the Indian Act are compiled on a list called the Indian Register , and such people are designated as status Indians. Many non-treaty First Nations and all Inuit and Métis peoples are not subject to the Indian Act . However, two court cases have clarified that Inuit, Métis, and non-status First Nations people are all covered by
8052-433: The first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10,000–20,000 years. Around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting , allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 14,000 years ago. It
8174-606: The government would encourage Indians (i.e., First Nations) to enfranchise – to remove all legal distinctions between [Indians] and Her Majesty's other Canadian Subjects . If an Aboriginal chose to enfranchise, it would strip them and their family of Aboriginal title , with the idea that they would become "less savage" and "more civilized," thus become assimilated into Canadian society. However, they were often still defined as non-citizens by Europeans, and those few who did enfranchise were often met with disappointment. The final government strategy of assimilation, made possible by
8296-440: The harsh environment included tailored clothing and skin-covered tents on wooden frames. The North American climate stabilized by 8000 BCE (10,000 years ago); climatic conditions were very similar to today's. This led to widespread migration, cultivation and later a dramatic rise in population all over the Americas. Over the course of thousands of years, Indigenous peoples of the Americas domesticated, bred and cultivated
8418-519: The home of John Peyton Jr. as a servant. The explorer William Cormack founded the Beothuk Institute in 1827 to foster friendly dealings with the Beothuk and support their culture. His expeditions found Beothuk artifacts but he also learned the society was dying out. Learning of Shanawdithit, in the winter 1828–1829, Cormack brought her to his centre so he could learn from her. He drew funds from his institute to pay for her support. Shanawdithit made ten drawings for Cormack, some of which showed parts of
8540-717: The identity of a people by influencing social life ways and spiritual practices. Aboriginal religions developed from anthropomorphism and animism philosophies. The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status. There is a continuous record of occupation of S'ólh Téméxw by Aboriginal people dating from the early Holocene period, 10,000–9,000 years ago. Archaeological sites at Stave Lake , Coquitlam Lake , Fort Langley and region uncovered early period artifacts. These early inhabitants were highly mobile hunter-gatherers, consisting of about 20 to 50 members of an extended family. The Na-Dene people occupied much of
8662-407: The island of Newfoundland, mostly in the Notre Dame and Bonavista Bay areas. Estimates of the Beothuk population at the time of contact with Europeans vary. Historian of the Beothuk Ingeborg Marshall argued that European historical records of Beothuk history are clouded by ethnocentrism and unreliable. Scholars from the 19th and early 20th century estimated about 2,000 Beothuk individuals lived at
8784-495: The island, and others illustrated Beothuk implements and dwellings, along with Beothuk notions and myths. As she explained her drawings, she taught Cormack Beothuk vocabulary. She told him there were far fewer Beothuk than twenty years previously. To her knowledge, at the time she was taken, only a dozen Beothuk survived. Despite medical care from the doctor William Carson , Shanawdithit died of tuberculosis in St. John's on June 6, 1829. At
8906-525: The land area of northwest and central North America starting around 8,000 BCE. They were the earliest ancestors of the Athabaskan -speaking peoples, including the Navajo and Apache . They had villages with large multi-family dwellings, used seasonally during the summer, from which they hunted, fished and gathered food supplies for the winter. The Wendat peoples settled into Southern Ontario along
9028-539: The largest shareholding invested in the venture. On 27 April 1610 James I granted a charter to Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton , Keeper of the Privy Seal, and others including John Guy and his brother Philip Guy, which incorporated them as the "Treasurer and Company of Adventurers and Planters of the Cities of London and Bristol, for the purpose of colonising Newfoundland, and comprehending as their sphere of action
9150-515: The last half of the 18th and early part of the 19th century. Previous archaeological surveys and amateur finds indicate it was likely the Beothuk lived in the area prior to European encounter. Eastern Notre Dame Bay is rich in animal and fish life: seals, fish, and seabirds, and its hinterland supported large caribou herds. Archaeologists found sixteen Indigenous sites, ranging in age from the Maritime Archaic era (7000 BC – modern) through
