74-469: Beseda (Russian: Беседа , IPA: [bʲɪˈsʲedə] , lit. 'debate') was a clandestine discussion circle consisting of liberal " zemstvo men", among them prominent and grand names of the Russian aristocracy . The intelligentsia discussion group was formed in the wake of resumed persecution of the zemstvos after increased liberties during the Russian famine of 1891–92 . Beseda
148-686: A Europe of substantial literary and philosophical contact with the Muslim world, encouraged by such factors as Averroism ("Averrois, che'l gran comento feo" Commedia, Inferno, IV, 144, meaning "Averrois, who wrote the great comment") and the patronage of Alfonso X of Castile . Of the twelve wise men Dante meets in Canto ;X of the Paradiso , Thomas Aquinas and, even more so, Siger of Brabant were strongly influenced by Arabic commentators on Aristotle . Medieval Christian mysticism also shared
222-531: A backward path. Allegorically, the Inferno represents the Christian soul seeing sin for what it really is, and the three beasts represent three types of sin: the self-indulgent, the violent, and the malicious. These three types of sin also provide the three main divisions of Dante's Hell: Upper Hell, outside the city of Dis, for the four sins of indulgence ( lust , gluttony , avarice , anger ); Circle 7 for
296-407: A database of words and their translations. Later attempts utilized common phrases , which resulted in better grammatical structure and the capture of idioms, but with many words left in the original language. For translating synthetic languages , a morphosyntactic analyzer and synthesizer are required. The best systems today use a combination of the above technologies and apply algorithms to correct
370-473: A great deal of difference between a literal translation of a poetic work and a prose translation. A literal translation of poetry may be in prose rather than verse but also be error-free. Charles Singleton's 1975 translation of the Divine Comedy is regarded as a prose translation. The term literal translation implies that it is probably full of errors, since the translator has made no effort to (or
444-416: A joke which dates back to 1956 or 1958. Another joke in the genre transforms "out of sight, out of mind" to "blind idiot" or "invisible idiot". Divine Comedy The Divine Comedy ( Italian : Divina Commedia [diˈviːna komˈmɛːdja] ) is an Italian narrative poem by Dante Alighieri , begun c. 1308 and completed around 1321, shortly before the author's death. It is widely considered
518-456: A literal translation in preparing his translation of Dante 's Inferno (1994), as he does not know Italian. Similarly, Richard Pevear worked from literal translations provided by his wife, Larissa Volokhonsky, in their translations of several Russian novels. Literal translation can also denote a translation that represents the precise meaning of the original text but does not attempt to convey its style, beauty, or poetry. There is, however,
592-576: A modern reading of the poem in his labyrinthine "Conversation on Dante". Erich Auerbach said Dante was the first writer to depict human beings as the products of a specific time, place and circumstance, as opposed to mythic archetypes or a collection of vices and virtues, concluding that this, along with the fully imagined world of the Divine Comedy , suggests that the Divine Comedy inaugurated realism and self-portraiture in modern fiction. In T. S. Eliot's estimation, "Dante and Shakespeare divide
666-548: A sa voiture et sa voiture, ses serviettes et ses serviettes, sa bibliothèque et les siennes. " That does not make sense because it does not distinguish between "his" car and "hers". Often, first-generation immigrants create something of a literal translation in how they speak their parents' native language. This results in a mix of the two languages that is something of a pidgin . Many such mixes have specific names, e.g., Spanglish or Denglisch . For example, American children of German immigrants are heard using "rockingstool" from
740-404: A serious problem for machine translation . The term "literal translation" often appeared in the titles of 19th-century English translations of the classical Bible and other texts. Word-for-word translations ("cribs", "ponies", or "trots") are sometimes prepared for writers who are translating a work written in a language they do not know. For example, Robert Pinsky is reported to have used
814-663: A specific moral scheme, subdivided into three subcategories, while two others of greater particularity are added to total nine. For example, the seven deadly sins that are cleansed in Purgatory are joined by special realms for the late repentant and the excommunicated . The core seven sins within Purgatory correspond to a moral scheme of love perverted, subdivided into three groups corresponding to excessive love ( Lust , Gluttony , Greed ), deficient love ( Sloth ), and malicious love ( Wrath , Envy , Pride ). In central Italy's political struggle between Guelphs and Ghibellines , Dante
