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106-604: The Ancient Beringian (AB) is a human archaeogenetic lineage, based on the genome of an infant found at the Upward Sun River site (dubbed USR1), dated to 11,500 years ago. The AB lineage diverged from the Ancestral Native American (ANA) lineage about 20,000 years ago. The ANA lineage was estimated as having been formed between 20,000 and 25,000 years ago by a mixture of East Asian (~65%) and Ancient North Eurasian (~35%) lineages, consistent with

212-547: A Paleo-Siberian ( Early Paleo-Eskimo ) lineage before about 2,500 years ago. The discovery was made from archaeogenetic analyses on the remains of two female infants discovered in 2013 at the Upward Sun River site (USR). The USR site is affiliated with the Denali Complex , a dispersed archaeological culture of the American Arctic. The genomic analysis of nuclear DNA of the older of the two infants (USR1)

318-639: A mammoth dating back over a million years. Ludwik Hirszfeld was a Polish microbiologist and serologist who was the President of the Blood Group Section of the Second International Congress of Blood Transfusion. He founded blood group inheritance with Erich von Dungern in 1910, and contributed to it greatly throughout his life. He studied ABO blood groups . In one of his studies in 1919, Hirszfeld documented

424-519: A urea breath test , testing the stool for signs of the bacteria, or a biopsy of the stomach. Other conditions that produce similar symptoms include stomach cancer , coronary heart disease , and inflammation of the stomach lining or gallbladder inflammation . Diet does not play an important role in either causing or preventing ulcers. Treatment includes stopping smoking, stopping use of NSAIDs, stopping alcohol , and taking medications to decrease stomach acid. The medication used to decrease acid

530-431: A basic laboratory setup and chemicals. It is also independent of sample size, as the process can be scaled to accommodate larger or smaller quantities. Another benefit is that the process can be executed at room temperature. However, this method does contain some drawbacks. Mainly, silica-based DNA extraction can only be applied to bone and teeth samples; they cannot be used on soft tissue . While they work well with

636-404: A chest X-ray, the gas will float to a position underneath the diaphragm. Therefore, gas in the peritoneal cavity, shown on an erect chest X-ray or supine lateral abdominal X-ray, is an omen of perforated peptic ulcer disease. Peptic ulcers are a form of acid–peptic disorder . Peptic ulcers can be classified according to their location and other factors. Gastric ulcers are most often localized on

742-545: A closely related extant species can be used to estimate the divergence time of those two species from their last common ancestor . The phylogeny of some extinct species, such as Australian marsupial wolves and American ground sloths , has been constructed by this method. Mitochondrial DNA in animals and chloroplast DNA in plants are usually used for this purpose because they have hundreds of copies per cell and thus are more easily accessible in ancient fossils. Another method to investigate relationship between two species

848-424: A consequence of the parietal scarring. A gastric peptic ulcer is a mucosal perforation that penetrates the muscularis mucosae and lamina propria, usually produced by acid-pepsin aggression. Ulcer margins are perpendicular and present chronic gastritis. During the active phase, the base of the ulcer shows four zones: fibrinoid necrosis, inflammatory exudate, granulation tissue and fibrous tissue. The fibrous base of

954-477: A date of over 300 kya. Examination of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), Y-chromosome DNA, and X-chromosome DNA indicate that the earliest population to leave Africa consisted of approximately 1500 males and females. It has been suggested by various studies that populations were geographically “structured” to some degree prior to the expansion out of Africa; this is suggested by the antiquity of shared mtDNA lineages. One study of 121 populations from various places throughout

1060-566: A gastric ulcer, the pain may worsen with eating. The pain is often described as a burning or dull ache. Other symptoms include belching , vomiting, weight loss, or poor appetite . About a third of older people with peptic ulcers have no symptoms. Complications may include bleeding , perforation , and blockage of the stomach . Bleeding occurs in as many as 15% of cases. Common causes include infection with Helicobacter pylori and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Other, less common causes include tobacco smoking , stress as

1166-426: A peptic ulcer is two times for aspirin users. Risk of bleeding increases if NSAIDs are combined with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), corticosteroids , antimineralocorticoids , and anticoagulants . The gastric mucosa protects itself from gastric acid with a layer of mucus, the secretion of which is stimulated by certain prostaglandins . NSAIDs block the function of cyclooxygenase 1 ( COX-1 ), which

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1272-409: A result of other serious health conditions, Behçet's disease , Zollinger–Ellison syndrome , Crohn's disease , and liver cirrhosis . Older people are more sensitive to the ulcer-causing effects of NSAIDs. The diagnosis is typically suspected due to the presenting symptoms with confirmation by either endoscopy or barium swallow . H. pylori can be diagnosed by testing the blood for antibodies ,

1378-562: A sample, even when it is highly fragmented and of low concentration. It involves attaching a generic sequence to every single strand that generic primers can bond to, and thus all of the DNA present is amplified. This is generally more costly and time intensive than PCR but due to the difficulties involved in ancient DNA amplification it is cheaper and more efficient. One method of massive parallel sequencing , developed by Margulies et al., employs bead-based emulsion PCR and pyrosequencing , and