9272-647: The later Beothuk, or Dorset inhabitants of Labrador and Newfoundland. The Norse called them skrælingjar ("skraelings"). Beginning in 1497, with the arrival of the Italian explorer John Cabot , sailing under the auspices of King Henry VII , waves of European explorers and settlers had more contacts. Unlike some other Indigenous groups, the Beothuk tried to avoid contact with Europeans; they moved inland as European settlements grew. The Beothuk visited their former camps only to pick up metal objects. They would also collect any tools, shelters, and building materials left by
9394-461: The merchants "in noe sorte did like". In February 1622, Guy wrote about his 'conference with the lord treasurer and others concerning the new imposition of wines and composition of grocery. He was the Master of the Bristol Merchant Venturer's Society for 1622-23, during which time his eldest son-in-law was admitted to the position of Junior Warden in the Bristol Merchant Venturer's Society. In 1624, he
9516-447: The merchants of the city had a special interest in Newfoundland, but there had been little attempt to exploit and colonise the island. The merchants decided not to embark on the scheme without the co-operation of King James VI of Scotland and Elizabeth I of England, which was forthcoming. Guy visited the island in 1608 to scout possible locations for a settlement, selecting Cuper's Cove (present day Cupids , Newfoundland and Labrador ) as
9638-419: The metals, and steal from the homes and shelters of European settlers and sometimes ambush them. These encounters led to enmity and mutual violence. With superior arms technology, the settlers generally had the upper hand in hunting and warfare. (Unlike other Native American peoples, the Beothuk appeared to have had no interest in adopting firearms.) Intermittently, Europeans attempted to improve relations with
9760-692: The mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married Europeans, primarily the French colonizers . First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting Europeans during the North American fur trade . Various Aboriginal laws , treaties , and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and Indigenous groups across Canada. The impact of settler colonialism in Canada can be seen in its culture, history, politics, laws, and legislatures. This led to
9882-406: The mid-17th century. When Europeans first arrived to Canada they relied on Aboriginal peoples for fur trading skills and survival. To ensure alliances, relationships between European fur traders and Aboriginal women were often consolidated through marriage. The Métis homeland consists of the Canadian provinces of British Columbia , Alberta , Saskatchewan , Manitoba , and Ontario , as well as
10004-427: The month she was taken. Government agents took her to St. John's, Newfoundland . The colonial government hoped to make Demasduit comfortable while she was living in the colony so she might be a bridge between them and the Beothuk. Demasduit learned some English , and taught the settlers about 200 words of the Beothuk language. In January 1820, Demasduit was released to rejoin her people, but she died of tuberculosis on
10126-532: The more-specific Aboriginal , one of the issues with the term native is its general applicability: in certain contexts, it could be used in reference to non-Indigenous peoples in regards to an individual place of origin / birth. For instance, people who were born or grew up in Calgary may call themselves "Calgary natives", as in they are native to that city. With this in mind, even the term native American , as another example, may very well indicate someone who
10248-412: The native savages [Beothuk] of the said island of Newfoundland ", as well as the subsequent Proclamation issued by Governor John Holloway on July 30, 1807, which prohibited mistreatment of the Beothuk and offered a reward for any information on such mistreatment. Such proclamations seemed to have little effect, as writing in 1766, Governor Hugh Palliser reported to the British secretary of state that "
10370-724: The northern woodlands were the Cree and Chipewyan . Around the Great Lakes were the Anishinaabe ; Algonquin ; Haudenosaunee and Wendat. Along the Atlantic coast were the Beothuk , Wolastoqiyik , Innu , Abenaki and Mi'kmaq . Many First Nations civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks that included permanent urban settlements or cities, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture , and complex societal hierarchies . These cultures had evolved and changed by
10492-408: The over-hunting of caribou, leading to a decrease in the caribou population in Newfoundland. The Beothuks emigrated from their traditional land and lifestyle into ecosystems unable to support them, causing under-nourishment and, eventually, starvation. Population estimates of Beothuks remaining at the end of the first decade of the 19th century vary widely, from about 150 up to 3,000. Information about
10614-526: The people could not be answered because few record-keeping Europeans contacted the Beothuk. By contrast, peoples such as the Huron or the Mi'kmaq interacted with the French missionaries , who studied and taught them and had extensive trade with French, Dutch, and English merchants - all of whom made records of their encounters. There are references that document Beothuk presence in the region of Notre Dame Bay in
