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152-659: Biafra ( / b i ˈ æ f r ə / bee- AF -rə ), officially the Republic of Biafra , was a partially recognised state in West Africa that declared independence from Nigeria and existed from 1967 until 1970. Its territory consisted of the former Eastern Region of Nigeria, predominantly inhabited by the Igbo ethnic group. Biafra was established on 30 May 1967 by Igbo military officer and Eastern Region governor Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu under his presidency, following

304-529: A low-level guerilla conflict in southeastern Nigeria against the Nigerian government . The group was founded in 2012 by Nnamdi Kanu who has been the leader and Uche Mefor , who served as the deputy leader. Kanu is known as a British political activist known for his advocacy of the contemporary Biafran independence movement. It was declared a terrorist organization by the Nigerian government in 2017 under

456-695: A 25-stage plan to achieve its goal peacefully. It has two arms of government, the Biafra Government in Exile and the Biafra Shadow Government. MASSOB accuses Nigeria of marginalising Biafran people. Since August 1999, protests have erupted in cities across Nigeria's south-east. Though peaceful, the protesters have been routinely attacked by the Nigerian police and army, with large numbers of people reportedly killed. Many others have been injured and/or arrested. On 29 May 2000,

608-610: A Biafra Plate Number in 2016 in response to persistent demand by some Biafran sympathizers in the diaspora and at home. On 16 June 2012, a Supreme Council of Elders of the Indigenous People of Biafra, another pro-Biafra organisation, was formed. The body is made up of some prominent persons in the Biafra region. They sued the Federal Republic of Nigeria for the right to self-determination . Debe Odumegwu Ojukwu,

760-400: A Nigerian panel resolved to give every Igbo person an account with only 20 pounds. Federal projects in Biafra were also greatly reduced compared to other parts of Nigeria. In an Intersociety study it was found that Nigerian security forces also extorted approximately $ 100 million per year from illegal roadblocks and other methods from Igboland – a cultural sub-region of Biafra in what

912-519: A Sahelian people however allowed for significant integration between the two groups. Since the early 20th century, these peoples are often classified as " Hausa–Fulani " within Nigeria rather than as individuated groups. In fact, a large number of Fulani living in Hausa regions cannot speak Fulfulde at all and speak Hausa as their first language. Many Fulani in the region do not distinguish themselves from

1064-479: A city that prides itself as an important Islamic learning centre. The minaret is believed to be one of West Africa's first multi-storey buildings and was once the tallest building in Katsina. The mosque's origin is attributed to the efforts of the influential Islamic scholar Sheikh Muhammad al-Maghili and Sultan Muhammadu Korau of Katsina. Al-Maghili was from the town of Tlemcen in present-day Algeria and taught for

1216-813: A converted Douglas DC-3 and one British de Havilland Dove . In 1968 the Swedish pilot Carl Gustaf von Rosen suggested the MiniCOIN project to General Ojukwu. By early 1969, Biafra had assembled five MFI-9Bs in neighbouring Gabon , calling them the "Biafra Babies". They were painted in green camouflage and armed with two Matra Type 122 rocket pods, each being able to carry six 68 mm SNEB anti-armour rockets under each wing and had Swedish WW2 reflex sights from old FFVS J 22s . The six aeroplanes were flown by three Swedish pilots and three Biafran pilots. In September 1969, Biafra acquired four ex-French North American T-6 Texans (T-6G) , which were flown to Biafra

1368-487: A desire for full independence; or if they lacked such control over their territory, they were recognized by at least one other recognized nation. The criteria for inclusion in this list are similar to those of the list of states with limited recognition . To be included here, a polity must have claimed sovereignty , have not been recognized by at least one widely accepted state for a significant portion of its de facto existence, and either: The total number of countries in

1520-605: A functioning governmental system during the period of secession. Biafra was formally recognised by Gabon , Haiti , Ivory Coast , Tanzania , and Zambia . Other nations, that did not officially recognise Biafra, but granted de facto recognition in the form of diplomatic support or military aid, included France , Spain , Portugal , Norway , Israel , Rhodesia , South Africa , and Vatican City . Biafra received aid from non-state actors , including Joint Church Aid, foreign mercenaries , Holy Ghost Fathers of Ireland, Caritas Internationalis , and Catholic Relief Services of

1672-575: A kind of university. Muhammad Rumfa was the Sultan of the Sultanate of Kano , located in modern-day Kano State , Northern Nigeria . He reigned from 1463 until 1499. Among Rumfa's accomplishments were extending the city walls, building a large palace, the Gidan Rumfa , promoting slaves to governmental positions and establishing the great Kurmi Market , which is still in use today. Kurmi Market

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1824-533: A large swathe of west Africa such as Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, etc.. Muslim scholars of the early 19th century disapproved of the hybrid religion practiced in royal courts. A desire for reform contributed to the formation of the Sokoto Caliphate . The formation of this state strengthened Islam in rural areas. The Hausa people have been an important factor for the spread of Islam in West Africa. Today,

1976-593: A less centralised union of regions. The Northerners were at odds with this agreement that was known as the Aburi Accords ; Obafemi Awolowo , the leader of the Western Region warned that if the Eastern Region seceded, the Western Region would also, which persuaded the northerners. Now, therefore, I, Lieutenant-Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, Military Governor of Eastern Nigeria, by virtue of

2128-403: A matching blouse, head tie (kallabi) and shawl (Gyale). Like other Muslims and specifically Sahelians within West Africa, Hausa women traditionally use Henna (lalle) designs painted onto the hand instead of nail-polish. A shared tradition with other Afro-Asiatic speakers like Berbers , Habesha , (ancient) Egyptians and Arab peoples, both Hausa men and women use kohl ('kwalli') around