1484-608: A similarity in 2.18 and 1.62 bases per 10,000 respectively, suggesting Vi-80 sample was from a male individual. Other similar studies include finding of a mutation associated with dwarfism in Arabidopsis in ancient Nubian cotton , and investigation on the bitter taste perception locus in Neanderthals. Modern humans are thought to have evolved in Africa at least 200 kya (thousand years ago), with some evidence suggesting

1590-607: A single migratory event between 60 and 70 kya. Genetic evidence shows that occupation of the Near East and Europe happened no earlier than 50 kya. Studying haplogroup U has shown separate dispersals from the Near East both into Europe and into North Africa. Much of the work done in archaeogenetics focuses on the Neolithic transition in Europe. Cavalli-Svorza's analysis of genetic-geographic patterns led him to conclude that there

1696-402: A specimen is collected from an archaeological site, DNA can be extracted through a series of processes. One of the more common methods utilizes silica and takes advantage of polymerase chain reactions in order to collect ancient DNA from bone samples. There are several challenges that add to the difficulty when attempting to extract ancient DNA from fossils and prepare it for analysis. DNA

1802-493: A trading network for the production and consumption of readily available resources. Archaeogenetics has been used to study the domestication of animals. By analyzing genetic diversity in domesticated animal populations researchers can search for genetic markers in DNA to give valuable insight about possible traits of progenitor species. These traits are then used to help distinguish archaeological remains between wild and domesticated specimens. The genetic studies can also lead to

1908-492: A variety of different fossils, they may be less effective in fossils that are not fresh (e.g. treated fossils for museums ). Also, contamination poses a risk for all DNA replication in general, and this method may result in misleading results if applied to contaminated material. Polymerase chain reaction is a process that can amplify segments of DNA and is often used on extracted ancient DNA. It has three main steps: denaturation , annealing , and extension. Denaturation splits

2014-399: A “pioneer colonization” model of European occupation, with incorporation of foraging populations into arriving Neolithic populations. Furthermore, analysis of ancient DNA, not just extant DNA, is shedding light on some issues. For instance, comparison of neolithic and mesolithic DNA has indicated that the development of dairying preceded widespread lactose tolerance. South Asia has served as

2120-404: Is a break in the inner lining of the stomach , the first part of the small intestine , or sometimes the lower esophagus . An ulcer in the stomach is called a gastric ulcer , while one in the first part of the intestines is a duodenal ulcer . The most common symptoms of a duodenal ulcer are waking at night with upper abdominal pain , and upper abdominal pain that improves with eating. With

2226-461: Is a higher rate of complication for those who underwent surgery to patch the stomach bleeding site when compared to repeated endoscopy. Angiographic embolisation has a higher rebleeding rate but a similar rate of death to surgery. According to expert opinion, for those who are already on anticoagulants, the international normalized ratio (INR) should be kept at 1.5. For aspirin users who required endoscopic treatment for bleeding peptic ulcer, there

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2332-471: Is a recent admixture of some Negrito groups with their local populations. Archaeogenetics has been used to better understand the populating of the Americas from Asia. Native American mtDNA haplogroups have been estimated to be between 15 and 20 kya, although there is some variation in these estimates. Genetic data has been used to propose various theories regarding how the Americas were colonized. Although

2438-403: Is also difficult due to the lack of repeatability caused by the uniqueness of specimens. Silica-based DNA extraction is a method used as a purification step to extract DNA from archaeological bone artifacts and yield DNA that can be amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques. This process works by using silica as a means to bind DNA and separate it from other components of

2544-411: Is continuously being split up. While the organism is alive these splits are repaired; however, once an organism has died, the DNA will begin to deteriorate without repair. This results in samples having strands of DNA measuring around 100 base pairs in length. Contamination is another significant challenge at multiple steps throughout the process. Often other DNA, such as bacterial DNA, will be present in

2650-529: Is defined as a bolus dose of 80 mg followed by an infusion of 8 mg per hour for 72 hours—in other words, the continuous infusion of PPI of greater than 192 mg per day. Intravenous PPI can be changed to oral once there is no high risk of rebleeding from peptic ulcer. For those with hypovolemic shock and ulcer size of greater than 2 cm, there is a high chance that the endoscopic treatment would fail. Therefore, surgery and angiographic embolism are reserved for these complicated cases. However, there

2756-421: Is difficult because the bone fossilisation degrades and DNA is chemically modified, usually by bacteria and fungi in the soil. The best time to extract DNA from a fossil is when it is freshly out of the ground as it contains six times the DNA when compared to stored bones. The temperature of extraction site also affects the amount of obtainable DNA, evident by a decrease in success rate for DNA amplification if

2862-555: Is especially helpful when the morphology of the fossil is ambiguous. Apart from that, species identification can also be done by finding specific genetic markers in an aDNA sequence. For example, the American indigenous population is characterized by specific mitochondrial RFLPs and deletions defined by Wallace et al. aDNA comparison study can also reveal the evolutionary relationship between two species. The number of base differences between DNA of an ancient species and that of