10736-412: The pirates and captured; the colonist with the musket was injured. The pirates were discussing the best way to execute John Guy and his men when they escaped with the help of a former colonist who had decided to throw in his lot with the pirates but who remembered the help John Guy had given him in the past and wasn't prepared to stand aside whilst his former friend was possibly murdered. The colonists built
10858-572: The population density to engage in warfare. In the 13th century, the Thule culture began arriving in Greenland from what is now Canada. Norse accounts are scant. Norse-made items from Inuit campsites in Greenland were obtained by either trade or plunder. One account, Ívar Bárðarson , speaks of "small people" with whom the Norsemen fought. 14th-century accounts relate that a western settlement, one of
10980-488: The post office and then subsequently lost. Additionally all images of this were subsequently lost once again due to neglect leaving nothing but first hand accounts to even confirm the existence of the remains and artifacts, leaving them entirely to the public imagination. Other accounts confirm that this is fairly normal for Beothuk remains. In 2007, DNA testing was conducted on material from the teeth of Demasduit and her husband Nonosabasut , two Beothuk individuals buried in
11102-477: The region of the Exploits River , Twillingate , Newfoundland and Labrador; and formed unions with European colonists, Inuit and Mi'kmaq. Some families from Twillingate claim descent from the Beothuk people of the early 19th century. In 1910, a 75-year-old Indigenous woman named Santu Toney claimed she was the daughter of a Mi'kmaq mother and a Beothuk father. She recorded a song in the Beothuk language for
11224-488: The remains are now lost and unable to be verified. A prime example of this is a picture of what was said to be a mummified Beothuk child, which was lost by the Newfoundland Museum that it was held in due to the fact that the museum shared a building with a post office. In the early 1900s the child's remains, as well as the remains of an adult Beothuk and a number of other Beothuk artifacts, were put in storage by
11346-569: The same haplogroups , SNP differences between Beothuk and Mi'kmaq individuals indicate they were dissimilar within those groups, and a 'close-relationship' theory was not supported. Indigenous peoples in Canada Indigenous peoples in Canada (also known as Aboriginals ) are the Indigenous peoples within the boundaries of Canada. They comprise the First Nations , Inuit , and Métis , representing roughly 5.0% of
11468-700: The same elements because they are all former occupational sites. These sites show a variety of material culture based on what period they are from however most contain the remains of animals, remainders of permanent and semipermanent structures such as remains of fire pits and sleeping hollows. Several sites, such as Sampson's Head Cove, had wooden and bone tools as well as stone arrowheads. There have also been instances of stone jewelry found at residential sites. Several people have claimed to have uncovered Beothuk burials; however, these are not substantiated by much evidence of this. Additionally, many cases of Beothuk remains may have been true at one point but because of mishandling
11590-520: The settlement, explored the area and planted crops. Guy returned to England in 1611 leaving William Colston - one of his brothers-in-law, and distantly related to the family of Edward Colston , and his brother Philip to manage the colony, as the first two Lieutenant-Governors of the Colony. Back in England, he was elected to the Bristol Society of Merchant Venturers, and he was then elected as
11712-501: The site of the colony. In 1609, he put forward a proposal "to animate the English to plant [or colonise] in Newfoundland." The merchants of Bristol and London took up the idea with enthusiasm and a list of contributions was made out with Guy and others subscribing twenty marks a year for five years. The idea was popular with members of the court. Amongst the 50 shareholders were John Guy and his younger brother Philip Guy, in effect, Guy had
11834-504: The southern and eastern parts of the new found land between 46° and 52° N. L." Guy was appointed governor in 1610 by the London and Bristol Company and arrived at Cupers Cove in August of that year with colonists, grain and livestock, after a quick passage of 21 days. Thirty-nine colonists spent the winter of 1610–1611 in the colony. During his governorship the colonists built and fortified
11956-712: The stations in winter for tools, and particularly worked iron, which they adapted to native needs. Notable among the Inuit are Abraham Ulrikab and family who became a zoo exhibit in Hamburg , Germany, and Tanya Tagaq , a traditional throat singer . Abe Okpik was instrumental in helping Inuit obtain surnames rather than disc numbers and Kiviaq (David Ward) won the legal right to use his single-word Inuktitut name. The Métis are people descended from marriages between Europeans (mainly French) and Cree , Ojibwe , Algonquin , Saulteaux , Menominee , Mi'kmaq , Maliseet , and other First Nations. Their history dates to