2280-583: A period of two days in connection with events marking Biafran Remembrance Day. The Nigerian military killed at least 17 unarmed Biafrans in the city of Onitsha prior to a march on 30 May 2016 commemorating the 49th anniversary of Biafra's 1967 declaration of independence. Another group is the Biafra Nations League, formerly known as Biafra Nations Youth League, which has its operational base in Bakassi Peninsula . The group

2432-519: A possible common ancestry of Nilo-Saharan speaking populations from an eastern Sudanese homeland within the past ≈10,500 years, with subsequent bi-directional migration westward to Lake Chad and southward into modern day southern Sudan, and more recent migration eastward into Kenya and Tanzania ≈3,000 ya (giving rise to Southern Nilotic speakers) and westward into Chad ≈2,500 ya (giving rise to Central Sudanic speakers) (S62, S65, S67, S74). A proposed migration of proto-Chadic Afroasiatic speakers ≈7,000 ya from

2584-416: A researcher of Nigerian martial art culture recognizes striking similarities in stance and single wrapped fist of Hausa boxers to images of ancient Egyptian boxers from the 12th and 13th dynasties. It originally started out among the lower class of Hausa butcher caste groups and later developed into a way of practicing military skills and then into sporting events through generations of Northern Nigerians. It

2736-441: A result of the geography and the criss crossing network of traditional African trade routes, have had their cultures heavily influenced by their Hausa neighbours, as noted by T.L. Hodgkin "The great advantage of Kano is that commerce and manufactures go hand in hand, and that almost every family has a share in it. There is something grand about this industry, which spreads to the north as far as Murzuk , Ghat and even Tripoli , to

2888-511: A rich and particular mode of dressing, food, language, marriage system , education system, traditional architecture, sports, music and other forms of traditional entertainment. The Hausa language , a member of Afroasiatic family of languages, has more first-language speakers than any other African language . It has around 50 million first-language speakers, and close to 30 million second-language speakers. The main Hausa-speaking area

3040-765: A series of ethnic tensions and military coups after Nigerian independence in 1960 that culminated in the 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom . The Nigerian military proceeded in an attempt to reclaim the territory of Biafra, resulting in the start of the Nigerian Civil War . Biafra was officially recognised by Gabon , Haiti , Ivory Coast , Tanzania , and Zambia while receiving de facto recognition and covert military support from France , Portugal , Israel , South Africa and Rhodesia . After nearly three years of war, during which around two million Biafran civilians died, president Ojukwu fled into exile in Ivory Coast as

3192-621: A type of shirt called tagguwa (long and short slip). The oral tradition regarding the tagguwa is that during the age when Hausawa were using leaves and animal skin to cover their private parts, a man called Guwa decided to cut the centre of the animal skin and wear it like a shirt instead of just covering his privates. People around to Guwa became interested in his new style and decided to copy it. They called it 'Ta Guwa', meaning "similar to Guwa". It eventually evolved to become Tagguwa. Men also wear colourful embroidered caps known as hula. Depending on their location and occupation, they may wear

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3344-568: A very controversial move, Ajami was removed from the new 100 Naira banknote. Nevertheless, the Hausa remain preeminent in Niger and Northern Nigeria . Hausas in the narrow sense are indigenous of Kasar Hausa (Hausaland) who are found in West Africa. Within the Hausa, a distinction is made between three subgroups: Habe, Hausa-Fulani (Kado), and Banza or Banza 7. According to a Y-DNA study by Hassan et al. (2008), about 47% of Hausa in Sudan carry

3496-544: A while in Katsina, which had become a centre of learning at this time, when he visited the town in the late 15th century during the reign of Muhammadu Korau. He and Korau discussed the idea of building a mosque to serve as a centre for spiritual and intellectual activities. The Gobarau mosque was designed and built to reflect the Timbuktu-style of architecture. It became an important centre for learning, attracting scholars and students from far and wide, and later served as

3648-532: Is among the oldest and largest local markets in Africa. It used to serve as an international market where North African goods were exchanged for domestic goods through trans-Saharan trade. Muhammad Rumfa was also responsible for much of the Islamisation of Kano, as he urged prominent residents to convert. The legendary Queen Amina (or Aminatu) is believed to have ruled Zazzau between the 15th century and

3800-502: Is available as course of study in northern Nigerian universities . In addition, several advanced degrees (Masters and PhD) are offered in Hausa in various universities in the UK , US , and Germany . Hausa is also being used in various social media networks around the world. Hausa is considered one of the world's major languages, and it has widespread use in a number of countries of Africa . Hausa's rich poetry, prose, and musical literature

3952-517: Is estimated that a total of £115–140 million Biafran pounds were in circulation by the end of the conflict, with a population of about 14 million, approximately £10 per person. At the beginning of the war Biafra had 3,000 soldiers, but at the end of the war, the soldiers totalled 30,000. There was no official support for the Biafran Army by any other nation throughout the war, although arms were clandestinely acquired. Because of

4104-544: Is increasingly available in print and in audio and video recordings. The study of Hausa provides an informative entry into the culture of Islamic Africa. Throughout Africa, there is a strong connection between Hausa and Islam. The influence of the Hausa language on the languages of many non-Hausa Muslim peoples in Africa is readily apparent. Likewise, many Hausa cultural practices, including such overt features as dress and food, are shared by other Muslim communities. Because of

4256-526: Is led by Princewill Chimezie Richard, alias Prince Obuka, and Ebuta Akor Takon (not to be mistaken by its former Deputy, Ebuta Ogar Takon). The group also has a Chief of Staff and operational commander who are both natives of the Bakassi . BNL have recorded a series of security clamp downs, especially in Bakassi where soldiers of 'Operations Delta Safe' apprehended the National Leader, Princewill, in