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#1732802610637888-631: A wheel, all at one speed, by the Love which moves the sun and the other stars. According to the Italian Dante Society, no original manuscript written by Dante has survived, although there are many manuscript copies from the 14th and 15th centuries – some 800 are listed on their site. Coluccio Salutati translated some quotations from the Comedy into Latin for his De fato et fortuna in 1396–1397. The first complete translation of
962-456: Is a translation of a text done by translating each word separately without looking at how the words are used together in a phrase or sentence. In translation theory , another term for literal translation is metaphrase (as opposed to paraphrase for an analogous translation). It is to be distinguished from an interpretation (done, for example, by an interpreter ). Literal translation leads to mistranslation of idioms , which can be
1036-474: Is also a product of Scholasticism , especially as expressed by St. Thomas Aquinas. This influence is most pronounced in the Paradiso , where the text's portrayals of God, the beatific vision, and substantial forms all align with scholastic doctrine. It is also in the Paradiso that Aquinas and fellow scholastic St. Bonaventure appear as characters, introducing Dante to all of Heaven's wisest souls. Despite all this, there are issues on which Dante diverges from
1110-401: Is disputed ), Dante explains that this reference to Israel leaving Egypt refers both to the redemption of Christ and to "the conversion of the soul from the sorrow and misery of sin to the state of grace." Appropriately, therefore, it is Easter Sunday when Dante and Virgil arrive. The Purgatorio demonstrates the medieval knowledge of a spherical Earth . During the poem, Dante discusses
1184-404: Is known to have lectured on the Inferno , and it has been suggested that the poem may have influenced some of Galileo's own ideas regarding mechanics. Without access to the works of Homer , Dante used Virgil, Lucan , Ovid , and Statius as the models for the style, history, and mythology of the Comedy . This is most obvious in the case of Virgil, who appears as a mentor character throughout
1258-470: Is more psychological than that of the Inferno , being based on motives, rather than actions. It is also drawn primarily from Christian theology, rather than from classical sources. However, Dante's illustrative examples of sin and virtue draw on classical sources as well as on the Bible and on contemporary events. Love, a theme throughout the Divine Comedy , is particularly important for the framing of sin on
1332-646: Is often derived from the phraseology of the Vulgate . This was the only translation of the Bible Dante had access to, as it was one the vast majority of scribes were willing to copy during the Middle Ages. This includes five hundred or so direct quotes and references Dante derives from the Bible (or his memory of it). Dante also treats the Bible as a final authority on any matter, including on subjects scripture only approaches allegorically. The Divine Comedy
1406-428: Is thirty-five years old, half of the biblical lifespan of seventy ( Psalms 89:10, Vulgate), lost in a dark wood (understood as sin), assailed by beasts (a lion , a leopard , and a she-wolf ) he cannot evade and unable to find the "straight way" ( diritta via ) to salvation (symbolized by the sun behind the mountain). Conscious that he is ruining himself and that he is falling into a "low place" ( basso loco ) where
1480-632: Is unable to) convey correct idioms or shades of meaning, for example, but it can also be a useful way of seeing how words are used to convey meaning in the source language. A literal English translation of the German phrase " Ich habe Hunger " would be "I have hunger" in English, but this is clearly not a phrase that would generally be used in English, even though its meaning might be clear. Literal translations in which individual components within words or compounds are translated to create new lexical items in
1554-523: The Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas . In the poem, the pilgrim Dante is accompanied by three guides: Virgil , who represents human reason , and who guides him for all of Inferno and most of Purgatorio ; Beatrice , who represents divine revelation in addition to theology, grace, and faith; and guides him from the end of Purgatorio onwards; and Saint Bernard of Clairvaux , who represents contemplative mysticism and devotion to Mary
