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128-625: In archaeogenetics , the term Ancient North Eurasian ( ANE ) is the name given to an ancestral component that represents the lineage of the people of the Mal'ta–Buret' culture ( c.  24,000 BP ) and populations closely related to them, such as the Upper Paleolithic individuals from Afontova Gora in Siberia. Genetic studies also revealed that the ANE are closely related to the remains of

256-431: A basic laboratory setup and chemicals. It is also independent of sample size, as the process can be scaled to accommodate larger or smaller quantities. Another benefit is that the process can be executed at room temperature. However, this method does contain some drawbacks. Mainly, silica-based DNA extraction can only be applied to bone and teeth samples; they cannot be used on soft tissue . While they work well with

384-545: A closely related extant species can be used to estimate the divergence time of those two species from their last common ancestor . The phylogeny of some extinct species, such as Australian marsupial wolves and American ground sloths , has been constructed by this method. Mitochondrial DNA in animals and chloroplast DNA in plants are usually used for this purpose because they have hundreds of copies per cell and thus are more easily accessible in ancient fossils. Another method to investigate relationship between two species

512-477: A date of over 300 kya. Examination of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), Y-chromosome DNA, and X-chromosome DNA indicate that the earliest population to leave Africa consisted of approximately 1500 males and females. It has been suggested by various studies that populations were geographically “structured” to some degree prior to the expansion out of Africa; this is suggested by the antiquity of shared mtDNA lineages. One study of 121 populations from various places throughout

640-604: A deep Ancient West Eurasian lineage (WEC2, around 72%), and from minor geneflow from Basal Eurasian (around 18%) and Ancient East Eurasian (around 10%) sources. The Ancient West Eurasian component associated with Iranian hunter-gatherers is inferred to have diverged from the West Eurasian Core lineage (represented by Kostenki-14 ; WEC), with the WEC2 component staying in the region of the Iranian Plateau , while

768-440: A distinct craniometric phenotype, which he dubbed " Americanoid ", which represents the variation of the first humans in Siberia and should not be associated solely with ancient Caucasoids . The Ancient North Eurasians themselves originated among Ancient West Eurasians, and represent a " Boreal " variation of early humans. Craniometric data on ANE-rich remains (such as from Botai ), show them to cluster most closely with remains from

896-566: A good proxy for ANE-related ancestry among ancient populations from the Iran and the Turan region. The Ancient Tianyuan Man and modern East/Southeast Asian populations were found to lack Upper Paleolithic Western Eurasian or ANE-related admixture, suggesting "resistance of those groups to the incoming UP population movements", or alternatively a subsequent reexpansion from a genetically East Asian-like population reservoir. According to Jennifer Raff,

1024-663: A population represented by the Afontova Gora 3 specimen (AG3), genetically displaying "high affinity" with it. The genetic profile of the Afontova Gora 3 individual represented about 72% of the ancestry of the Tarim mummies, while the remaining 28% of their ancestry was derived from a population represented by the Baikal EBA (Early Bronze Age Northeast Asian Baikal populations). The Tarim mummies are thus one of

1152-464: A primarily East Asian ancestry, with a smaller contribution from palaeolithic West Eurasian populations". One theory supposes that Ancient North Eurasians migrated south to East Asia , or Southern Siberia , where they would have encountered and mixed with ancient East Asians. Genetic evidence from Lake Baikal in Mongolia supports this area as the location where the admixture took place. However,

1280-576: A reversed geneflow from ANE/ANS into Tianyuan or modern East Asians. Mao et al. 2021 models both Yana and Afontova Gora remains with around 73% West Eurasian and 27% East Eurasian ancestry. Sikora et al. 2019 analyzed the genetic remains of the Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site and found them to be closely related to the Ancient North Eurasians. The collectively named both populations as Ancient North Siberian. They modeled

1408-562: A sample, even when it is highly fragmented and of low concentration. It involves attaching a generic sequence to every single strand that generic primers can bond to, and thus all of the DNA present is amplified. This is generally more costly and time intensive than PCR but due to the difficulties involved in ancient DNA amplification it is cheaper and more efficient. One method of massive parallel sequencing , developed by Margulies et al., employs bead-based emulsion PCR and pyrosequencing , and

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1536-608: A similarity in 2.18 and 1.62 bases per 10,000 respectively, suggesting Vi-80 sample was from a male individual. Other similar studies include finding of a mutation associated with dwarfism in Arabidopsis in ancient Nubian cotton , and investigation on the bitter taste perception locus in Neanderthals. Modern humans are thought to have evolved in Africa at least 200 kya (thousand years ago), with some evidence suggesting

1664-607: A single migratory event between 60 and 70 kya. Genetic evidence shows that occupation of the Near East and Europe happened no earlier than 50 kya. Studying haplogroup U has shown separate dispersals from the Near East both into Europe and into North Africa. Much of the work done in archaeogenetics focuses on the Neolithic transition in Europe. Cavalli-Svorza's analysis of genetic-geographic patterns led him to conclude that there

1792-555: A so-called "proto-European type". Whereas he asserted that among the seven mummies in the suburbs of Loulan cemetery six possessed "clear European characteristics" approximating the Saka population of the southern Pamirs within the 6th century B.C.E; while one of them possessed "Mongoloid" traits. Kozintsev (2020, 2022) argues that the historical Southern Siberian Okunevo population , and other Paleo-Siberians, which derive high amounts of their ancestry from Ancient North Eurasians, as possessing

1920-489: A specific purpose. The early modern humans who expanded into Europe, commonly referred to as the Cro-Magnons , left many sophisticated stone tools, carved and engraved pieces on bone, ivory and antler , cave paintings and Venus figurines . The Neanderthals continued to use Mousterian stone tool technology and possibly Châtelperronian technology. These tools disappeared from the archeological record at around

2048-402: A specimen is collected from an archaeological site, DNA can be extracted through a series of processes. One of the more common methods utilizes silica and takes advantage of polymerase chain reactions in order to collect ancient DNA from bone samples. There are several challenges that add to the difficulty when attempting to extract ancient DNA from fossils and prepare it for analysis. DNA