4408-432: Is northern Nigeria and southern Niger . Hausa is also widely spoken in northern Ghana , Cameroon , Chad , and Ivory Coast as well as among Fulani , Tuareg , Kanuri , Gur , Shuwa Arab , and other Afro-Asiatic , Niger-Congo , and Nilo-Saharan speaking groups. There are also large Hausa communities in every major African city in neighbourhoods called zango s or zongo s, meaning "caravan camp" in Hausa (denoting

4560-619: Is not a crime in Nigerian law. According to the South-East Based Coalition of Human Rights Organisations, security forces under the directive of the federal government have killed 80 members of the Indigenous People of Biafra and their supporters between 30 August 2015 and 9 February 2016 in a renewed clampdown on the campaign. A report by Amnesty International between August 2015 and August 2016, at least 150 pro-Biafran activists overall were killed by Nigerian security forces, with 60 people shot in

4712-589: Is now southern Nigeria, causing the Igbo citizenry to trust the Nigerian security forces even less than before. The Republic of Biafra comprised over 29,848 square miles (77,310 km) of land, with terrestrial borders shared with Nigeria to the north and west, and with Cameroon to the east. Its coast is on the Gulf of Guinea of the South Atlantic Ocean in the south. The country's northeast bordered

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4864-400: Is then richly embroidered in traditional patterns. It has been suggested that these African techniques were the inspiration for the tie-dyed garments identified with hippie fashion. The traditional dress of the Hausa consists of loose flowing gowns and trousers. The gowns have wide openings on both sides for ventilation. The trousers are loose at the top and center, but rather tight around

5016-507: Is ubiquitous in northern Nigeria and southern Niger, and radio stations in Cameroon have regular Hausa broadcasts, as do international broadcasters such as the BBC, VOA, Deutsche Welle, Radio Moscow , Radio Beijing, RFI France, IRIB Iran IRIB World Service , and others Hausa is used as the language of instruction at the elementary level in schools in northern Nigeria, and Hausa

5168-534: The African continent varies due to the instability throughout the region. See the List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa article for a current list. Great instability was created by graft under leaders in West Africa . Many leaders marginalised ethnic groups and fanned ethnic conflicts (some of which had been exacerbated, or even created, by colonial rule) for political gain. In many countries,

5320-727: The Battle of Mhlatuze River . Located in Tswana territory west of the Transvaal , Goshen existed as an independent nation for a short period; from 1882 to 1883 as the State of Goshen and, after unification with neighbouring Stellaland , as the United States of Stellaland [REDACTED] Republic of South Peru , [REDACTED] Republic of North Peru and [REDACTED] Peru-Bolivian Confederation General José Desiderio Valverde

5472-849: The Benue Hills and mountains that lead to Cameroon. Three major rivers flow from Biafra into the Gulf of Guinea: the Imo River , the Cross River and the Niger River . The territory of the Republic of Biafra is covered nowadays by the reorganised Nigerian states of Akwa Ibom , Rivers , Cross River , Bayelsa , Ebonyi , Enugu , Anambra , Imo , Abia , Delta and southern Kogi and Benue states. The languages of Biafra were Igbo , Anaang, Efik, Ibibio, Ogoni, and Ijaw However, English

5624-701: The Center for World Indigenous Studies reported that government-sanctioned killings were taking place in the southeastern city of Onitsha , because of a shoot-to-kill policy directed toward Biafrans, particularly members of the MASSOB. The Nigerian federal government accuses MASSOB of violence; MASSOB's leader, Ralph Uwazuruike, was arrested in 2005 and was detained on treason charges. He has since been released and has been rearrested and released more than five times. In 2009, MASSOB leader Chief Uwazuruike launched an unrecognised "Biafran International Passport" and also launched

5776-660: The Igbo , Hausa and Yoruba tribes using X-STR analysis, found that when studying the genetic affinity, no significant differences were detected. It supported a homogeneity of Nigerian ethnic groups for X-chromosome markers. In 2024, a paper similarly found homogeneity in the Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa in Nigeria for X-Chromosomes (mtDNA). However, differences in the Hausa were found for the Y-Chromosome, where they had more paternal lineages associated with Afro-Asiatic speakers, while

5928-786: The Indigenous People of Biafra , the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra , and the Biafra Zionist Front . Early modern maps of Africa from the 15th to the 19th centuries, drawn from accounts written by explorers and travellers, show references to Biafar, Biafara, Biafra, and Biafares. According to the maps, the European travellers used the word Biafara to describe

6080-474: The Niger River delta and along the Niger River . The international humanitarian organisation Médecins Sans Frontières originated in response to the suffering in Biafra. During the crisis, French medical volunteers, in addition to Biafran health workers and hospitals, were subjected to attacks by the Nigerian army and witnessed civilians being murdered and starved by the blockading forces. French doctor Bernard Kouchner also witnessed these events, particularly

6232-532: The Second Congo War ; this conflict and its aftermath have killed an estimated 5.5 million people. Since 2003 there has been an ongoing conflict in Darfur which has become a humanitarian disaster. Another notable tragic event is the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which an estimated 800,000 people were murdered. AIDS in post-colonial Africa has also been a prevalent issue. In the 21st century, however,

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6384-586: The Timbuktu Manuscripts written in the Ajami script have been discovered recently, some of them describing constellations and calendars . The Gobarau Minaret was built in the 15th century in Katsina . It is a 50-foot edifice located in the centre of the city of Katsina , the capital of Katsina State . The Gobarau minaret, a symbol of the state, is an early example of Islamic architecture in

6536-759: The Tuareg (in Agadez , Maradi and Zinder ); the Gur and Gonja (in northeastern Ghana , Burkina Faso , northern Togo and upper Benin ); Gwari (in central Nigeria); and the Mandinka , Bambara , Dioula and Soninke (in Mali , Senegal , Gambia , Ivory Coast and Guinea ). All of these various ethnic groups among and around the Hausa live in the vast and open lands of the Sahel , Saharan and Sudanian regions, and as