12078-524: The systematic abolishment of Indigenous languages, traditions, religion and the degradation of Indigenous communities that has been described as a genocide of Indigenous peoples . The modern Indigenous right to self government provides for Indigenous self-government in Canada and the management of their historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within Indigenous communities. National Indigenous Peoples Day recognizes
12200-465: The term Indians in the Constitution Act, 1867 . The first was Reference Re Eskimos (1939), covering the Inuit; the second was Daniels v. Canada (2013), which concerns Métis and non-status First Nations. According to North American archaeological and genetic evidence, migration to North and South America made them the last continents in the world with human habitation . During
12322-409: The term Indigenous peoples . There is also an effort to recognize each Indigenous group as a distinct nation, much as there are distinct European, African, and Asian cultures in their respective places. First Nations (most often used in the plural) has come into general use since the 1970s replacing Indians and Indian bands in everyday vocabulary. However, on Indian reserves , First Nations
12444-449: The time of European contact in the 15th century; however, there may have been no more than 500 to 700 people. Based on the carrying capacity of the ecosystem at the time of contact the population is estimated to have been between 1,000 and 1,500. They lived in independent, self-sufficient, extended family groups of 30 to 55 people. Like many other hunter-gatherers , they appear to have had band leaders but probably not more formal chiefs, in
12566-466: The time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period from 12,900 to 11,500 years ago. The Folsom tradition is characterized by the use of Folsom points as projectile tips at archaeological sites. These tools assisted activities at kill sites that marked the slaughter and butchering of bison. The land bridge existed until 13,000–11,000 years ago, long after the oldest proven human settlements in
12688-453: The time of the first permanent European arrivals ( c. late 15th –early 16th centuries), and have been brought forward through archaeological investigations. There are indications of contact made before Christopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. Aboriginal people in Canada first interacted with Europeans around 1000 CE, but prolonged contact came after Europeans established permanent settlements in
12810-618: The time, there was no European cure for the disease. The area around eastern Notre Dame Bay, on the northeast coast of Newfoundland, contains numerous archeological sites containing material from Indigenous cultures. One of these is the Boyd's Cove site. At the foot of a bay, it is protected by a maze of islands sheltering it from waves and winds. The site was found in 1981 during an archeological survey to locate Beothuk sites to study their artifacts for insight into Beothuk culture. Records and information were limited, therefore some questions about
12932-535: The total Canadian population . There are over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands with distinctive cultures, languages, art, and music. Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Indigenous cultures in Canada prior to European colonization included permanent settlements, agriculture, civic and ceremonial architecture, complex societal hierarchies , and trading networks . Métis nations of mixed ancestry originated in
13054-402: The treasurer of the merchant venturers from 1611 to 1612 and then returned the next year with more livestock and female settlers. In 1612, the actions of the English pirate Peter Easton convinced Guy to abandon a second colony established at Renews in the spring of that year and strengthen the fortifications at Cupers Cove. At one point, Guy and three other colonists in a canoe were attacked by
13176-598: The two Norse settlements, was taken over by the Skræling . After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16th century, Basque fishers were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land, such as those excavated at Red Bay . The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they did raid
13298-622: The un-organized traffic of furs overseen by the British Indian Department . Prominent First Nations people include Joe Capilano, who met with King of the United Kingdom, Edward VII , to speak of the need to settle land claims and Ovide Mercredi , a leader at both the Meech Lake Accord constitutional reform discussions and Oka Crisis . Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call
13420-441: The vast cultures and contributions of Indigenous peoples to the history of Canada . First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Indigenous community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity . In Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 , "Aboriginal peoples of Canada" includes Indian , Inuit , and Métis peoples. "Aboriginal" as