2176-495: A third theory, the "Beringian standstill hypothesis", suggests that East Asians instead migrated north to Northeastern Siberia, where they mixed with ANE, and later diverged in Beringia, where distinct Native American lineages formed. This theory is supported by maternal and nuclear DNA evidence. According to Grebenyuk, after 20,000 BP, a branch of Ancient East Asians migrated to Northeastern Siberia, and mixed with descendants of

2304-493: A trading network for the production and consumption of readily available resources. Archaeogenetics has been used to study the domestication of animals. By analyzing genetic diversity in domesticated animal populations researchers can search for genetic markers in DNA to give valuable insight about possible traits of progenitor species. These traits are then used to help distinguish archaeological remains between wild and domesticated specimens. The genetic studies can also lead to

2432-492: A variety of different fossils, they may be less effective in fossils that are not fresh (e.g. treated fossils for museums ). Also, contamination poses a risk for all DNA replication in general, and this method may result in misleading results if applied to contaminated material. Polymerase chain reaction is a process that can amplify segments of DNA and is often used on extracted ancient DNA. It has three main steps: denaturation , annealing , and extension. Denaturation splits

2560-475: A way to convey seasonal behavioural information about hunted animals. Lines (|) and dots (•) were apparently used interchangeably to denote lunar months, while the (Y) sign apparently signified "To give birth". These characters were seemingly combined to convey the breeding period of hunted animals. The climate of the period in Europe saw dramatic changes, and included the Last Glacial Maximum ,

2688-399: A “pioneer colonization” model of European occupation, with incorporation of foraging populations into arriving Neolithic populations. Furthermore, analysis of ancient DNA, not just extant DNA, is shedding light on some issues. For instance, comparison of neolithic and mesolithic DNA has indicated that the development of dairying preceded widespread lactose tolerance. South Asia has served as

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2816-572: Is a female south-central Siberian ANE individual from the Afontova Gora 3 site, which is dated to c.  17,000 before present (the earlier ANE Mal'ta boy lacks the sequence coverage to make this determination). The allele then appears later in ANE-derived Eastern Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) populations at Samara , Motala and Ukraine, circa 10,000 BP, and then in populations with Steppe ancestry . Mathieson, et al. (2018) thus argued that this allele originated in

2944-471: Is a recent admixture of some Negrito groups with their local populations. Archaeogenetics has been used to better understand the populating of the Americas from Asia. Native American mtDNA haplogroups have been estimated to be between 15 and 20 kya, although there is some variation in these estimates. Genetic data has been used to propose various theories regarding how the Americas were colonized. Although

3072-538: Is a specific archaeogenetic lineage that was first reported by Narasimhan et al. (2019). It can be modeled as 20% EHG, 73% ANE and 6% Ancient Northeast Asian . Although only represented by three sampled hunter-gatherer individuals from Tyumen Oblast in the Russian Forest Zone east of the Urals dated ca. 5,000 BCE, high-levels of WSHG-like ancestry can be detected in various populations of Central Asia until

3200-403: Is also difficult due to the lack of repeatability caused by the uniqueness of specimens. Silica-based DNA extraction is a method used as a purification step to extract DNA from archaeological bone artifacts and yield DNA that can be amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques. This process works by using silica as a means to bind DNA and separate it from other components of

3328-535: Is also used as collective name for both MA-1 and Yana remains. The Ancient North Eurasians represent a Paleolithic Siberian cluster, more closely related to European hunter-gatherers than to East and Southeast Asian populations. It is suggested that the ANE ancestry found among modern human populations was largely contributed from a population linked to Afontova Gora (AG2/3), rather than Malta (MA1) or Yana. Ancient North Eurasian associated Y-chromosome haplogroups are P-M45 , and its subclades R and Q . Haplogroup P

3456-411: Is continuously being split up. While the organism is alive these splits are repaired; however, once an organism has died, the DNA will begin to deteriorate without repair. This results in samples having strands of DNA measuring around 100 base pairs in length. Contamination is another significant challenge at multiple steps throughout the process. Often other DNA, such as bacterial DNA, will be present in

3584-421: Is difficult because the bone fossilisation degrades and DNA is chemically modified, usually by bacteria and fungi in the soil. The best time to extract DNA from a fossil is when it is freshly out of the ground as it contains six times the DNA when compared to stored bones. The temperature of extraction site also affects the amount of obtainable DNA, evident by a decrease in success rate for DNA amplification if

3712-555: Is especially helpful when the morphology of the fossil is ambiguous. Apart from that, species identification can also be done by finding specific genetic markers in an aDNA sequence. For example, the American indigenous population is characterized by specific mitochondrial RFLPs and deletions defined by Wallace et al. aDNA comparison study can also reveal the evolutionary relationship between two species. The number of base differences between DNA of an ancient species and that of

3840-678: Is estimated at 36.8%. There are also the Ancient Paleo-Siberians , populations represented by the Late Upper Paeolithic Lake Baikal Ust'Kyakhta-3 (UKY) 14,050-13,770 BP. They carried 30% ANE ancestry and 70% East Asian ancestry. Jōmon people , the pre- Neolithic population of Japan, mainly derived their ancestry from East Asian lineages, but also received geneflow from the ANE-related "Ancient North Siberians" (represented by samples from

3968-556: Is genetic evidence that Chad-speaking descendants of Nilo-Saharan speakers migrated from Sudan to Lake Chad about 8 kya. Genetic evidence has also indicated that non-African populations made significant contributions to the African gene pool. For example, the Saharan African Beja people have high levels of Middle-Eastern as well as East African Cushitic DNA. Analysis of mtDNA shows that modern humans occupied Eurasia in

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4096-700: Is inferred to have originated around 44,000 years ago in Southeast Asia and is downstream to Haplogroup K2b found among the Tianyuan man in Northern China . Their maternal haplogroup belonged to subclades of haplogroup U . The formation of the Ancient North Eurasian/Siberian (ANE/ANS) gene pool likely occurred very early by the Upper Paleolithic dispersal by the admixture of an 'Ancient West Eurasian' population via

4224-592: Is native to India. Analysis of mtDNA and NRY (non-recombining region of Y chromosome) sequences have indicated that the first major dispersal out of Africa went through Saudi Arabia and the Indian coast 50–100 kya, and a second major dispersal occurred 15–50 kya north of the Himalayas. Much work has been done to discover the extent of north-to-south and south-to-north migrations within Eastern Asia. Comparing