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#17328026106371628-617: The Apocalypse of Paul in the 4th century. Despite a lack of "official" approval, the Apocalypse of Paul would go on to be popular for centuries, possibly due to its popularity among the medieval monks that copied and preserved manuscripts in the turbulent centuries following the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Divine Comedy belongs to the same genre and was influenced by the Apocalypse of Paul. Dante lived in
1702-468: The Comedy was made into Latin prose by Giovanni da Serravalle in 1416 for two English bishops, Robert Hallam and Nicholas Bubwith , and an Italian cardinal, Amedeo di Saluzzo . It was made during the Council of Constance . The first verse translation, into Latin hexameters , was made in 1427–1431 by Matteo Ronto [ fr ] . The first translation of the Comedy into another vernacular
1776-568: The Constitutional Democratic Party . The resumed persecution in 1900 had also banned Dmitry Shipov 's Moscow Provincial Zemstvo Council, formed 1896 and closed shortly after, which drove him, "a reluctant revolutionary", into the circles of the radical constitutionalists. This Russian history –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Literal translation Literal translation , direct translation , or word-for-word translation
1850-568: The Ebro , dawn in Jerusalem, and noon on the River Ganges : Just as, there where its Maker shed His blood, the sun shed its first rays, and Ebro lay beneath high Libra, and the ninth hour's rays were scorching Ganges' waves; so here, the sun stood at the point of day's departure when God's angel – happy – showed himself to us. Dante travels through
1924-440: The Inferno only. The Divine Comedy has been a source of inspiration for countless artists for almost seven centuries. There are many references to Dante's work in literature . In music , Franz Liszt was one of many composers to write works based on the Divine Comedy . In sculpture , the work of Auguste Rodin includes themes from Dante. Sculptor Timothy Schmalz created a series of 100 sculptures, one for each canto, on
1998-604: The Inferno , allows Dante the freedom of not having to involve the reader in description, and allows him to "[make] room in his poem for the discussion of a great many subjects of the utmost importance, thus widening its range and increasing its variety." Dante called the poem "Comedy" (the adjective "Divine" was added later, in the 16th century) because poems in the ancient world were classified as High ("Tragedy") or Low ("Comedy"). Low poems had happy endings and were written in everyday language, whereas High poems treated more serious matters and were written in an elevated style. Dante
2072-511: The Moon , containing the inconstant, whose vows to God waned as the moon and thus lack fortitude; Mercury , containing the ambitious, who were virtuous for glory and thus lacked justice; and Venus , containing the lovers, whose love was directed towards another than God and thus lacked temperance. The final four incidentally are positive examples of the cardinal virtues, all led on by the Sun , containing
2146-489: The Neoplatonic influence of Sufis such as Ibn Arabi . Philosopher Frederick Copleston argued in 1950 that Dante's respectful treatment of Averroes , Avicenna , and Siger of Brabant indicates his acknowledgement of a "considerable debt" to Islamic philosophy. In 1919, Miguel Asín Palacios , a Spanish scholar and a Catholic priest, published La Escatología musulmana en la Divina Comedia ( Islamic Eschatology in
2220-573: The Oratorio della Nunziatella in Foligno. The Divine Comedy can be described simply as an allegory : each canto, and the episodes therein, can contain many alternative meanings. Dante's allegory, however, is more complex, and, in explaining how to read the poem (see the Letter to Cangrande ) he outlines other levels of meaning besides the allegory: the historical, the moral, the literal, and
2294-552: The Paradiso , such as a sevenfold division of Paradise , although this is not unique to the Kitab al Miraj or Islamic cosmology. Many scholars have not been satisfied that Dante was influenced by the Kitab al Miraj . The 20th-century Orientalist Francesco Gabrieli expressed skepticism regarding the claimed similarities, and the lack of evidence of a vehicle through which it could have been transmitted to Dante. The Italian philologist Maria Corti pointed out that, during his stay at
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2368-590: The anagogical . The structure of the poem is also quite complex, with mathematical and numerological patterns distributed throughout the work, particularly threes and nines. The poem is often lauded for its particularly human qualities: Dante's skillful delineation of the characters he encounters in Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise; his bitter denunciations of Florentine and Italian politics; and his powerful poetic imagination. Dante's use of real characters, according to Dorothy Sayers in her introduction to her translation of