2968-405: Is especially true in ulcers of the greater curvature of the stomach ; most are also a consequence of chronic H. pylori infection. If a peptic ulcer perforates, air will leak from inside the gastrointestinal tract (which always contains some air) to the peritoneal cavity (which normally never contains air). This leads to "free gas" within the peritoneal cavity. If the person stands, as when having

3074-422: Is essential for the production of these prostaglandins. Besides this, NSAIDs also inhibit stomach mucosa cells proliferation and mucosal blood flow, reducing bicarbonate and mucus secretion, which reduces the integrity of the mucosa. Another type of NSAIDs, called COX-2 selective anti-inflammatory drugs (such as celecoxib ), preferentially inhibit COX-2 , which is less essential in the gastric mucosa. This reduces

3180-410: Is estimated at 70% of the population, whereas developed countries show a maximum of a 40% ratio. Overall, H. pylori infections show a worldwide decrease, more so in developed countries. Transmission occurs via food, contaminated groundwater, or human saliva (such as from kissing or sharing food utensils). Peptic ulcer disease had a tremendous effect on morbidity and mortality until the last decades of

3286-556: Is genetic evidence that Chad-speaking descendants of Nilo-Saharan speakers migrated from Sudan to Lake Chad about 8 kya. Genetic evidence has also indicated that non-African populations made significant contributions to the African gene pool. For example, the Saharan African Beja people have high levels of Middle-Eastern as well as East African Cushitic DNA. Analysis of mtDNA shows that modern humans occupied Eurasia in

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3392-414: Is increased as food enters the stomach. Pain in duodenal ulcers would be aggravated by hunger and relieved by a meal and is associated with night pain. Also, the symptoms of peptic ulcers may vary with the location of the ulcer and the person's age. Furthermore, typical ulcers tend to heal and recur, and as a result the pain may occur for few days and weeks and then wane or disappear. Usually, children and

3498-421: Is indicated if there is active bleeding in the stomach, visible vessels, or an adherent clot. Endoscopy is also helpful in identifying people who are suitable for hospital discharge. Prokinetic agents such as erythromycin and metoclopramide can be given before endoscopy to improve endoscopic view. Either high- or low-dose PPIs are equally effective in reducing bleeding after endoscopy. High-dose intravenous PPI

3604-592: Is native to India. Analysis of mtDNA and NRY (non-recombining region of Y chromosome) sequences have indicated that the first major dispersal out of Africa went through Saudi Arabia and the Indian coast 50–100 kya, and a second major dispersal occurred 15–50 kya north of the Himalayas. Much work has been done to discover the extent of north-to-south and south-to-north migrations within Eastern Asia. Comparing

3710-489: Is not successful. Peptic ulcers are present in around 4% of the population. New ulcers were found in around 87.4 million people worldwide during 2015. About 10% of people develop a peptic ulcer at some point in their life. Peptic ulcers resulted in 267,500 deaths in 2015, down from 327,000 in 1990. The first description of a perforated peptic ulcer was in 1670, in Princess Henrietta of England . H. pylori

3816-583: Is present, EGD can often provide an alternative diagnosis. One of the reasons that blood tests are not reliable for accurate peptic ulcer diagnosis on their own is their inability to differentiate between past exposure to the bacteria and current infection. Additionally, a false negative result is possible with a blood test if the person has recently been taking certain drugs, such as antibiotics or proton-pump inhibitors . The diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori can be made by: The breath test uses radioactive carbon to detect H. pylori. To perform this exam,

3922-605: Is suitable for its survival. It expresses blood group antigen-binding adhesin (BabA) and outer inflammatory protein adhesin (OipA), which enables it to attach to the gastric epithelium. The bacterium also expresses virulence factors such as CagA and PicB , which cause stomach mucosal inflammation. The VacA gene encodes for vacuolating cytotoxin, but its mechanism of causing peptic ulcers is unclear. Such stomach mucosal inflammation can be associated with hyperchlorhydria (increased stomach acid secretion) or hypochlorhydria (reduced stomach acid secretion). Inflammatory cytokines inhibit

4028-468: Is that it requires overlapping primer pairs for ancient DNA due to the short sequences. There can also be “jumping PCR” which causes recombination during the PCR process which can make analyzing the DNA more difficult in inhomogeneous samples. DNA extracted from fossil remains is primarily sequenced using Massive parallel sequencing , which allows simultaneous amplification and sequencing of all DNA segments in

4134-436: Is the antidote of choice. The lifetime risk for developing a peptic ulcer is approximately 5% to 10% with the rate of 0.1% to 0.3% per year. Peptic ulcers resulted in 301,000 deaths in 2013, down from 327,000 in 1990. In Western countries, the percentage of people with H. pylori infections roughly matches age (i.e., 20% at age 20, 30% at age 30, 80% at age 80, etc.). Prevalence is higher in third world countries, where it

4240-470: Is the most popular agent in peptic ulcer prevention. However, there is no evidence that H2 antagonists can prevent stomach bleeding for those taking NSAIDs. Although misoprostol is effective in preventing peptic ulcer, its properties of promoting abortion and causing gastrointestinal distress limit its use. For those with high cardiovascular risk, naproxen with PPI can be a useful choice. Otherwise, low-dose aspirin, celecoxib, and PPI can also be used. Once