6688-663: The United States and the Soviet Union , over-reliance on foreign aid, as well as the policies of the International Monetary Fund. When a country became independent for the first time, it would often align itself with one of the two superpowers in order to get support. Many countries in Northern Africa received Soviet military aid, while many in Central and Southern Africa were supported by

6840-477: The Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO). The Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) is a separatist group in Nigeria that aims to restore the defunct Republic of Biafra , a country which seceded from Nigeria in 1967 prior to the Nigerian Civil War and was subsequently dissolved following its defeat in 1970. Since 2021, IPOB and other Biafran separatist groups have been fighting

6992-720: The West Eurasian haplogroup R1b . The remainder belong to various African paternal lineages: 15.6% B , 12.5% A and 12.5% E1b1a . A small minority of around 4% are E1b1b clade bearers, a haplogroup which is most common in North Africa and the Horn of Africa . A more recent study on Hausa of Arewa (Northern Nigeria ) revealed similar results: 47% E1b1a , 5% E1b1b , 21% other Haplogroup E ( E-M33 , E-M75 ...), 18% R1b and 9% B . In terms of overall ancestry, an autosomal DNA study by Tishkoff et al. (2009) found

7144-703: The language . Historically, Katsina was the centre of Hausa Islamic scholarship but was later replaced by Sokoto stemming from the 19th century Usman Dan Fodio Islamic reform. The Hausa are culturally and historically closest to other Sahelian ethnic groups, primarily the Fula ; the Zarma and Songhai (in Tillabery , Tahoua and Dosso in Niger ); the Kanuri and Shuwa Arabs (in Chad , Sudan and northeastern Nigeria);

7296-512: The trading post origins of these communities). Most Hausa speakers, regardless of ethnic affiliation, are Muslims ; Hausa often serves as a lingua franca among Muslims in non-Hausa areas. There is a large and growing printed literature in Hausa, which includes novels, poetry, plays, instruction in Islamic practice, books on development issues, newspapers, news magazines, and technical academic works. Radio and television broadcasting in Hausa

7448-441: The 11th century — giving rise to famous native Sufi saints and scholars such as Wali Muhammad dan Masani (d.1667) and Wali Muhammad dan Marina (d. 1655) in Katsina — mostly among long-distance traders to North Africa whom in turn had spread it to common people while the ruling class had remained largely pagan or mixed their practice of Islam with pagan practices. By the 14th century, Hausa traders were already spreading Islam across

7600-628: The 14th century, Islam was becoming widespread in Hausaland as Wangara scholars, scholars and traders from Mali and scholars and traders from the Maghreb brought the religion with them. By the early 15th century, the Hausa were using a modified Arabic script known as ajami to record their own language. The Hausa compiled several written histories, the most popular being the Kano Chronicle . Many medieval Hausa manuscripts similar to

7752-413: The 16th century for a period of 34 years. Amina was 16 years old when her mother, Bakwa Turunku became queen and she was given the traditional title of Magajiya , an honorific borne by the daughters of monarchs. She honed her military skills and became famous for her bravery and military exploits, as she is celebrated in song as "Amina, daughter of Nikatau, a woman as capable as a man." Amina is credited as

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7904-460: The 1890s that "Settlements of Hausa-speaking people are to be found in Alexandria, Tripoli, [and] Tunis." The table below shows Hausa ethnic population distribution by country of indigenization , outside of Nigeria and Niger: Daura , in northern Nigeria , is the oldest city of Hausaland . The Hausa of Gobir , also in northern Nigeria, speak the oldest surviving classical vernacular of

8056-514: The 18th century in the area around Senegal and Gambia. In his personal writings from his travels, a Rev. Charles W. Thomas defined the locations of islands in the Bight of Biafra as "between the parallels of longitude 5° and 9° East and latitude 4° North and 2° South ". In 1960, Nigeria became independent of the United Kingdom . As with many other new African states,

8208-446: The 7th century, the Dalla Hill in Kano was the site of a Hausa community that migrated from Gaya and engaged in iron-working. The Hausa Bakwai kingdoms were established around the 7th to 11th centuries. Of these, the Kingdom of Daura was the first, according to the Bayajidda legend. However, the legend of Bayajidda is a relatively new concept in the history of the Hausa people that gained traction and official recognition under

8360-491: The Bank of Biafra started printing out its own notes, the Biafran pound . The new currency went public on 28 January 1968, and the Nigerian pound was not accepted as an exchange unit. The first issue of the bank notes included only 5 shillings notes and 1 pound notes. The Bank of Nigeria exchanged only 30 pounds for an individual and 300 pounds for enterprises in the second half of 1968. In 1969, new notes were introduced: £ 10, £5, £1, 10 /- and 5/-. It

8512-404: The British authorities, who had expected the Hausa to turn to cotton production. However, the Hausa had sufficient agricultural expertise to realise cotton required more labour and the European prices offered for groundnuts were more attractive than those for cotton. "Within two years the peasant farmers of Hausaland were producing so many tonnes of groundnuts that the railway was unable to cope with

8664-537: The Broadcasting Organisation of Nigerian and Nigerian Communications Commission, has sought to clamp down on Radio Biafra with limited success. On 17 November 2015, the Abia state police command seized an Indigenous People of Biafra radio transmitter in Umuahia . On 23 December 2015, Kanu was detained and charged with charges that amounted to treason against the Nigerian state. He was released on bail on 24 April 2017 after spending more than 19 months without trial of his treason charges. Self-determination

8816-437: The Cameroon. The Deputy Leader, Ebuta Akor Takon is an Ejagham native, a tribe in Nigeria and also in significant number in Cameroon. BnL, which operates more in the Gulf of Guinea, has links with Dokubo Asari, a former militant leader. About 100 members of the group were reportedly arrested in Bayelsa during a meeting with Dokubo on 18 August 2019. The Incorporated Trustees of Bilie Human Rights Initiative, representing