2442-451: The science of his day (this mixture of science with poetry has received both praise and criticism over the centuries). The Purgatorio repeatedly refers to the implications of a spherical Earth , such as the different stars visible in the southern hemisphere , the altered position of the sun , and the various time zones of the Earth. For example, at sunset in Purgatory it is midnight at
2516-535: The "natural" sound of the translation. In the end, though, professional translation firms that employ machine translation use it as a tool to create a rough translation that is then tweaked by a human, professional translator. Douglas Hofstadter gave an example of a failure of machine translation: the English sentence "In their house, everything comes in pairs. There's his car and her car, his towels and her towels, and his library and hers." might be translated into French as " Dans leur maison, tout vient en paires. Il y
2590-518: The Black Guelphs. This exile, which lasted the rest of Dante's life, shows its influence in many parts of the Comedy , from prophecies of Dante's exile to Dante's views of politics, to the eternal damnation of some of his opponents. The last word in each of the three cantiche is stelle ("stars"). The poem begins on the night before Good Friday in the year 1300, "halfway along our life's path" ( Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita ). Dante
2664-690: The Divine Comedy ), an account of parallels between early Islamic philosophy and the Divine Comedy . Palacios argued that Dante derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter from the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi and from the Isra and Mi'raj , or night journey of Muhammad to heaven. The latter is described in the ahadith and the Kitab al Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before as Liber scalae Machometi , "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder"), and has significant similarities to
2738-641: The Excommunicated from the church and the Late repentant who died, often violently, before receiving rites. Thus the total comes to nine, with the addition of the Garden of Eden at the summit, equaling ten. Allegorically, the Purgatorio represents the Christian life. Christian souls arrive escorted by an angel, singing In exitu Israel de Aegypto . In his letter to Cangrande (the authenticity of which
2812-435: The German word Schaukelstuhl instead of "rocking chair". Literal translation of idioms is a source of translators' jokes. One such joke, often told about machine translation , translates "The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak" (an allusion to Mark 14:38 ) into Russian and then back into English, getting "The vodka is good, but the meat is rotten". This is not an actual machine-translation error, but rather
2886-476: The Mother , guiding him in the final cantos of Paradiso . The work was originally simply titled Comedìa ( pronounced [komeˈdiːa] , Tuscan for "Comedy") – so also in the first printed edition, published in 1472 – later adjusted to the modern Italian Commedia . The adjective Divina was added by Giovanni Boccaccio , owing to its subject matter and lofty style, and the first edition to name
2960-544: The Mountain of Purgatory. While the love that flows from God is pure, it can become sinful as it flows through humanity. Humans can sin by using love towards improper or malicious ends ( Wrath , Envy , Pride ), or using it to proper ends but with love that is either not strong enough ( Sloth ) or love that is too strong ( Lust , Gluttony , Greed ). Below the seven purges of the soul is the Ante-Purgatory, containing
3034-621: The affairs of the zemstvos. After the persecution of the zemstvos was increased in 1900, when it dismissed several hundreds of liberals from the elected zemstvo boards, the circle was forced to confront political issues and questions. In the following two years, the Beseda would become the "leading force of the Russian constitutionalists movement", with a wide spectrum of public men, from industrial magnates and slavophiles to civic leaders, supporting it, and its calls for reform. Most members joined
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3108-492: The centre of the Earth in the Inferno , and comments on the resulting change in the direction of gravity in Canto XXXIV (lines 76–120). A little earlier (XXXIII, 102–105), he queries the existence of wind in the frozen inner circle of hell, since it has no temperature differentials. Inevitably, given its setting, the Paradiso discusses astronomy extensively, but in the Ptolemaic sense. The Paradiso also discusses