4352-436: Is questioned by Maier et al. 2023, who state that this conclusion is contradicted by other published articles, and that the direction of gene flow as well as observed affinity between ANE and CHG populations cannot be demonstrated by analysis of admixture graphs, but need further investigation. By using a newly developed version of ADMIXTOOLS , they estimate around 76% West Eurasian ancestry and 24% East Eurasian ancestry for both

4480-468: Is that it requires overlapping primer pairs for ancient DNA due to the short sequences. There can also be “jumping PCR” which causes recombination during the PCR process which can make analyzing the DNA more difficult in inhomogeneous samples. DNA extracted from fossil remains is primarily sequenced using Massive parallel sequencing , which allows simultaneous amplification and sequencing of all DNA segments in

4608-815: Is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age . Very broadly, it dates to between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago (the beginning of the Holocene ), according to some theories coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity in early modern humans , until the advent of the Neolithic Revolution and agriculture . Anatomically modern humans (i.e. Homo sapiens ) are believed to have emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago. It has been argued by some that their ways of life changed relatively little from that of archaic humans of

4736-728: Is through DNA hybridization . Single-stranded DNA segments of both species are allowed to form complementary pair bonding with each other. More closely related species have a more similar genetic makeup, and thus a stronger hybridization signal. Scholz et al. conducted southern blot hybridization on Neanderthal aDNA (extracted from fossil remain W-NW and Krapina). The results showed weak ancient human-Neanderthal hybridization and strong ancient human-modern human hybridization. The human-chimpanzee and neanderthal-chimpanzee hybridization are of similarly weak strength. This suggests that humans and neanderthals are not as closely related as two individuals of

4864-577: Is used over mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA because of its faster mutation rate as well as its intraspecific variation due to a higher consistency of polymorphism genetic markers . Findings in crop 'domestication genes' (traits that were specifically selected for or against) include Through the study of archaeogenetics in plant domestication, signs of the first global economy can also be uncovered. The geographical distribution of new crops highly selected in one region found in another where it would have not originally been introduced serve as evidence of

4992-584: The Altai-Sayan region in Southern Siberia. They originated from the admixture of Paleo-Siberian and Ancient North Eurasian groups and show increased affinity towards Native Americans. Bronze Age groups from North and Inner Asia with significant ANE ancestry (e.g. Lake Baikal hunter-gatherers, Okunevo pastoralists ) can be successfully modeled with Altai hunter-gatherers as a proximal ANE-derived ancestry source. West Siberian Hunter-Gatherer (WSHG)

5120-560: The Ancient Northeast Asians (ANA) of the Neolithic to Early Bronze Age period, Baikal Eneolithic (Baikal_EN) and Baikal Early Bronze Age (Baikal_EBA) derived 6.4% to 20.1% ancestry from ANE, while the rest of their ancestry was derived from ANA. Fofonovo_EN near by Lake Baikal were mixture of 12-17% ANE ancestry and 83-87% ANA ancestry. A 2021 genetic study on the Tarim mummies found that they were primarily descended from

5248-602: The Andean region in South America. The other gene flow in Native Americans (the remainder of their ancestry) was of an East Asian-related origin, specifically diverged from other East Asians c. 30,000 years ago. Gene sequencing of another south-central Siberian people (Afontova Gora-2) dating to approximately 17,000 years ago, revealed similar autosomal genetic signatures to that of Mal'ta boy-1, suggesting that

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5376-727: The Andronovo and Afanasievo cultures , nor with inhabitants of the Western Asian BMAC culture, nor with East Asian populations further east, but displayed an affinity for two specimens from the Harappan site of the Indus Valley Civilisation . Blond hair is associated with a single nucleotide polymorphism , the mutated allele rs12821256 of the KITLG gene. The earliest known individual with this allele

5504-840: The Balkans , parts of the Iberian Peninsula and areas around the Black Sea . This period saw cultures such as the Solutrean in France and Spain. Human life may have continued on top of the ice sheet, but we know next to nothing about it, and very little about the human life that preceded the European glaciers. In the early part of the period, up to about 30 kya, the Mousterian Pluvial made northern Africa, including

5632-622: The Eastern Hunter-Gatherers and the Yamnayas , were responsible for transmitting this gene to Europeans. The gene was also found among the Tarim mummies . Since the term 'Ancient North Eurasian' refers to a genetic bridge of connected mating networks, scholars of comparative mythology have argued that they probably shared myths and beliefs that could be reconstructed via the comparison of stories attested within cultures that were not in contact for millennia and stretched from

5760-509: The Middle Paleolithic , until about 50,000 years ago, when there was a marked increase in the diversity of artefacts found associated with modern human remains. This period coincides with the most common date assigned to expansion of modern humans from Africa throughout Asia and Eurasia, which contributed to the extinction of the Neanderthals . The Upper Paleolithic has the earliest known evidence of organized settlements , in

5888-538: The Pit-Comb Ware culture in Eastern Europe, and to take up a more "western" position. Zhang et al. (2021) proposed that the 'Western' like features of the earlier Tarim mummies could be attributed to their Ancient North Eurasian ancestry. Previous craniometric analyses on the early Tarim mummies found that they formed their own cluster, and clustered with neither European-related Steppe pastoralists of

6016-704: The Pontic–Caspian steppe to the American continent . The mytheme of the dog guarding the Otherworld possibly stems from an older Ancient North Eurasian belief, as suggested by similar motifs found in Indo-European , Native American and Siberian mythology . In Siouan , Algonquian , Iroquoian , and in Central and South American beliefs, a fierce guard dog was located in the Milky Way , perceived as

6144-833: The Sahara , well-watered and with lower temperatures than today; after the end of the Pluvial the Sahara became arid. The Last Glacial Maximum was followed by the Allerød oscillation , a warm and moist global interstadial that occurred around 13.5 to 13.8 kya. Then there was a very rapid onset, perhaps within as little as a decade, of the cold and dry Younger Dryas climate period, giving sub-arctic conditions to much of northern Europe. The Preboreal rise in temperatures also began sharply around 10.3 kya, and by its end around 9.0 kya had brought temperatures nearly to present day levels, although