8968-423: The German offensive, was evacuated to Russian city Kazan in October 1917. In spite of the initial total dependence of this client state on its sponsors, After their overthrow, the Baku commissars attempted to leave Baku but were captured by the Centrocaspian Dictatorship and imprisoned. On 14 September 1918, during the fall of Baku to Ottoman forces, Red Army soldiers broke into their prison and freed

9120-437: The Hausa language. The ancient Kano city walls were built in order to provide security to the growing population. The foundation for the construction of the wall was laid by Sarki Gijimasu from 1095 through 1134 and was completed in the middle of the 14th century. In the 16th century, the walls were further extended to their present position. The gates are as old as the walls and were used to control movement of people in and out of

9272-568: The Hausa to be most closely related to Nilo-Saharan populations from Chad and South Sudan . This suggests that the Hausa and other modern Chadic-speaking populations originally spoke Nilo-Saharan languages, before adopting languages from the Afroasiatic family after migration into that area thousands of years ago: From K = 5-13, all Nilo-Saharan speaking populations from southern Sudan, and Chad cluster with west-central Afroasiatic Chadic-speaking populations (Fig. S15). These results are consistent with linguistic and archeological data, suggesting

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9424-405: The Hausa, as they have long intermarried, they share the Islamic religion and more than half of all Nigerian Fulani have integrated into Hausa culture. British colonial administrator Frederick Lugard exploited rivalries between many of the emirs in the south and the central Sokoto administration to counter possible defence efforts as his men marched toward the capital. As the British approached

9576-425: The Ikang-Cameroon border area on 9 November 2016. During an attempt to mobilise a protest in support of Kanu's release, he was again re-arrested by the Nigeria Police Force in the same area on 16 January 2018 along with 20 of their supporters. Many media outlets reported that BnL is linked to the Southern Cameroons separatists ; although the group confirms this, they denied involvement in violent activities in

9728-430: The Indigenous People of Biafra, have filed a lawsuit against the Federal Government of Nigeria and Attorney General of the Federation, seeking the actualisation of the sovereign state of Biafra by legal means. The Federal High Court, Abuja has fixed 25 February 2019 for hearing the suit. On 31 July 2020, the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra/Biafra Independence Movement (BIM-MASSOB) joined

9880-565: The Islamic government and institutions that were newly established after the 1804 Usman dan Fodio Jihad. The Hausa Kingdoms were independent political entities in what is now Northern Nigeria . The Hausa city states emerged as southern terminals of the Trans-Saharan caravan trade. Like other cities such as Gao and Timbuktu in the Mali Empire , these city states became centres of long-distance trade. Hausa merchants in each of these cities collected trade items from domestic areas such as leather, dyed cloth, horse gear, metal locks and kola nuts from

10032-474: The Kano Chronicle, "The Sarkin Nupe sent her (i.e. the princess) 40 eunuchs and 10,000 kola nuts." From 1804 to 1808, the Fulani , another Islamic African ethnic group that spanned West Africa and have settled in Hausaland since the early 1500s, with support of already oppressed Hausa peasants revolted against oppressive cattle tax and religious persecution under the new king of Gobir , whose predecessor and father had tolerated Muslim evangelists and even favoured

10184-401: The Lagos Guardian newspaper reported that the former president Olusegun Obasanjo commuted to retirement the dismissal of all military persons, soldiers and officers, who fought for the breakaway Republic of Biafra during Nigeria's 1967–1970 civil war. In a national broadcast, he said the decision was based on the belief that "justice must at all times be tempered with mercy". In July 2006,

10336-538: The Nigerian Terrorism Act but the declaration was nullified by a High Court sitting in Enugu in 2023. As of May 2022, the United Kingdom started denying asylum to members of IPOB who allegedly engaged in human rights abuses, though the U.K. government clarified that IPOB had not been designated as a terrorist organisation. IPOB has criticized the Nigerian federal government for poor investment, political alienation, inequitable resource distribution, ethnic marginalization, and heavy military presence, extrajudicial killings in

10488-409: The Nigerian military approached the capital of Biafra. Philip Effiong became the second president of Biafra , and he oversaw the surrender of Biafran forces to Nigeria. Igbo nationalism became a strong political and social force after the civil war. It has grown more militant since the 1990s, calling for the revival of Biafra as an entity. Various Biafran secessionist groups have emerged, such as

10640-431: The PRRI on 17 February 1958. It existed from 5 February (following the popular uprising in Bologna , when the temporal power of the Pope and the Emilian Dukes were declared to be revoked) until 26 April, the day the city of Ancona was taken by the Austrian troops. Because Courland was under German military occupation since the summer of 1915, the Council was created in Estonian city of Tartu , and following

10792-418: The Sokoto Caliphate was divided among the control of the British, French, and Germans under the terms of the Berlin Conference . The British established the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to govern the region, which included most of the Sokoto empire and its most important emirates. Under Lugard, the various emirs were provided significant local autonomy, thus retaining much of the political organisation of

10944-566: The Sokoto Caliphate. The Sokoto area was treated as just another emirate within the Nigerian Protectorate. Because it was never connected with the railway network, it became economically and politically marginal. The Sultan of Sokoto continued to be regarded as an important Muslim spiritual and religious position; the lineage connection to dan Fodio has continued to be recognised. One of the most significant Sultans

11096-480: The South-Eastern, South-Central and parts of North-Central regions of the country. The organization rose to prominence in the mid-2010s and is now the largest Biafran independence organization by membership. In recent years, it has gained significant media attention for becoming a frequent target of political crackdowns by the Nigerian government . It also has numerous sites and communication channels serving as