3182-546: The court of Alfonso X, Dante's mentor Brunetto Latini met Bonaventura de Siena, a Tuscan who had translated the Kitab al Miraj from Arabic into Latin. Corti speculates that Brunetto may have provided a copy of that work to Dante. René Guénon , a Sufi convert and scholar of Ibn Arabi, confirms in The Esoterism of Dante the theory of the Islamic influence (direct or indirect) on Dante. Palacios' theory that Dante
3256-553: The depths of Hell, Dante and Virgil ascend out of the undergloom to the Mountain of Purgatory on the far side of the world. The Mountain is on an island, the only land in the Southern Hemisphere , created by the displacement of rock which resulted when Satan 's fall created Hell (which Dante portrays as existing underneath Jerusalem ). The mountain has seven terraces, corresponding to the seven deadly sins or "seven roots of sinfulness". The classification of sin here
3330-558: The different stars visible in the southern hemisphere , the altered position of the sun, and the various time zones of the Earth. At this stage it is, Dante says, sunset at Jerusalem, midnight on the River Ganges , and sunrise in Purgatory. After an initial ascension, Beatrice guides Dante through the nine celestial spheres of Heaven . These are concentric and spherical, as in Aristotelian and Ptolemaic cosmology. While
3404-511: The essence of God, completing the nine-fold division to ten. Dante meets and converses with several great saints of the Church, including Thomas Aquinas , Bonaventure , Saint Peter , and St. John . Near the end, Beatrice departs and Bernard of Clairvaux takes over as the guide. The Paradiso is more theological in nature than the Inferno and the Purgatorio . However, Dante admits that
3478-465: The first two canticles and who has his epic The Aeneid praised with language Dante reserves elsewhere for Scripture. Ovid is given less explicit praise in the poem, but besides Virgil, Dante uses Ovid as a source more than any other poet, mostly through metaphors and fantastical episodes based on those in The Metamorphoses . Less influential than either of the two are Statius and Lucan,
3552-582: The importance of the experimental method in science, with a detailed example in lines 94–105 of Canto II: A briefer example occurs in Canto XV of the Purgatorio (lines 16–21), where Dante points out that both theory and experiment confirm that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection . Other references to science in the Paradiso include descriptions of clockwork in Canto XXIV (lines 13–18), and Thales' theorem about triangles in Canto XIII (lines 101–102). Galileo Galilei
3626-622: The last three cantos. The structure of the three realms follows a common numerical pattern of 9 plus 1, for a total of 10. There are nine circles of the Inferno, followed by Lucifer contained at its bottom; nine rings of Mount Purgatory, followed by the Garden of Eden crowning its summit; and the nine celestial bodies of Paradiso, followed by the Empyrean containing the very essence of God. Within each group of nine, seven elements correspond to
3700-481: The latter of whom has only been given proper recognition as a source in the Divine Comedy in the twentieth century. Besides Dante's fellow poets, the classical figure that most influenced the Comedy is Aristotle . Dante built up the philosophy of the Comedy with the works of Aristotle as a foundation, just as the scholastics used Aristotle as the basis for their thinking. Dante knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly quotations in
3774-587: The night before Good Friday to the Wednesday after Easter in the spring of 1300. The Roman poet Virgil guides him through Hell and Purgatory; Beatrice , Dante's ideal woman, guides him through Heaven. Beatrice was a Florentine woman he had met in childhood and admired from afar in the mode of the then-fashionable courtly love tradition, which is highlighted in Dante's earlier work La Vita Nuova . The Cistercian abbot Bernard of Clairvaux guides Dante through
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#17328026106373848-507: The poem Divina Comedia in the title was that of the Venetian humanist Lodovico Dolce , published in 1555 by Gabriele Giolito de' Ferrari . The Divine Comedy is composed of 14,233 lines that are divided into three cantiche (singular cantica ) – Inferno ( Hell ), Purgatorio ( Purgatory ), and Paradiso ( Paradise ) – each consisting of 33 cantos (Italian plural canti ). An initial canto, serving as an introduction to