6272-846: The Villabruna cluster also carried the Y-haplogroup R1b , derived from the Ancient North Eurasian haplogroup R *, indicating "an early link between Europe and the western edge of the Steppe Belt of Eurasia." A deer tooth pendant impregnated with the genetic material of an ANE woman was found in the Denisova Cave , and dated to circa 24,700 years before present. She is closely related to Mal'ta and Afontova Gora specimens, found further east. An early Neolithic Central Asian specimen (Tutkaul1) from Tajikistan

6400-670: The Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site ) prior to the migration from the Asian mainland to the Japanese archipelago. Jōmon ancestry is still found among the inhabitants of present-day Japan: most markedly among the Ainu people , who are considered the direct descendants of the Jōmon people, and to a small, but significant degree among the majority of the Japanese population. Altai hunter-gatherer is the name given to Middle Holocene Siberian hunter-gatherers within

6528-439: The fish hook , the oil lamp , rope , and the eyed needle . Fishing of pelagic fish species and navigating the open ocean is evidenced by sites from Timor and Buka ( Solomon Islands ). The changes in human behavior have been attributed to changes in climate, encompassing a number of global temperature drops. These led to a worsening of the already bitter cold of the last glacial period (popularly but incorrectly called

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6656-404: The "southern route". Around 20,000 to 25,000 years ago, a branch of Ancient North Eurasian people mixed with Ancient East Asians , which led to the emergence of Ancestral Native American , Ancient Beringian and Ancient Paleo-Siberian populations. It is unknown exactly where this population admixture took place, and two opposing theories have put forth different migratory scenarios that united

6784-611: The 'northern route' through Central Asia into Siberia, with an ' Ancient East Eurasian ' via the 'southern route'. The West Eurasian source was distantly related to the Upper Paleolithic remains in Europe, such as the Goyet specimen , as well as the Kostenki-14 and Sungir individuals, and ultimately expanded from a population hub in the Iranian Plateau . The 'East Eurasian' source can be associated with ancestry found in

6912-430: The 1950s. During the 1940s, Boyd and Karl O. Renkonen independently discovered that lectins react differently to various blood types, after finding that the crude extracts of the lima bean and tufted vetch agglutinated the red blood cells from blood type A but not blood types B or O. This ultimately led to the disclosure of thousands of plants that contained these proteins. In order to examine racial differences and

7040-490: The 40,000 year old Tianyuan man of Northern China . Overall, Ancient North Eurasians are best described as admixture between an Ancient West Eurasian lineage (71%), with approximately 29% geneflow from an East Eurasian source. Grebenyuk et al. argues that 'Ancient North Eurasians' were "Early Upper Paleolithic tribes of hunters" and linked to similar groups associated with Southern Siberian sites. These communities of Southern Siberian and Central Asian hunters belonged to one of

7168-506: The ANE, c. 70%, with the remaining ancestry from a group more closely related to, but distinct from, Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHGs). It is represented by multiple individuals, such as from Yuzhny Oleny in Karelia , one of Y-haplogroup R1a-M417, dated c. 8.4 kya , the other of Y-haplogroup J, dated c. 7.2 kya; and one individual from Samara , of Y-haplogroup R1b-P297, dated c. 7.6 kya, as well as individuals from Sidelkino and Popovo. After

7296-699: The ANE, leading to the emergence of Ancient Paleo-Siberian and Native American populations in Extreme Northeastern Asia. However, the Beringian standstill hypothesis is not supported by paternal DNA evidence, which may reflect different population histories for paternal and maternal lineages in Native Americans, which is not uncommon and has been observed in other populations. The descendants of admixture between ANE and ancient East Asians include Ancient Beringian / Ancestral Native American , which are specific archaeogenetic lineages, based on

7424-625: The ANE/ANS to derived between 71–78% West Eurasian ancestry and between 22–29% East Eurasian ancestry. Sikora et al. also notes that the Ancient North Eurasians (Malta and Afontova Gora individuals) are unlikely to be direct descendants of the 'Ancient North Siberian' Yana population; rather, the study argues, both are sister lineages sharing a common ancestor. According to Sikora et al., the Malta sample may additionally also have received some 'early Caucasus hunter-gatherer ' geneflow (c. 11%). This scenario

7552-414: The Altai Mountains of Siberia between 17.2 and 10.1 kya, after the LGM. Analysis of both mtDNA and Y-chromosome DNA reveals evidence of “small, founding populations.” Studying haplogroups has led some scientists to conclude that a southern migration into the Americas from one small population was impossible, although separate analysis has found that such a model is feasible if such a migration happened along

7680-418: The Americas by about 15 ka. In Western Eurasia, the Paleolithic eases into the so-called Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic from the end of the LGM, beginning 15 ka. The Holocene glacial retreat begins 11.7 ka ( 10th millennium BC ), falling well into the Old World Epipaleolithic, and marking the beginning of the earliest forms of farming in the Fertile Crescent . Both Homo erectus and Neanderthals used

7808-467: The Americas in various migrations since the Upper Paleolithic , and more than half of the world's population today derives between 5 and 42% of their genomes from the Ancient North Eurasians. Significant ANE ancestry can be found in Native Americans , as well as in Europe , South Asia , Central Asia , and Siberia . It has been suggested that their mythology may have featured narratives shared by both Indo-European and some Native American cultures, such as

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7936-440: The Ancient North Eurasian population mixed with a daughter population of ancient East Asians, who they encountered around 25,000 years ago, which led to the emergence of Native American ancestral populations. However, the exact location where the admixture took place is unknown, and the migratory movements that united the two populations are a matter of debate. Vallini et al. 2024 notes that the "position of Native Americans suggests

8064-420: The Ancient North Eurasian population, before spreading to western Eurasia. Geneticist David Reich said that the KITLG gene for blond hair probably entered continental Europe in a population migration wave from the Eurasian steppe, by a population carrying substantial Ancient North Eurasian ancestry. Hanel and Carlberg (2020) likewise report that populations derived Ancient North Eurasian ancestry, specifically

8192-463: The Ancient North Eurasians among all sampled known Bronze Age populations. Several studies reveal minor West Eurasian-derived admixture among Shaanxi Han Chinese, especially those living in Guanzhong and Shaanbei (2–5%). Ancient North Eurasian admixture is more dominant among Shaanxi Han Chinese compared to other Han subgroups. A model has been presented by Vallini et al. 2024, suggesting that Ancient Iranians (Iranian hunter-gatherers) formed from