11248-493: The Tuareg and the Hausa groups are indistinguishable from each other in their traditional clothing; both wear the tagelmust and indigo Babban Riga/Gandora . But the two groups differ in language, lifestyle and preferred beasts of burden (the Tuareg use camels , while Hausa ride horses ). Other Hausa have influenced other ethnic groups southwards and in similar fashion to their Sahelian neighbors, which have heavily influenced

11400-764: The United States, France or both. The 1970s saw an escalation, as newly independent Angola and Mozambique aligned themselves with the Soviet Union, and the West and South Africa sought to contain Soviet influence by funding insurgency movements. There was a major famine in Ethiopia , when hundreds of thousands of people starved. Some claimed that Marxist/Soviet policies made the situation worse. The most devastating military conflict in modern independent Africa has been

11552-444: The United States. Doctors Without Borders also originated in response to the suffering. Although the government of the United States under the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson maintained an official neutral stance during the war, there was strong public support for Biafra in the United States. The American Committee to Keep Biafra Alive was founded by American activists to spread pro-Biafran propaganda. U.S. president Richard Nixon

11704-531: The West, not only to Timbuctu , but in some degree even as far as the shores of the Atlantic, the very inhabitants of Arguin dressing in the cloth woven and dyed in Kano ; to the east, all over Borno , ...and to the south...it invades the whole of Adamawa and is only limited by the pagans who wear no clothing." In clear testimony to T. L Hodgkin's claim, the people of Agadez and Saharan areas of central Niger,

11856-626: The Western political crisis, the Western Region was divided as Ladoke Akintola clashed with Obafemi Awolowo . Widespread reports of fraud tarnished the election's legitimacy. Westerners especially resented the political domination of the Northern People's Congress, many of whose candidates ran unopposed in the election. Violence spread throughout the country, and some began to flee the North and West, some to Dahomey . The apparent domination of

12008-673: The Yoruba and Igbo were paternally related to other Niger-Congo speaking groups. Specifically, in the 135 Yoruba and 134 Igbo males, E-M2 was seen at high rates of 90%. In contrast, the 89 Hausa males had E-M2 at 43%, and frequencies for R1b-V88 at 32%, A 9%, E1a 6%, B 5%, and another 5% being made of other lineages. The Hausa cultural practices stand unique in Nigeria and have withstood the test of time due to strong traditions, cultural pride as well as an efficient precolonial native system of government. Consequently, and in spite of strong competition from western European culture as adopted by their southern Nigerian counterparts , have maintained

12160-517: The administration of foreign exchange and the management of the public debt of the Republic. The bank was administered by a governor and four directors; the first governor, who signed on bank notes, was Sylvester Ugoh . A second decree, "Decree No. 4 of 1967", modified the Banking Act of the Federal Republic of Nigeria for the Republic of Biafra. The bank was first located in Enugu, but due to

12312-464: The agreement and unilaterally declared the creation of several new states including some that gerrymandered the Igbos in Biafra. On 26 May, Ojukwu decreed to secede from Nigeria after consultations with community leaders from across the Eastern Region. Four days later, Ojukwu unilaterally declared the independence of the Republic of Biafra, citing the Igbos killed in the post-coup violence as reasons for

12464-415: The architectural overseer who created the strong earthen walls that surround her city, which were the prototype for the fortifications used in all Hausa states. She subsequently built many of these fortifications, which became known as ganuwar Amina or Amina's walls, around various conquered cities. The objectives of her conquests were twofold: extension of her nation beyond its primary borders and reducing

12616-416: The authority, and pursuant to the principles, recited above, do hereby solemnly proclaim that the territory and region known as and called Eastern Nigeria together with her continental shelf and territorial waters shall henceforth be an independent sovereign state of the name and title of "The Republic of Biafra". Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu After returning to Nigeria, the federal government reneged on

12768-446: The borders of the country did not reflect earlier ethnic, cultural, religious, or political boundaries. Thus, the northern region of the country has a Muslim majority, being primarily made up of territory of the indigenous Sokoto Caliphate . The southern population is predominantly Christian , being primarily made up of territory of the indigenous Yoruba and Igbo states in the west and east respectively. Following independence, Nigeria

12920-436: The capital of the so-called republic, outside the city of Santiago de los Caballeros. The constitution of Moca consecrated free transit and freedom of peaceful assembly. That the government would be civil, republican, popular, representative, elective and responsible, and every citizen with the right to vote could do it directly and secretly, instead of the indirect way as established by the previous constitutions. In addition,

13072-628: The central Sahara into the Lake Chad Basin may have caused many western Nilo-Saharans to shift to Chadic languages (S99). Our data suggest that this shift was not accompanied by large amounts of Afroasiatic16 gene flow. Analyses of mtDNA provide evidence for divergence ≈8,000 ya of a distinct mtDNA lineage present at high frequency in the Chadic populations and suggest an East African origin for most mtDNA lineages in these populations (S100) . A study from 2019 that genotyped 218 unrelated males from

13224-407: The cheeks. Common traditional dressing in Hausa men Common modern dressing in Hausa women The architecture of the Hausa is perhaps one of the least known of the medieval age. Many of their early mosques and palaces are bright and colourful, including intricate engraving or elaborate symbols designed into the facade This architectural style is known as Tubali which means architecture in

13376-478: The city of Sokoto, the new Sultan Muhammadu Attahiru I organised a quick defence of the city and fought the advancing British-led forces. The British emerged triumphant, sending Attahiru I and thousands of followers on a Mahdist hijra . On 13 March 1903 at the grand market square of Sokoto, the last Vizier of the Caliphate officially conceded to British rule. The British appointed Muhammadu Attahiru II as