13542-452: The voyage to Notre Dame Bay. Shanawdithit was Demasduit's niece and the last known full-blooded Beothuk. In April 1823, she was in her early twenties. She, her mother, and sister sought food and help from a white trapper , as they were starving. The three were taken to St. John's, but her mother and sister died of tuberculosis, an epidemic among the First Nations . Called Nancy April by the settlers, Shanawdithit lived for several years in
13664-589: Was a Beothuk woman, about 23 years old at the time she was captured by a party led by the fisherman John Peyton Sr. near Beothuk Lake in March 1819. The governor of the Newfoundland Colony was seeking to encourage trade and end hostilities with the Beothuk. He approved an expedition, to be led by the Scottish explorer David Buchan , to recover a boat and other fishing gear foraged by the Beothuk. Buchan
13786-510: Was a nursing mother with child. Her husband, Nonosabasut , confronted Peyton Sr. and his party, attempting to negotiate for the release of his wife. Peyton Sr. refused and a scuffle broke out between him and Nonosabasut, resulting in the death of the latter. Peyton Sr. and his party took Demasduit to Twillingate, with her baby dying before they reached the settlement. The settlers at the Newfound Colony named Demasduit Mary March after
13908-419: Was accompanied by two soldiers; the Beothuk mistakenly thought Buchan had hostile intentions and killed and decapitated the soldiers accompanying him. In 1819, an armed party led by Peyton Sr, totaling about nine men (including Peyton Jr.), came upon a Beothuk camp looking for stolen fishing gear. The Beothuk scattered, although Demasduit was unable to escape and begged for mercy, exposing her breasts to show she
14030-471: Was admitted to the corporation of the city in 1603, as a Councillor of Bristol. He was also appointed the Sheriff of Bristol for the year 1605–06. During the emergency of 1605 when the country was threatened with invasion from overseas, he was appointed one of Rear-Admirals in the Royal Navy, as Bristol was at the time of the two main naval ports in the country. In 1607 he was also appointed Surveyor of Bristol,
14152-557: Was an English merchant adventurer, colonist and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1621 to 1624. He was the first proprietary governor of Newfoundland Colony , the first attempt to establish a colony on Newfoundland . Guy was the eldest son and second child of Thomas Guy, a cordwainer (shoemaker) of Bristol . He was born on 25 December 1568, and baptized a week later on 1 January 1569 at St Mary le Port Church, Bristol . He spent his youth growing up amongst his siblings, and
14274-636: Was buried in St Stephen's Church , which was known as the church for the Bristol Merchant Venturer's Society. The register books of the church show that his burial took place on 23 February 1629. The will of his son John (who died in 1640, from the plague which he caught whilst studying at the Middle Temple) calls for the erection of a monument for his father in St Stephen's Church. There is no monument to John Guy anywhere in Bristol, but his name
14396-423: Was done during an annual multi-day spring celebration. It designated tribal identity; for example, decorating newborn children was a way to welcome them into the tribe. Forbidding a person to wear ochre was a form of punishment. Their main food were caribou , salmon , and seals , augmented by harvesting other animal and plant species. The Beothuk followed the seasonal migratory habits of their principal quarry. In
14518-574: Was re-elected MP for Bristol, and remained the MP for Bristol until he decided to retire from Parliament on the death of James I. Guy was actively involved in the House of Commons - sitting on Committees and introducing a private Members Bill to reduce interest rates by 2% from 10% to 8%. He was an elected as a Member of the Court of Assistants again from 1624 to 1628 for the Bristol Merchant Venturer's Society. Guy
14640-474: Was still seen as an important practice for assimilation on reserves; however, by the late 19th century the government had instituted restrictive policies here too, such as the Peasant Farm Policy , which restricted reserve farmers largely to the use of hand tools. This was implemented largely to limit the competitiveness of First Nations farming. Through the Gradual Civilization Act in 1857,
14762-516: Was well educated for his times, he managed in later life to write poetry in Latin. He was apprenticed to a yeoman farmer, and on his parents' deaths, he inherited the family shoemaking business, he had various farming interests, and served as a factor representing the interests of the Bristol merchant community overseas for a period in Spain, where he mastered the art of navigation. Guy became a merchant and
14884-423: Was worn next to the skin, to trap air against a person's body. Beothuk canoes were made of caribou or seal skin, and the bows of canoes were stiffened with spruce bark. Canoes resembled kayaks and were said to be fifteen feet (4.57 m) in length and two and a half feet (0.76 m) in width with enough room to carry children, dogs, and property. The Beothuk followed elaborate burial practices. After wrapping
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