8320-458: The Ancient North Eurasians with ancient East Asian populations. Later, ANE populations migrated westward into Europe and admixed with European Western hunter-gatherer (WHG)-related groups to form the Eastern Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) group, which later admixed with Caucasus hunter-gatherers to form the Western Steppe Herder group, which became widely dispersed across Eurasia during the Bronze Age . ANE ancestry has spread throughout Eurasia and

8448-443: The Bronze Age. The population of the Botai culture , while probably not directly descended from WSHG, displays a high affinity with the WSHG lineage. The European-Siberian cline defined by Eastern hunter-gatherer-like ancestry stretched from Central Europe to Siberia and was already established 10,000 years ago, including the West Siberian hunter-gatherers, all deriving their ancestry primarily from Paleolithic Siberians (ANE). Among

8576-465: The DNA into two single strands at high temperatures. Annealing involves attaching primer strands of DNA to the single strands that allow Taq polymerase to attach to the DNA. Extension occurs when Taq polymerase is added to the sample and matches base pairs to turn the two single strands into two complete double strands. This process is repeated many times, and is usually repeated a higher number of times when used with ancient DNA . Some issues with PCR

8704-404: The Greek word arkhaios , meaning "ancient", and the term genetics , meaning "the study of heredity". The term archaeogenetics was conceived by archaeologist Colin Renfrew . In February 2021, scientists reported the oldest DNA ever sequenced was successfully retrieved from a mammoth dating back over a million years. Ludwik Hirszfeld was a Polish microbiologist and serologist who

8832-436: The Mal'ta–Buret' (ANE) population. This difference is caused by the penetration of posterior "Neo-Siberian" migrations into the Americas, with the lowest percentages of ANE ancestry found in Inuit and Alaskan Natives, as these groups are the result of migrations into the Americas roughly 5,000 years ago. Estimates for ANE ancestry among first wave Native Americans show higher percentages, such as 41% (36-45%) for those belonging to

8960-468: The Neolithic. Most mtDNA's were “already established” among existing Mesolithic and Paleolithic groups. Most “control-region lineages” of modern European mtDNA are traced to a founder event of reoccupying northern Europe towards the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). One study of extant European mtDNA's suggest this reoccupation occurred after the end of the LGM, although another suggests it occurred before. Analysis of haplogroups V, H, and U5 support

9088-402: The Y-chromosome lineages indicate that primarily males partook in these migrations. The discovery of two subbranches U2i and U2e of the U mtDNA lineage, which arose in Central Asia has “modulated” views of a large migration from Central Asia into India, as the two branches diverged 50 kya. Furthermore, U2e is found in large percentages in Europe but not India, and vice versa for U2i, implying U2i

9216-620: The Yana and Mal'ta remains. Zhang et al. 2023 summarized that the Ancient North Siberians (Yana remains) are best described to derive 71% ancestry from a West Eurasian lineage and 29% ancestry from an East Eurasian lineage. The Yana remains are closely related to the Mal'ta and Afontova Gora remains, but not identical with them. Vallini et al. 2022/2024 described the Ancient North Eurasians as falling into "an intermediate position between

9344-569: The Yukon, but were forced to abandon high latitude regions following the onset of harsher climatic conditions that came with the Last Glacial Maximum. Populations genetically similar to MA-1 and Afontova Gora were an important genetic contributor to Native Americans , Europeans , Ancient Central Asians , South Asians , and some East Asian groups, in order of significance. Lazaridis et al. (2016:10) note "a cline of ANE ancestry across

9472-414: The chemical composition of bone and soil, and hydrology . There are three perseveration diagenetic phases. The first phase is bacterial putrefaction , which is estimated to cause a 15-fold degradation of DNA. Phase 2 is when bone chemically degrades, mostly by depurination . The third diagenetic phase occurs after the fossil is excavated and stored, in which bone DNA degradation occurs most rapidly. Once

9600-693: The climate was wetter. This period saw the Upper Paleolithic give way to the start of the following Mesolithic cultural period. As the glaciers receded sea levels rose; the English Channel , Irish Sea and North Sea were land at this time, and the Black Sea a fresh-water lake. In particular the Atlantic coastline was initially far out to sea in modern terms in most areas, though the Mediterranean coastline has retreated far less, except in

9728-455: The coasts. Finally, archaeogenetics has been used to study the occupation of Australia and New Guinea. The Indigenous people of Australia and New Guinea are phenotypically very similar, but mtDNA has shown that this is due to convergence from living in similar conditions. Non-coding regions of mt-DNA have shown “no similarities” between the aboriginal populations of Australia and New Guinea. Furthermore, no major NRY lineages are shared between

9856-457: The coldest phase of the last glacial period , which lasted from about 26.5 to 19 kya, being coldest at the end, before relatively rapid warming (all dates vary somewhat for different areas, and in different studies). During the Maximum, most of Northern Europe was covered by an ice-sheet , forcing human populations into the areas known as Last Glacial Maximum refugia , including modern Italy and

9984-601: The continent found 14 genetic and linguistic “clusters,” suggesting an ancient geographic structure to African populations. In general, genotypic and phenotypic analysis have shown “large and subdivided throughout much of their evolutionary history.” Genetic analysis has supported archaeological hypotheses of a large-scale migrations of Bantu speakers into Southern Africa approximately 5 kya. Microsatellite DNA, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and insertion/deletion polymorphisms (INDELS) have shown that Nilo-Saharan speaking populations originate from Sudan. Furthermore, there

10112-415: The development of domestication of dogs. Genetic studies have shown that all dogs are descendants from the gray wolf, however, it is currently unknown when, where, and how many times dogs were domesticated. Some genetic studies have indicated multiple domestications while others have not. Archaeological findings help better understand this complicated past by providing solid evidence about the progression of

10240-542: The distribution and migration patterns of various racial groups, Boyd systematically collected and classified blood samples from around the world, leading to his discovery that blood groups are not influenced by the environment, and are inherited. In his book Genetics and the Races of Man (1950), Boyd categorized the world population into 13 distinct races, based on their different blood type profiles and his idea that human races are populations with differing alleles . One of