13528-410: The city. Hausa buildings are characterized by the use of dry mud bricks in cubic structures, multi-storied buildings for the social elite, the use of parapets related to their military/fortress building past, and traditional white stucco and plaster for house fronts. At times the facades may be decorated with various abstract relief designs, sometimes painted in vivid colours to convey information about

13680-650: The closure of the Puerto Rican campaign during the Spanish–American War but were unable to secure independence The state de facto ceased to exist after the formation of the Far Eastern Republic , which divided Buryat-Mongolia in two: 4 aimags became part of the Far Eastern Republic , while the other 4 formed Buryat-Mongol autonomies of RSFSR. It was granted independence at midnight of 14 August 1947. From 14 August 1947 to October 1949,

13832-682: The commissars; they then boarded a ship to Krasnovodsk , where they were promptly arrested by local authorities and, on the night of 20 September, executed by a firing squad between the stations of Pereval and Akhcha-Kuyma on the Transcaspian Railway by soldiers of the Ashkhabad Committee . They were executed for essentially letting the Islamic Army of the Caucasus seize Baku. The Eastern Slovak National Council

13984-408: The conquered cities to a vassal status. Sultan Muhammad Bello of Sokoto stated that, "She made war upon these countries and overcame them entirely so that the people of Katsina paid tribute to her and the men of Kano and... also made war on cities of Bauchi till her kingdom reached to the sea in the south and the west." Likewise, she led her armies as far as Kwararafa and Nupe and, according to

14136-576: The country to elect the deputies as of December 7, 1857. At that time the women and men of greater intellectual capacity in the Cibao wished to produce a constitution that would allow an authentically democratic and representative government by the people. "The new constitution was drafted in Moca and proclaimed on February 19, 1858." That day, the Constituent Assembly meeting in Moca proclaimed

14288-409: The cultures of these groups. Islamic Shari'a law is loosely the law of the land in Hausa areas, well-understood by any Islamic scholar or teacher, known in Hausa as a m'allam , mallan or malam (see Maulana ). This pluralist attitude toward ethnic identity and cultural affiliation has enabled the Hausa to inhabit one of the largest geographic regions of non- Bantu ethnic groups in Africa. In

14440-497: The current Sultan of Sokoto is regarded as the traditional religious leader ( Sarkin Musulmi ) of Sunni Hausa–Fulani in Nigeria and beyond. Maguzanci , an African Traditional Religion , was practised extensively before Islam. In the more remote areas of Hausaland, the people continue to practise Maguzanci. Closer to urban areas, it is not as common, but with elements still held among the beliefs of urban dwellers. Practices include

14592-432: The declaration of independence. It is believed this was one of the major factors that sparked the war. The large amount of oil in the region also created conflict, as oil was already becoming a major component of the Nigerian economy. Biafra was ill-equipped for war, with fewer army personnel and less equipment than the Nigerian military, but had advantages over the Nigerian state as they were fighting in their homeland and had

14744-534: The dominant position which the Hausa language and culture have long held, the study of Hausa provides crucial background for other areas such as African history, politics (particularly in Nigeria and Niger), gender studies, commerce, and the arts. Sunni Islam of the Maliki madhhab, is the predominant and historically established religion of the Hausa people. Islam has been present in Hausaland since as early as

14896-546: The early 20th century by the British (mostly) and French colonial authorities. Since the 1950s, boko has been the main alphabet for Hausa. Arabic script ( ajami ) is now only used in Islamic schools and for Islamic literature. Today millions of Hausa-speaking people, who can read and write in Ajami only, are considered illiterates by the Nigerian government. Despite this, Hausa Ajami is present on Naira banknotes. In 2014, in

15048-430: The eldest son of ex-President / General Ojukwu and a Lagos state-based lawyer was the lead counsel that championed the case. MASSOB leader Chief Ralph Uwazuruike established Radio Biafra in the United Kingdom in 2009, with Nnamdi Kanu as his radio director; later Kanu was said to have been dismissed from MASSOB because of accusations of supporting violence. The Nigerian Government, through its broadcasting regulators,

15200-550: The event: At Jos in 1945, a sudden and savage attack by Northerners took the Easterners completely by surprise, and before the situation could be brought under control, the bodies of Eastern women, men, and children littered the streets and their property worth thousands of pounds reduced to shambles Three hundred Igbo people were murdered in the Jos riots. In 1953 a similar riot occurred in Kano . A decade later in 1964 and during

15352-432: The eyes as an eye shadow, with the area below the eye receiving a thicker line than that of the top. Also, similar to Berber, Bedouin , Zarma and Fulani women, Hausa women traditionally use kohl to accentuate facial symmetry. This is usually done by drawing a vertical line from below the bottom lip down to the chin. Other designs may include a line along the bridge of the nose, or a single pair of small symmetrical dots on

15504-487: The favoured Western Region politician Obafemi Awolowo were not killed. The commander of the army, General Aguiyi Ironsi seized power to maintain order. In July 1966, northern officers and army units staged a countercoup, killing General Aguiyi Ironsi and several southern officers. The predominantly Muslim officers named a General from a small ethnic group (the Angas) in central Nigeria, General Yakubu "Jack" Gowon , as

15656-604: The following month, with another aircraft lost on the ferry flight. These aircraft flew missions until January 1970 and were flown by Portuguese ex-military pilots. Biafra also had a small improvised navy, but it never gained the success that their air force did. It was headquartered in Kidney Island, Port Harcourt , and commanded by Winifred Anuku. The Biafran Navy was made up of captured craft, converted tugs, and armour-reinforced civilian vessels armed with machine guns or captured 6-pounder guns . It mainly operated in

15808-471: The governors of provinces could not be the commanders of arms as it was available until February 19, 1858. Under the constitution of Moca, the municipal power was restored and the Armed Forces were declared obedient to the civil power, without powers to deliberate and with the function of defending national sovereignty, public order, as well as observing and complying with the constitution and laws. It