3922-450: The poem and generally considered to be part of the first cantica , brings the total number of cantos to 100. It is generally accepted, however, that the first two cantos serve as a unitary prologue to the entire epic, and that the opening two cantos of each cantica serve as prologues to each of the three cantiche . The number three is prominent in the work, represented in part by the number of cantiche and their lengths. Additionally,
3996-645: The pre-eminent work in Italian literature and one of the greatest works of Western literature . The poem's imaginative vision of the afterlife is representative of the medieval worldview as it existed in the Western Church by the 14th century. It helped establish the Tuscan language , in which it is written, as the standardized Italian language . It is divided into three parts: Inferno , Purgatorio , and Paradiso . The poem discusses "the state of
4070-441: The prudent, whose wisdom lighted the way for the other virtues, to which the others are bound (constituting a category on its own). Mars contains the men of fortitude who died in the cause of Christianity; Jupiter contains the kings of justice; and Saturn contains the temperate, the monks. The seven subdivided into three are raised further by two more categories: the eighth sphere of the fixed stars that contain those who achieved
4144-543: The romantic reappraisal of Dante, juxtaposing him to Homer. The Comedy was "rediscovered" in the English-speaking world by William Blake – who illustrated several passages of the epic – and the Romantic writers of the 19th century. Later authors such as T. S. Eliot , Ezra Pound , Samuel Beckett , C. S. Lewis and James Joyce have drawn on it for inspiration. The poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
4218-452: The scholastic doctrine, such as in his unbridled praise for poetry. Consequently, the Divine Comedy has been called "the Summa in verse". The Apocalypse of Peter is one of the earliest examples of a Christian-Jewish katabasis , a genre of explicit depictions of heaven and hell. Later works inspired by it include the Apocalypse of Thomas in the 2nd–4th century, and more importantly,
4292-479: The sins of violence against one's neighbor, against oneself, and against God, art, and nature; and Circles 8 and 9 for the sins of fraud and treachery. Added to these are two dissimilar, spiritual categories: Limbo, in Circle 1, contains the virtuous pagans who were not sinful but were ignorant of Christ, and Circle 6 contains the heretics who contradicted the doctrine and confused the spirit of Christ. Having survived
4366-536: The soul after death and presents an image of divine justice meted out as due punishment or reward", and describes Dante's travels through Hell , Purgatory , and Heaven . Allegorically , the poem represents the soul's journey towards God , beginning with the recognition and rejection of sin ( Inferno ), followed by the penitent Christian life ( Purgatorio ), which is then followed by the soul's ascent to God ( Paradiso ). Dante draws on medieval Catholic theology and philosophy, especially Thomistic philosophy derived from
4440-419: The structures of the Inferno and Purgatorio were based on different classifications of sin, the structure of the Paradiso is based on the four cardinal virtues and the three theological virtues . The seven lowest spheres of Heaven deal solely with the cardinal virtues of Prudence , Fortitude , Justice and Temperance . The first three spheres involve a deficiency of one of the cardinal virtues –
4514-678: The sun is silent (' l sol tace ), Dante is at last rescued by Virgil, and the two of them begin their journey to the underworld. Each sin's punishment in Inferno is a contrapasso , a symbolic instance of poetic justice ; for example, in Canto XX, fortune-tellers and soothsayers must walk with their heads on backwards, unable to see what is ahead, because that was what they had tried to do in life: they had their faces twisted toward their haunches and found it necessary to walk backward, because they could not see ahead of them. ... and since he wanted so to see ahead, he looks behind and walks
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#17328026106374588-534: The target language (a process also known as "loan translation") are called calques , e.g., beer garden from German Biergarten . The literal translation of the Italian sentence, " So che questo non va bene " ("I know that this is not good"), produces "(I) know that this not (it) goes well", which has English words and Italian grammar . Early machine translations (as of 1962 at least) were notorious for this type of translation, as they simply employed
4662-487: The theological virtues of faith , hope , and love , and represent the Church Triumphant – the total perfection of humanity, cleansed of all the sins and carrying all the virtues of heaven; and the ninth circle, or Primum Mobile (corresponding to the geocentricism of medieval astronomy), which contains the angels, creatures never poisoned by original sin. Topping them all is the Empyrean , which contains