10368-533: The dog as absorber of illness and guardian of the household against disease and evil. In Mesopotamia, the goddess Nintinugga , associated with healing, was accompanied or symbolized by dogs. Similar absorbent-puppy healing and sacrifice rituals were practiced in Greece and Italy, among the Hittites , again possibly influenced by Near Eastern traditions. Archaeogenetics Archaeogenetics receives its name from

10496-448: The domestication of dogs. As early humans domesticated dogs the archaeological remains of buried dogs became increasingly more abundant. Not only does this provide more opportunities for archaeologists to study the remains, it also provides clues about early human culture. [REDACTED] Evolutionary biology portal [REDACTED] History portal Upper Paleolithic The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic )

10624-500: The earliest migration waves of anatomically modern humans into Siberia. The authors summarized that "the initial peopling of Northeastern Asia by the anatomically modern humans could have happened both from West to East and from South to North". The ANE/ANS-associated samples from the Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site (31,600 BP) in Northeastern Siberia and the closely related remains from the Mal'ta–Buret' culture (MA1), and

10752-449: The east-west extent of Eurasia". A 2016 study found that the global maximum of ANE ancestry occurs in modern-day Kets , Mansi , Native Americans , and Selkups . The ancient Bronze-age-steppe Yamnaya and Afanasevo cultures were found to have a significant ANE-like component at c. 25–50% via their EHG and CHG ancestry. According to Moreno-Mayar et al. 2018 between 14% and 38% of Native American ancestry may originate from gene flow from

10880-549: The end of the Last Glacial Maximum, the Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHG) and EHG lineages merged in Eastern Europe, accounting for early presence of ANE-derived ancestry in Mesolithic Europe. Evidence suggests that as Ancient North Eurasians migrated westward from Eastern Siberia, they absorbed Western Hunter-Gatherers and other West Eurasian populations as well. Villalba-Mouco et al. 2023 confirmed

11008-541: The existence of a metaphysical world tree and a fable in which a dog guards the path to the afterlife. The ANE lineage, also known as Paleolithic Siberians, is defined by association with the " Mal'ta boy " (MA-1), the remains of an individual who lived during the Last Glacial Maximum , 24,000 years ago in central Siberia , discovered in the 1920s. Together with the Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site samples, and Afontova Gora individuals, they are collectively referred to as 'Ancient North Siberians', although 'Ancient North Eurasian'

11136-490: The existing data on blood group gene frequencies, and largely contributing to the genetic map of the world through his investigation of blood groups in many populations. Mourant discovered the new blood group antigens of the Lewis , Henshaw , Kell , and Rhesus systems, and analyzed the association of blood groups and various other diseases. He also focused on the biological significance of polymorphisms . His work provided

11264-708: The form of campsites, some with storage pits. Artistic work blossomed, with cave painting, petroglyphs , carvings and engravings on bone or ivory. The first evidence of human fishing is also found from a 125,000 years old artefacts in Buya , Eritrea and in other places such as Blombos cave in South Africa . More complex social groupings emerged, supported by more varied and reliable food sources and specialized tool types. This probably contributed to increasing group identification or ethnicity . The peopling of Australia most likely took place before c. 60 ka . Europe

11392-416: The fossil is found in warmer regions. A drastic change of a fossil's environment also affects DNA preservation. Since excavation causes an abrupt change in the fossil's environment, it may lead to physiochemical change in the DNA molecule. Moreover, DNA preservation is also affected by other factors such as the treatment of the unearthed fossil like (e.g. washing, brushing and sun drying), pH , irradiation ,

11520-433: The fossil process that inhibit PCR amplification. However, silica itself is also a strong PCR inhibitor , so careful measures must be taken to ensure that silica is removed from the DNA after extraction. The general process for extracting DNA using the silica-based method is outlined by the following: One of the main advantages of silica-based DNA extraction is that it is relatively quick and efficient, requiring only

11648-422: The foundation for archaeogenetics because it facilitated the separation of genetic evidence for biological relationships between people. This genetic evidence was previously used for that purpose. It also provided material that could be used to appraise the theories of population genetics . William Boyd was an American immunochemist and biochemist who became famous for his research on the genetics of race in

11776-517: The genetic diversity of northeastern groups with southeastern groups has allowed archaeologists to conclude many of the northeast Asian groups came from the southeast. The Pan-Asian SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) study found “a strong and highly significant correlation between haplotype diversity and latitude,” which, when coupled with demographic analysis, supports the case for a primarily south-to-north occupation of East Asia. Archaeogenetics has also been used to study hunter-gatherer populations in

11904-893: The genome of an infant found at the Upward Sun River site (dubbed USR1), dated to 11,500 years ago. The AB and the Ancestral Native American (ANA) lineage formed about 25,000 years ago, and subsequently diverged from each other, with the AB staying in the Beringian region, while the Ancestral Native Americans populated the Americas. The ANE genetic contribution to late-Paeolithic Ancestral Native Americans (USR1 specimen, dated to 11,500 BP in Alaska , and Clovis specimen, dated to 12,600 BP in Montana)

12032-403: The hair color and blood type had no correlation. In addition to that he observed that there was a decrease of blood group A from western Europe to India and the opposite for blood group B. He hypothesized that the east-to-west blood group ratio stemmed from two blood groups consisting of mainly A or B mutating from blood group O, and mixing through migration or intermingling. A majority of his work

12160-497: The identification of ancestors for domesticated animals. The information gained from genetics studies on current populations helps guide the Archaeologist's search for documenting these ancestors. Archaeogenetics has been used to trace the domestication of pigs throughout the old world. These studies also reveal evidence about the details of early farmers. Methods of Archaeogenetics have also been used to further understand

12288-412: The individuals associated with the Afontova Gora site (AG2/3), can be modeled to derive their ancestry from an Ancient West Eurasian lineage, with significant amounts of admixture from an East Eurasian lineage (22–50%). Lipson and Reich (2017) modeled the Mal'ta sample to be derived from a West Eurasian source (82%), with additional admixture from a lineage related to East Asians (18%), while also noting

12416-513: The last ice age ). Such changes may have reduced the supply of usable timber and forced people to look at other materials. In addition, flint becomes brittle at low temperatures and may not have functioned as a tool. Some notational signs, used next to images of animals, may have appeared as early as the Upper Palaeolithic in Europe circa 35,000 BCE, and may be the earliest proto-writing : several symbols were used in combination as