4346-728: Is through DNA hybridization . Single-stranded DNA segments of both species are allowed to form complementary pair bonding with each other. More closely related species have a more similar genetic makeup, and thus a stronger hybridization signal. Scholz et al. conducted southern blot hybridization on Neanderthal aDNA (extracted from fossil remain W-NW and Krapina). The results showed weak ancient human-Neanderthal hybridization and strong ancient human-modern human hybridization. The human-chimpanzee and neanderthal-chimpanzee hybridization are of similarly weak strength. This suggests that humans and neanderthals are not as closely related as two individuals of

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4452-491: Is two times increased risk of rebleeding but with ten times reduced risk of death at eight weeks following the resumption of aspirin. For those who were on double antiplatelet agents for indwelling stent in blood vessels, both antiplatelet agents should not be stopped because there is a high risk of stent thrombosis. For those who were under warfarin treatment, fresh frozen plasma (FFP), vitamin K, prothrombin complex concentrates, or recombinant factor VIIa can be given to reverse

4558-577: Is used over mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA because of its faster mutation rate as well as its intraspecific variation due to a higher consistency of polymorphism genetic markers . Findings in crop 'domestication genes' (traits that were specifically selected for or against) include Through the study of archaeogenetics in plant domestication, signs of the first global economy can also be uncovered. The geographical distribution of new crops highly selected in one region found in another where it would have not originally been introduced serve as evidence of

4664-477: Is used to determine whether a person should be treated inside a hospital or as an outpatient. Intravenous PPIs can suppress stomach bleeding more quickly than oral ones. A neutral stomach pH is required to keep platelets in place and prevent clot lysis. Tranexamic acid and antifibrinolytic agents are not useful in treating peptic ulcer disease. Early endoscopic therapy can help to stop bleeding by using cautery , endoclip , or epinephrine injection. Treatment

4770-441: Is usually either a proton pump inhibitor (PPI) or an H2 blocker , with four weeks of treatment initially recommended. Ulcers due to H. pylori are treated with a combination of medications, such as amoxicillin , clarithromycin , and a PPI. Antibiotic resistance is increasing and thus treatment may not always be effective. Bleeding ulcers may be treated by endoscopy , with open surgery typically only used in cases in which it

4876-509: Is well described as a cause of peptic ulcers, which are also known as stress ulcers . While chronic life stress was once believed to be the main cause of ulcers, this is no longer the case. It is, however, still occasionally believed to play a role. This may be due to the well-documented effects of stress on gastric physiology, increasing the risk in those with other causes, such as H. pylori or NSAID use. Dietary factors, such as spice consumption, were hypothesized to cause ulcers until

4982-475: The elderly do not develop any symptoms unless complications have arisen. A burning or gnawing feeling in the stomach area lasting between 30 minutes and 3 hours commonly accompanies ulcers. This pain can be misinterpreted as hunger , indigestion , or heartburn . Pain is usually caused by the ulcer, but it may be aggravated by the stomach acid when it comes into contact with the ulcerated area. The pain caused by peptic ulcers can be felt anywhere from

5088-406: The parietal cell acid secretion. H. pylori also secretes certain products that inhibit hydrogen potassium ATPase ; activate calcitonin gene-related peptide sensory neurons, which increases somatostatin secretion to inhibit acid production by parietal cells; and inhibit gastrin secretion. This reduction in acid production causes gastric ulcers. On the other hand, increased acid production at

5194-434: The pyloric antrum is associated with duodenal ulcers in 10% to 15% of H. pylori infection cases. In this case, somatostatin production is reduced and gastrin production is increased, leading to increased histamine secretion from the enterochromaffin cells, thus increasing acid production. An acidic environment at the antrum causes metaplasia of the duodenal cells, causing duodenal ulcers. Human immune response toward

5300-430: The 1950s. During the 1940s, Boyd and Karl O. Renkonen independently discovered that lectins react differently to various blood types, after finding that the crude extracts of the lima bean and tufted vetch agglutinated the red blood cells from blood type A but not blood types B or O. This ultimately led to the disclosure of thousands of plants that contained these proteins. In order to examine racial differences and

5406-520: The 20th century when epidemiological trends started to point to an impressive fall in its incidence. The reason that the rates of peptic ulcer disease decreased is thought to be the development of new effective medication and acid suppressants and the rational use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). John Lykoudis , a general practitioner in Greece , treated people for peptic ulcer disease with antibiotics beginning in 1958, long before it

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5512-612: The ABO blood groups and hair color of people at the Macedonian front, leading to his discovery that the hair color and blood type had no correlation. In addition to that he observed that there was a decrease of blood group A from western Europe to India and the opposite for blood group B. He hypothesized that the east-to-west blood group ratio stemmed from two blood groups consisting of mainly A or B mutating from blood group O, and mixing through migration or intermingling. A majority of his work

5618-528: The Altai Mountains of Siberia between 17.2 and 10.1 kya, after the LGM. Analysis of both mtDNA and Y-chromosome DNA reveals evidence of “small, founding populations.” Studying haplogroups has led some scientists to conclude that a southern migration into the Americas from one small population was impossible, although separate analysis has found that such a model is feasible if such a migration happened along