4736-408: The verse scheme used, terza rima , is hendecasyllabic (lines of eleven syllables), with the lines composing tercets according to the rhyme scheme ABA BCB CDC DED ... The total number of syllables in each tercet is thus 33, the same as the number of cantos in each cantica . Written in the first person, the poem tells of Dante's journey through the three realms of the dead, lasting from
4810-478: The vision of heaven he receives is merely the one his human eyes permit him to see, and thus Dante's personal vision. The Divine Comedy finishes with Dante seeing the Triune God . In a flash of understanding that he cannot express, Dante finally understands the mystery of Christ 's divinity and humanity, and his soul becomes aligned with God's love: But already my desire and my will were being turned like
4884-520: The works of Albertus Magnus . Dante even acknowledges Aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, specifically when Virgil justifies the Inferno's structure by citing the Nicomachean Ethics . In the same canto, Virgil draws on Cicero 's De Officiis to explain why sins of the intellect are worse than sins of violence, a key point that would be explored from canto XVIII to the end of the Inferno . The Divine Comedy ' s language
4958-461: The world between them. There is no third." For Jorge Luis Borges the Divine Comedy was "the best book literature has achieved". The Divine Comedy has been translated into English more times than any other language, and new English translations of the Divine Comedy continue to be published regularly. Notable English translations of the complete poem include the following. A number of other translators, such as Robert Pinsky , have translated
5032-650: Was formed in November 1899 and gathered 3 or 4 times a year. Founders of the circle were Dmitry Shakhovskoy , Pavel Dolgorukov , and Prince Sergei Nikolaevich Trubetskoy . It gradually lost its significance and the last meeting was held in October 1905. The members, which included among others Prince Lvov , met in the palace of the Princes Dolgorukov in Moscow, and initially restricted discussion strictly to
5106-465: Was influenced by Ibn Arabi was satirized by the Turkish academic Orhan Pamuk in his novel The Black Book . In addition to that, it has been claimed that Risālat al-Ghufrān ("The Epistle of Forgiveness"), a satirical work mixing Arabic poetry and prose written by Abu al-ʿAlaʾ al-Maʿarri around 1033 CE, had an influence on, or even inspired, Dante's Divine Comedy . The Divine Comedy
5180-419: Was its first American translator, and modern poets, including Seamus Heaney , Robert Pinsky , John Ciardi , W. S. Merwin , and Stanley Lombardo , have also produced translations of all or parts of the book. In Russia, beyond Alexander Pushkin 's translation of a few tercets, Osip Mandelstam 's late poetry has been said to bear the mark of a "tormented meditation" on the Comedy . In 1934, Mandelstam gave
5254-611: Was not always as well-regarded as it is today. Although recognized as a masterpiece in the centuries immediately following its publication, the work was largely ignored during the Enlightenment , with some notable exceptions such as Vittorio Alfieri ; Antoine de Rivarol , who translated the Inferno into French; and Giambattista Vico , who in the Scienza nuova and in the Giudizio su Dante inaugurated what would later become
5328-615: Was one of the first in the Middle Ages to write of a serious subject, the Redemption of humanity, in the low and "vulgar" Italian language and not the Latin one might expect for such a serious topic. Boccaccio 's account that an early version of the poem was begun by Dante in Latin is still controversial. Although the Divine Comedy is primarily a religious poem, discussing sin, virtue, and theology, Dante also discusses several elements of
5402-678: Was part of the Guelphs, who in general favored the papacy over the Holy Roman Emperor . Florence's Guelphs split into factions around 1300 – the White Guelphs and the Black Guelphs. Dante was among the White Guelphs who were exiled in 1302 by the Lord-Mayor Cante de' Gabrielli di Gubbio , after troops under Charles of Valois entered the city, at the request of Pope Boniface VIII , who supported
5476-467: Was the prose translation into Castilian completed by Enrique de Villena in 1428. The first vernacular verse translation was that of Andreu Febrer into Catalan in 1429. The first printed edition was published in Foligno , Italy, by Johann Numeister and Evangelista Angelini da Trevi on 11 April 1472. Of the 300 copies printed, fourteen still survive. The original printing press is on display in
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