12544-443: The major early corridor for geographical dispersal of modern humans from out-of-Africa. Based on studies of mtDNA line M, some have suggested that the first occupants of India were Austro-Asiatic speakers who entered about 45–60 kya. The Indian gene pool has contributions from earliest settlers, as well as West Asian and Central Asian populations from migrations no earlier than 8 kya. The lack of variation in mtDNA lineages compared to

12672-545: The most abundant information sources regarding inheritable traits linked to race remains the study of blood groups. Fossil retrieval starts with selecting an excavation site . Potential excavation sites are usually identified with the mineralogy of the location and visual detection of bones in the area. However, there are more ways to discover excavation zones using technology such as field portable x-ray fluorescence and Dense Stereo Reconstruction. Tools used include knives , brushes , and pointed trowels which assist in

12800-512: The most widely held theory suggests “three waves” of migration after the LGM through the Bering Strait, genetic data have given rise to alternative hypotheses. For example, one hypothesis proposes a migration from Siberia to South America 20–15 kya and a second migration that occurred after glacial recession. Y-chromosome data has led some to hold that there was a single migration starting from

12928-595: The north of the Adriatic and the Aegean . The rise in sea levels continued until at least 7.5 kya ( 5500 BC ), so evidence of human activity along Europe's coasts in the Upper Paleolithic is mostly lost, though some traces have been recovered by fishing boats and marine archaeology , especially from Doggerland , the lost area beneath the North Sea. The first direct evidence for Neanderthals hunting cave lions . This

13056-562: The oldest mythemes recoverable through comparative mythology . A second canid-related series of beliefs, myths and rituals connected dogs with healing rather than death. For instance, Ancient Near Eastern and Turkic - Kipchaq myths are prone to associate dogs with healing and generally categorised dogs as impure. A similar myth-pattern is assumed for the Eneolithic site of Botai in Kazakhstan, dated to 3500 BC, which might represent

13184-428: The original sample. To avoid contamination it is necessary to take many precautions such as separate ventilation systems and workspaces for ancient DNA extraction work. The best samples to use are fresh fossils as uncareful washing can lead to mold growth. DNA coming from fossils also occasionally contains a compound that inhibits DNA replication. Coming to a consensus on which methods are best at mitigating challenges

13312-482: The path of souls in the afterlife, and getting past it was a test. The Siberian Chukchi and Tungus believed in a guardian-of-the-afterlife dog and a spirit dog that would absorb the dead man's soul and act as a guide in the afterlife. In Indo-European myths, the figure of the dog is embodied by Cerberus , Sarvarā , and Garmr . In Zoroastrianism, two four-eyed dogs guard the bridge to the afterlife called Chinvat Bridge . Anthony and Brown note that it might be one of

13440-447: The possibility for a reversed geneflow from Mal'ta into East Asians, which however had less support with the available data. Yang et al. 2020 modeled both the Yana specimens and the Mal'ta sample as a merger of a sister lineage of the 'European hunter-gatherer' Kostenki-14 , contributing around 68% ancestry, and of a lineage contemporary to the 'Basal-East Asian' Tianyuan man , contributing around 32% ancestry, while finding no evidence for

13568-485: The preceding Yana culture ( c.  32,000 BP ), which were named Ancient North Siberians (ANS). Ancient North Eurasians are predominantly of West Eurasian ancestry (related to European Cro-Magnons and ancient and modern peoples in West Asia ) who arrived in Siberia via the "northern route", but also derive a significant amount of their ancestry (c. 1/3) from an East Eurasian source, having arrived to Siberia via

13696-665: The proper WEC component expanded into Europe. Lazaridis et al. (2014) detected ANE ancestry among modern European populations in proportions up to 20%. In ancient European populations, the ANE genetic component is visible in tests of the Yamnaya people but not of Western or Central Europeans predating the Corded Ware culture : ANE ancestry was introduced in the European gene pool with the Eastern Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) lineage which derived significant ancestry from

13824-530: The rare Holocene populations who derive most of their ancestry from the Ancient North Eurasians (ANE, specifically the Mal'ta and Afontova Gora populations), despite their distance in time (around 14,000 years). Having survived in a type of "genetic bottleneck" in the Tarim basin where they preserved and perpetuated their ANE ancestry, the Tarim mummies, more than any other ancient populations, can be considered as "the best representatives" of

13952-593: The region was continuously occupied by humans throughout the Last Glacial Maximum. Genomic studies also indicate that the ANE component was brought to Western Europe by people related to the Yamnaya culture , long after the Paleolithic. It is reported in modern-day Europeans (10%–20%). Earlier ANE ancestry is found in European hunter-gatherer populations through Paleolithic interactions with Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers , which resulted in populations such as Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers. Western Hunter-Gatherers of

14080-740: The region, such as the Ainu from Japan and Negrito groups in the Philippines. For example, the Pan-Asian SNP study found that Negrito populations in Malaysia and the Negrito populations in the Philippines were more closely related to non-Negrito local populations than to each other, suggesting Negrito and non-Negrito populations are linked by one entry event into East Asia; although other Negrito groups do share affinities, including with Indigenous Australians . A possible explanation of this

14208-608: The removal of fossils from the earth. To avoid contaminating the ancient DNA , specimens are handled with gloves and stored in -20 °C immediately after being unearthed. Ensuring that the fossil sample is analyzed in a lab that has not been used for other DNA analysis could prevent contamination as well. Bones are milled to a powder and treated with a solution before the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process. Samples for DNA amplification may not necessarily be fossil bones. Preserved skin, salt-preserved or air-dried, can also be used in certain situations. DNA preservation

14336-709: The same crude stone tools. Archaeologist Richard G. Klein , who has worked extensively on ancient stone tools, describes the stone tool kit of archaic hominids as impossible to categorize. He argues that almost everywhere, whether Asia , Africa or Europe , before 50,000 years ago all the stone tools are much alike and unsophisticated. Firstly among the artefacts of Africa, archeologists found they could differentiate and classify those of less than 50,000 years into many different categories, such as projectile points, engraving tools, knife blades, and drilling and piercing tools. These new stone-tool types have been described as being distinctly differentiated from each other; each tool had