5724-465: The DNA into two single strands at high temperatures. Annealing involves attaching primer strands of DNA to the single strands that allow Taq polymerase to attach to the DNA. Extension occurs when Taq polymerase is added to the sample and matches base pairs to turn the two single strands into two complete double strands. This process is repeated many times, and is usually repeated a higher number of times when used with ancient DNA . Some issues with PCR

5830-539: The Neolithic. Most mtDNA's were “already established” among existing Mesolithic and Paleolithic groups. Most “control-region lineages” of modern European mtDNA are traced to a founder event of reoccupying northern Europe towards the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). One study of extant European mtDNA's suggest this reoccupation occurred after the end of the LGM, although another suggests it occurred before. Analysis of haplogroups V, H, and U5 support

5936-524: The Y-chromosome lineages indicate that primarily males partook in these migrations. The discovery of two subbranches U2i and U2e of the U mtDNA lineage, which arose in Central Asia has “modulated” views of a large migration from Central Asia into India, as the two branches diverged 50 kya. Furthermore, U2e is found in large percentages in Europe but not India, and vice versa for U2i, implying U2i

6042-405: The age of 45 with more than two weeks of the above symptoms, the odds for peptic ulceration are high enough to warrant rapid investigation by esophagogastroduodenoscopy . The timing of symptoms in relation to the meal may differentiate between gastric and duodenal ulcers. A gastric ulcer would give epigastric pain during the meal, associated with nausea and vomiting, as gastric acid production

6148-430: The bacteria also determines the emergence of peptic ulcer disease. The human IL1B gene encodes for Interleukin 1 beta , and other genes that encode for tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and Lymphotoxin alpha also play a role in gastric inflammation. Taking nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin can increase the risk of peptic ulcer disease by four times compared to non-users. The risk of getting

6254-414: The chemical composition of bone and soil, and hydrology . There are three perseveration diagenetic phases. The first phase is bacterial putrefaction , which is estimated to cause a 15-fold degradation of DNA. Phase 2 is when bone chemically degrades, mostly by depurination . The third diagenetic phase occurs after the fossil is excavated and stored, in which bone DNA degradation occurs most rapidly. Once

6360-455: The coasts. Finally, archaeogenetics has been used to study the occupation of Australia and New Guinea. The Indigenous people of Australia and New Guinea are phenotypically very similar, but mtDNA has shown that this is due to convergence from living in similar conditions. Non-coding regions of mt-DNA have shown “no similarities” between the aboriginal populations of Australia and New Guinea. Furthermore, no major NRY lineages are shared between

6466-601: The continent found 14 genetic and linguistic “clusters,” suggesting an ancient geographic structure to African populations. In general, genotypic and phenotypic analysis have shown “large and subdivided throughout much of their evolutionary history.” Genetic analysis has supported archaeological hypotheses of a large-scale migrations of Bantu speakers into Southern Africa approximately 5 kya. Microsatellite DNA, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and insertion/deletion polymorphisms (INDELS) have shown that Nilo-Saharan speaking populations originate from Sudan. Furthermore, there

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6572-415: The development of domestication of dogs. Genetic studies have shown that all dogs are descendants from the gray wolf, however, it is currently unknown when, where, and how many times dogs were domesticated. Some genetic studies have indicated multiple domestications while others have not. Archaeological findings help better understand this complicated past by providing solid evidence about the progression of

6678-399: The diagnosis of H. pylori is confirmed, the first-line treatment would be a triple regimen in which pantoprazole and clarithromycin are combined with either amoxicillin or metronidazole . This treatment regimen can be given for 7–14 days. However, its effectiveness in eradicating H. pylori has been reducing from 90% to 70%. However, the rate of eradication can be increased by doubling

6784-531: The dispersal associated with the early peopling of the Americas . Archaeogenetics Archaeogenetics receives its name from the Greek word arkhaios , meaning "ancient", and the term genetics , meaning "the study of heredity". The term archaeogenetics was conceived by archaeologist Colin Renfrew . In February 2021, scientists reported the oldest DNA ever sequenced was successfully retrieved from

6890-542: The distribution and migration patterns of various racial groups, Boyd systematically collected and classified blood samples from around the world, leading to his discovery that blood groups are not influenced by the environment, and are inherited. In his book Genetics and the Races of Man (1950), Boyd categorized the world population into 13 distinct races, based on their different blood type profiles and his idea that human races are populations with differing alleles . One of

6996-418: The domestication of dogs. As early humans domesticated dogs the archaeological remains of buried dogs became increasingly more abundant. Not only does this provide more opportunities for archaeologists to study the remains, it also provides clues about early human culture. [REDACTED] Evolutionary biology portal [REDACTED] History portal Peptic ulcer Peptic ulcer disease

7102-605: The dosage of pantoprazole or increasing the duration of treatment to 14 days. Quadruple therapy (pantoprazole, clarithromycin, amoxicillin, and metronidazole) can also be used. The quadruple therapy can achieve an eradication rate of 90%. If the clarithromycin resistance rate is higher than 15% in an area, the usage of clarithromycin should be abandoned. Instead, bismuth -containing quadruple therapy can be used (pantoprazole, bismuth citrate, tetracycline , and metronidazole) for 14 days. The bismuth therapy can also achieve an eradication rate of 90% and can be used as second-line therapy when

7208-530: The effect of warfarin. High doses of vitamin K should be avoided to reduce the time for rewarfarinisation once the stomach bleeding has stopped. Prothrombin complex concentrates are preferred for severe bleeding. Recombinant factor VIIa is reserved for life-threatening bleeding because of its high risk of thromboembolism. Direct oral anticoagulants (DOAC) are recommended instead of warfarin as they are more effective in preventing thromboembolism. In case of bleeding caused by DOAC, activated charcoal within four hours

7314-490: The existing data on blood group gene frequencies, and largely contributing to the genetic map of the world through his investigation of blood groups in many populations. Mourant discovered the new blood group antigens of the Lewis , Henshaw , Kell , and Rhesus systems, and analyzed the association of blood groups and various other diseases. He also focused on the biological significance of polymorphisms . His work provided

7420-556: The first-line triple-regimen therapy has failed. NSAID-associated ulcers heal in six to eight weeks provided the NSAIDs are withdrawn with the introduction of proton pump inhibitors (PPI). For those with bleeding peptic ulcers, fluid replacement with crystalloids is sometimes given to maintain volume in the blood vessels. Maintaining haemoglobin at greater than 7 g/dL (70 g/L) through restrictive blood transfusion has been associated with reduced rate of death. Glasgow-Blatchford score

7526-416: The fossil is found in warmer regions. A drastic change of a fossil's environment also affects DNA preservation. Since excavation causes an abrupt change in the fossil's environment, it may lead to physiochemical change in the DNA molecule. Moreover, DNA preservation is also affected by other factors such as the treatment of the unearthed fossil like (e.g. washing, brushing and sun drying), pH , irradiation ,

7632-433: The fossil process that inhibit PCR amplification. However, silica itself is also a strong PCR inhibitor , so careful measures must be taken to ensure that silica is removed from the DNA after extraction. The general process for extracting DNA using the silica-based method is outlined by the following: One of the main advantages of silica-based DNA extraction is that it is relatively quick and efficient, requiring only

7738-422: The foundation for archaeogenetics because it facilitated the separation of genetic evidence for biological relationships between people. This genetic evidence was previously used for that purpose. It also provided material that could be used to appraise the theories of population genetics . William Boyd was an American immunochemist and biochemist who became famous for his research on the genetics of race in

7844-517: The genetic diversity of northeastern groups with southeastern groups has allowed archaeologists to conclude many of the northeast Asian groups came from the southeast. The Pan-Asian SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) study found “a strong and highly significant correlation between haplotype diversity and latitude,” which, when coupled with demographic analysis, supports the case for a primarily south-to-north occupation of East Asia. Archaeogenetics has also been used to study hunter-gatherer populations in

7950-410: The help of tests such as endoscopies or barium contrast x-rays . The tests are typically ordered if the symptoms do not resolve after a few weeks of treatment, or when they first appear in a person who is over age 45 or who has other symptoms such as weight loss , because stomach cancer can cause similar symptoms. Also, when severe ulcers resist treatment, particularly if a person has several ulcers or

8056-447: The hydrophobic state of the mucus, the permeability of the lining epithelium and mitochondrial machinery of the cell itself. In this way NSAID's ulcers tend to complicate faster and dig deeper in the tissue causing more complications, often asymptomatically until a great portion of the tissue is involved. Physiological (not psychological) stress due to serious health problems, such as those requiring treatment in an intensive care unit,

8162-497: The identification of ancestors for domesticated animals. The information gained from genetics studies on current populations helps guide the Archaeologist's search for documenting these ancestors. Archaeogenetics has been used to trace the domestication of pigs throughout the old world. These studies also reveal evidence about the details of early farmers. Methods of Archaeogenetics have also been used to further understand

8268-438: The increase is modest in comparison to the primary risk factor. Other causes of peptic ulcer disease include gastric ischaemia , drugs, metabolic disturbances, cytomegalovirus (CMV), upper abdominal radiotherapy, Crohn's disease , and vasculitis . Gastrinomas ( Zollinger–Ellison syndrome ), or rare gastrin-secreting tumors, also cause multiple and difficult-to-heal ulcers. It is still unclear whether smoking increases

8374-402: The late 20th century, but have been shown to be of relatively minor importance. Caffeine and coffee, also commonly thought to cause or exacerbate ulcers, appear to have little effect. Similarly, while studies have found that alcohol consumption increases risk when associated with H. pylori infection, it does not seem to independently increase risk. Even when coupled with H. pylori infection,

8480-443: The lesser curvature of the stomach. The ulcer is a round to oval parietal defect ("hole"), 2–4 cm diameter, with a smooth base and perpendicular borders. These borders are not elevated or irregular in the acute form of peptic ulcer, and regular but with elevated borders and inflammatory surrounding in the chronic form. In the ulcerative form of gastric cancer, the borders are irregular. Surrounding mucosa may present radial folds, as