14464-505: The same species are, but they are more related to each other than to chimpanzees. There have also been some attempts to decipher aDNA to provide valuable phenotypic information of ancient species. This is always done by mapping aDNA sequence onto the karyotype of a well-studied closely related species, which share a lot of similar phenotypic traits. For example, Green et al. compared the aDNA sequence from Neanderthal Vi-80 fossil with modern human X and Y chromosome sequence, and they found

14592-421: The same time the Neanderthals themselves disappeared from the fossil record, about 40,000 cal BP. Settlements were often located in narrow valley bottoms, possibly associated with hunting of passing herds of animals. Some of them may have been occupied year round, though more commonly they appear to have been used seasonally; people moved between the sites to exploit different food sources at different times of

14720-656: The south, and received later admixture from EHG who entered Scandinavia from the north through the coast of Norway . Western Steppe Herders (WSH) is the name given to a distinct ancestral component that represents descent closely related to the Yamnaya culture of the Pontic–Caspian steppe . This ancestry is often referred to as Yamnaya ancestry or Steppe ancestry, and was formed from EHG and CHG ( Caucasus hunter-gatherer ) in about equal proportions. Genomic studies by Raghavan et al. (2014) and Fu et al. (2016) suggested that Mal'ta boy may have had brown eyes, and relatively dark hair and dark skin, while cautioning that this analysis

14848-606: The splitting event between the two groups was over 50 kya, casting doubt on recent common ancestry between the two. Archaeogenetics has been used to understand the development of domestication of plants and animals. The combination of genetics and archeological findings have been used to trace the earliest signs of plant domestication around the world. However, since the nuclear, mitochondrial, and chloroplast genomes used to trace domestication's moment of origin have evolved at different rates, its use to trace genealogy have been somewhat problematic. Nuclear DNA in specific

14976-581: The strong affinity between the Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHG) to the Ancient North Eurasians, and also found a low affinity to the Tianyuan man, explained by them having received significant amounts of ANE ancestry. Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherer (SHG) is represented by several individuals buried at Motala , Sweden ca. 6000 BC. They were descended from Western Hunter-Gatherers who initially settled Scandinavia from

15104-517: The two axes, the result of a palaeolithic admixture", deriving around 50% from West Eurasian and 50% from East Eurasian sources. Allentoft et al. 2024 modeled the Yana specimens, the Mal'ta sample as well as the Afontova Gora remains as 65% West Eurasian and 35% East Eurasian. A different but geographically close specimen, known as the Salkhit individual (c. 34,000 BP) from Northern Mongolia

15232-483: The two populations. The high frequency of a single NRY lineage unique to Australia coupled with “low diversity of lineage-associated Y-chromosomal short tandem repeat (Y-STR) haplotypes” provide evidence for a “recent founder or bottleneck” event in Australia. But there is relatively large variation in mtDNA, which would imply that the bottleneck effect impacted males primarily. Together, NRY and mtDNA studies show that

15360-486: The year. Hunting was important, and caribou/wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting". Technological advances included significant developments in flint tool manufacturing, with industries based on fine blades rather than simpler and shorter flakes . Burins and racloirs were used to work bone, antler and hides . Advanced darts and harpoons also appear in this period, along with

15488-401: Was a massive influx of Near Eastern populations into Europe at the start of the Neolithic. This view led him “to strongly emphasize the expanding early farmers at the expense of the indigenous Mesolithic foraging populations.” mtDNA analysis in the 1990s, however, contradicted this view. M.B. Richards estimated that 10–22% of extant European mtDNA's had come from Near Eastern populations during

15616-435: Was based on an extremely low coverage of DNA that might not give an accurate prediction of pigmentation. Mathieson, et al. (2018) could not determine if Mal'ta 1 boy had the derived allele associated with blond hair in ANE descendants, as they could obtain no coverage for this SNP. Han Kangxin (1994) Described the mummies found in the cemetery of Gumugou as possessing "clear western racial characteristics" approximating those of

15744-510: Was found to be powerful in analyses of aDNA because it avoids potential loss of sample, substrate competition for templates, and error propagation in replication. The most common way to analyze an aDNA sequence is to compare it with a known sequence from other sources, and this could be done in different ways for different purposes. The identity of the fossil remain can be uncovered by comparing its DNA sequence with those of known species using software such as BLASTN. This archaeogenetic approach

15872-469: Was found to be primarily derived from Ancient North Eurasians with some additional Neolithic Iranian-related inputs. The sample is closely related to Afontova Gora 3 (AG3) and Mal’ta 1, as well as to the West Siberian hunter-gatherers (Tyumen and Sosnoviy). While the sample also displays affinity for Eastern hunter-gatherers (EHGs), AG3 was found to be closer to EHGs than Tutkaul1, who instead may be

16000-595: Was found to display a complex relation to the Yana individuals. While the Yana individuals derived between 25–33% of their ancestry from a Tianyuan-like source, the Salkhit individual derived around 25% ancestry from the Yana lineage and 75% from the Tianyuan lineage, suggesting bi-directional geneflow between Ancient West and East Eurasian populations in Northeastern Siberia. By c. 32kya, populations carrying ANE-related ancestry were probably widely distributed across northeast Eurasia. They may have expanded as far as Alaska and

16128-487: Was peopled after c. 45 ka. Anatomically modern humans are known to have expanded northward into Siberia as far as the 58th parallel by about 45 ka ( Ust'-Ishim man ). The Upper Paleolithic is divided by the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), from about 25 to 15 ka. The peopling of the Americas occurred during this time, with East and Central Asia populations reaching the Bering land bridge after about 35 ka, and expanding into

16256-480: Was researching the links of blood types to sex, disease, climate, age, social class, and race. His work led him to discover that peptic ulcer was more dominant in blood group O, and that AB blood type mothers had a high male-to-female birth ratio. Arthur Mourant was a British hematologist and chemist . He received many awards, most notably Fellowship of the Royal Society . His work included organizing

16384-728: Was the President of the Blood Group Section of the Second International Congress of Blood Transfusion. He founded blood group inheritance with Erich von Dungern in 1910, and contributed to it greatly throughout his life. He studied ABO blood groups . In one of his studies in 1919, Hirszfeld documented the ABO blood groups and hair color of people at the Macedonian front, leading to his discovery that

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