8586-443: The major early corridor for geographical dispersal of modern humans from out-of-Africa. Based on studies of mtDNA line M, some have suggested that the first occupants of India were Austro-Asiatic speakers who entered about 45–60 kya. The Indian gene pool has contributions from earliest settlers, as well as West Asian and Central Asian populations from migrations no earlier than 8 kya. The lack of variation in mtDNA lineages compared to

8692-548: The model of the peopling of the Americas via Beringia during the Last Glacial Maximum . The Ancient Beringian lineage is extinct, and is not found as a contribution to modern indigenous lineages in Alaska . The 2018 study suggests that the AB lineage was replaced by or absorbed in a back-migration of "North Native American" (NNA) to Alaska. The modern Athabaskan populations are derived from an admixture of this NNA back-migration and

8798-545: The most abundant information sources regarding inheritable traits linked to race remains the study of blood groups. Fossil retrieval starts with selecting an excavation site . Potential excavation sites are usually identified with the mineralogy of the location and visual detection of bones in the area. However, there are more ways to discover excavation zones using technology such as field portable x-ray fluorescence and Dense Stereo Reconstruction. Tools used include knives , brushes , and pointed trowels which assist in

8904-463: The most widely held theory suggests “three waves” of migration after the LGM through the Bering Strait, genetic data have given rise to alternative hypotheses. For example, one hypothesis proposes a migration from Siberia to South America 20–15 kya and a second migration that occurred after glacial recession. Y-chromosome data has led some to hold that there was a single migration starting from

9010-512: The navel up to the sternum , it may last from few minutes to several hours, and it may be worse when the stomach is empty. Also, sometimes the pain may flare at night, and it can commonly be temporarily relieved by eating foods that buffer stomach acid or by taking anti-acid medication. However, peptic ulcer disease symptoms may be different for everyone. Helicobacter pylori is one of the major causative factors of peptic ulcer disease. It secretes urease to create an alkaline environment, which

9116-723: The news that ulcers are a curable infection and that health can be greatly improved and money saved by disseminating information about H. pylori . In 2005, the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Marshall and his long-time collaborator Warren "for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease." Marshall continues research related to H. pylori and runs

9222-428: The original sample. To avoid contamination it is necessary to take many precautions such as separate ventilation systems and workspaces for ancient DNA extraction work. The best samples to use are fresh fossils as uncareful washing can lead to mold growth. DNA coming from fossils also occasionally contains a compound that inhibits DNA replication. Coming to a consensus on which methods are best at mitigating challenges

9328-523: The person is asked to drink a tasteless liquid that contains the carbon as part of the substance that the bacteria breaks down. After an hour, the person is asked to blow into a sealed bag. If the person is infected with H. pylori , the breath sample will contain radioactive carbon dioxide . This test provides the advantage of being able to monitor the response to treatment used to kill the bacteria. The possibility of other causes of ulcers, notably malignancy ( gastric cancer ), needs to be kept in mind. This

9434-474: The probability of getting peptic ulcers; however, it can still delay ulcer healing for those who already have a peptic ulcer. Peptic ulcers caused by NSAIDs differ from those caused by H. pylori as the latter's appear as a consequence of inflammation of the mucosa (presence of neutrophil and submucosal edema), the former instead as a consequence of a direct damage of the NSAID molecule against COX enzymes, altering

9540-790: The region, such as the Ainu from Japan and Negrito groups in the Philippines. For example, the Pan-Asian SNP study found that Negrito populations in Malaysia and the Negrito populations in the Philippines were more closely related to non-Negrito local populations than to each other, suggesting Negrito and non-Negrito populations are linked by one entry event into East Asia; although other Negrito groups do share affinities, including with Indigenous Australians . A possible explanation of this

9646-608: The removal of fossils from the earth. To avoid contaminating the ancient DNA , specimens are handled with gloves and stored in -20 °C immediately after being unearthed. Ensuring that the fossil sample is analyzed in a lab that has not been used for other DNA analysis could prevent contamination as well. Bones are milled to a powder and treated with a solution before the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process. Samples for DNA amplification may not necessarily be fossil bones. Preserved skin, salt-preserved or air-dried, can also be used in certain situations. DNA preservation

9752-402: The risk of getting peptic ulcers. The diagnosis is mainly established based on the characteristic symptoms. Stomach pain is the most common sign of a peptic ulcer. More specifically, peptic ulcers erode the muscularis mucosae , at minimum reaching to the level of the submucosa (contrast with erosions, which do not involve the muscularis mucosae). Confirmation of the diagnosis is made with

9858-505: The same species are, but they are more related to each other than to chimpanzees. There have also been some attempts to decipher aDNA to provide valuable phenotypic information of ancient species. This is always done by mapping aDNA sequence onto the karyotype of a well-studied closely related species, which share a lot of similar phenotypic traits. For example, Green et al. compared the aDNA sequence from Neanderthal Vi-80 fossil with modern human X and Y chromosome sequence, and they found

9964-606: The splitting event between the two groups was over 50 kya, casting doubt on recent common ancestry between the two. Archaeogenetics has been used to understand the development of domestication of plants and animals. The combination of genetics and archeological findings have been used to trace the earliest signs of plant domestication around the world. However, since the nuclear, mitochondrial, and chloroplast genomes used to trace domestication's moment of origin have evolved at different rates, its use to trace genealogy have been somewhat problematic. Nuclear DNA in specific

10070-483: The two populations. The high frequency of a single NRY lineage unique to Australia coupled with “low diversity of lineage-associated Y-chromosomal short tandem repeat (Y-STR) haplotypes” provide evidence for a “recent founder or bottleneck” event in Australia. But there is relatively large variation in mtDNA, which would imply that the bottleneck effect impacted males primarily. Together, NRY and mtDNA studies show that

10176-476: The ulcer may contain vessels with thickened wall or with thrombosis. Conditions that may appear similar include: Prevention of peptic ulcer disease for those who are taking NSAIDs (with low cardiovascular risk) can be achieved by adding a proton pump inhibitor (PPI), an H2 antagonist , or misoprostol . NSAIDs of the COX-2 inhibitors type may reduce the rate of ulcers when compared to non-selective NSAIDs. PPI

10282-463: The ulcers are in unusual places, a doctor may suspect an underlying condition that causes the stomach to overproduce acid . An esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD), a form of endoscopy , also known as a gastroscopy , is carried out on people in whom a peptic ulcer is suspected. It is also the gold standard of diagnosis for peptic ulcer disease. By direct visual identification, the location and severity of an ulcer can be described. Moreover, if no ulcer

10388-401: Was a massive influx of Near Eastern populations into Europe at the start of the Neolithic. This view led him “to strongly emphasize the expanding early farmers at the expense of the indigenous Mesolithic foraging populations.” mtDNA analysis in the 1990s, however, contradicted this view. M.B. Richards estimated that 10–22% of extant European mtDNA's had come from Near Eastern populations during

10494-520: Was commonly recognized that bacteria were a dominant cause for the disease. Helicobacter pylori was identified in 1982 by two Australian scientists, Robin Warren and Barry J. Marshall , as a causative factor for ulcers. In their original paper, Warren and Marshall contended that most gastric ulcers and gastritis were caused by colonization with this bacterium, not by stress or spicy food , as had been assumed before. The H. pylori hypothesis

10600-727: Was done at the Centre for Geogenetics at the University of Copenhagen 's Natural History Museum of Denmark . Results from the team's genetic analysis were published in January 2018 in the scientific journal Nature . The analysis compared the infant's genomes with both ancient and contemporary genomes. The results suggested that the pre-"Ancestral Native American" lineage derived from the East Asian lineage after 36 kya, with gene flow until about 25 kya. During 25–20 kya, this lineage

10706-616: Was first identified as causing peptic ulcers by Barry Marshall and Robin Warren in the late 20th century, a discovery for which they received the Nobel Prize in 2005. Signs and symptoms of a peptic ulcer can include one or more of the following: A history of heartburn or gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and use of certain medications can raise the suspicion for peptic ulcer. Medicines associated with peptic ulcer include NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) that inhibit cyclooxygenase and most glucocorticoids (e.g., dexamethasone and prednisolone ). In people over

10812-510: Was found to be powerful in analyses of aDNA because it avoids potential loss of sample, substrate competition for templates, and error propagation in replication. The most common way to analyze an aDNA sequence is to compare it with a known sequence from other sources, and this could be done in different ways for different purposes. The identity of the fossil remain can be uncovered by comparing its DNA sequence with those of known species using software such as BLASTN. This archaeogenetic approach

10918-756: Was later substantially mixed with the Ancient North Eurasian lineage (~35%), who are described as the "result of a palaeolithic admixture" between ancient West Eurasians and ancient East Eurasians , to form the "Ancestral Native American" lineage by 20 kya. The "Ancient Beringian" (AB) lineage derived from ANA and persisted without significant admixture in Alaska until the time of USR1, some 8,000 years later. The lineage of other Paleo-Indians diverged from AB at ca. 20–18 kya, and further divided into "North Native American" (NNA) and "South Native American" lineages between 17.5 kya and 14.6 kya, reflecting

11024-533: Was published in 1984 in the Australian Medical Journal and is among the most cited articles from the journal. In 1997, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , with other government agencies, academic institutions, and industry, launched a national education campaign to inform health care providers and consumers about the link between H. pylori and ulcers. This campaign reinforced

11130-480: Was researching the links of blood types to sex, disease, climate, age, social class, and race. His work led him to discover that peptic ulcer was more dominant in blood group O, and that AB blood type mothers had a high male-to-female birth ratio. Arthur Mourant was a British hematologist and chemist . He received many awards, most notably Fellowship of the Royal Society . His work included organizing

11236-405: Was still poorly received, so in an act of self-experimentation Marshall drank a Petri dish containing a culture of organisms extracted from a person with an ulcer and five days later developed gastritis. His symptoms disappeared after two weeks, but he took antibiotics to kill the remaining bacteria at the urging of his wife, since halitosis is one of the symptoms of infection. This experiment

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