15960-549: The head of the Federal Military Government (FMG). The two coups deepened Nigeria's ethnic tensions. In September 1966, approximately 30,000 Igbo civilians were killed in the north , and some Northerners were killed in backlashes in eastern cities. In January 1967, the military leaders Yakubu "Jack" Gowon , Chukwuemeka Ojukwu and senior police officials of each region met in Aburi , Ghana and agreed on

16112-522: The huge number of starving children, and, when he returned to France , he publicly criticised the Nigerian government and the Red Cross for their seemingly complicit behaviour. With the help of other French doctors, Kouchner put Biafra in the media spotlight and called for an international response to the situation. These doctors, led by Kouchner, concluded that a new aid organisation was needed that would ignore political/religious boundaries and prioritise

16264-587: The insurrectionist guerrilla forces of the Viet Cong in the American – Vietnamese War , targeting Nigerian Federal Army supply lines and forcing them to shift forces to internal security efforts. The Biafrans managed to set up a small yet effective air force. The BAF commander was Polish World War II ace Jan Zumbach . Early inventory included four World War II American bombers: two B-25 Mitchells , two B-26 Invaders (Douglas A-26) (one piloted by Zumbach),

16416-595: The lack of official support, the Biafrans manufactured many of their weapons locally. Europeans served in the Biafran cause; German-born Rolf Steiner was a lieutenant colonel assigned to the 4th Commando Brigade and Welshman Taffy Williams served as a Major until the very end of the conflict. A special guerrilla unit, the Biafran Organization of Freedom Fighters, was established, designed to emulate

16568-459: The largest impacts stem from adolescent exposure." The Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB) emerged in 1999 as a nonviolent Biafran nationalist group, associated with Igbo nationalism . The group enacted a "re-launch" of Biafra in Aba , the commercial centre of Abia State and a major commercial centre on Igbo land. MASSOB says it is a peaceful group and advertises

16720-488: The last 500 years, criss-crossed the vast landscape of Africa in all its four corners for varieties of reasons ranging from military service, long-distance trade, hunting, performance of hajj , fleeing from oppressive Hausa feudal kings as well as spreading Islam. Because the vast majority of Hausas and Hausa speakers are Muslims, many attempted to embark on the Hajj pilgrimage, a requirement of all Muslims who are able. On

16872-408: The leading Muslim cleric of the day, Sheikh Usman Dan Fodio whose life the new king had sought end. Sheikh Usman Dan Fodio fled Gobir and from his sanctuary declared Jihad on its king and all Habe dynasty kings for their alleged greed, paganism, injustices against the peasant class, use of heavy taxation and violation of the standards of Sharia law. The Fulani and Hausa cultural similarities as

17024-428: The legs. Leather sandals and turbans are also typical. The men are easily recognizable because of their elaborate dress which is a large flowing gown known as Babban riga also known by various other names due to adaptation by many ethnic groups neighboring the Hausa (see indigo Babban Riga/Gandora ). These large flowing gowns usually feature elaborate embroidery designs around the neck and chest area. They also wore

17176-422: The liberal constitution that repealed the conservative one of December 1854. Established public freedoms and abolished the death penalty for political reasons and enshrined as rights the freedom of expression, free transit and freedom of peaceful assembly. He did not re-elect the president in succession and absolute respect for civil liberties without restrictions, including freedom of expression. established that

17328-618: The military was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order, and it ruled many nations in Africa during the 1970s and early 1980s. During the period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s, Africa had more than 70 coups and 13 presidential assassinations. Border and territorial disputes were also common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts. A variety of other causes have been blamed for Africa's political instability, including Cold War conflicts between

17480-415: The most enlightened women and men of the country were chosen, whose thought corresponded to the movement proclaimed by the revolution of July 7, 1857, to overthrow the government of Buenaventura Báez, which they described as a dictatorship. Not to be confused with the earlier (1836–1845), partially recognized Republic of Texas . A group of anti-Spanish rebels also declared independence on 13 August 1898 in

17632-454: The new Caliph. Lugard abolished the Caliphate, but retained the title Sultan as a symbolic position in the newly organised Northern Nigeria Protectorate . In June 1903, the British defeated the remaining forces of Attahiru I, who was killed in action ; by 1906 resistance to British rule had ended with the conquest of Hadejia and the death of Sarki Muhammadu Mai Shahada of Hadejia as the last Emirate standing in Sokoto Caliphate . The area of

17784-490: The number of armed conflicts in Africa has steadily declined. For instance, the civil war in Angola came to an end in 2002 after nearly 30 years. The improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China, which has spurred quick economic growth in many countries, seemingly ending decades of stagnation and decline. Several African economies were among

17936-442: The occupant. The Hausa culture is rich in traditional sporting events such as boxing ( Dambe ), stick fight (Takkai), wrestling (Kokowa) etc. that were originally organized to celebrate harvests but over the generations developed into sporting events for entertainment purposes. Dambe is a brutal form of traditional martial art associated with the Hausa people of West Africa. Its origin is shrouded in mystery. However, Edward Powe,

18088-404: The ongoing war, it was relocated several times. Biafra attempted to finance the war through foreign exchange. After Nigeria announced its currency would no longer be legal tender (to make way for a new currency), this effort increased. After the announcement, tons of Nigerian bank notes were transported in an effort to acquire foreign exchange. The currency of Biafra had been the Nigerian pound until

18240-649: The only trusted social apparatus educating and inculcating first hand information and news to its members. An organization for the restoration of an independent Biafran state has been led by Simon Ekpa , a Finnish politician and Biafran political activist. Ekpa describes himself as Nnamdi Kanu's disciple. He serves as the leader ("prime minister") of the Biafra Republic Government in Exile (BRGIE), since 2023. In 2023, BRGIE inaugurated an administrative office in Maryland , United States. It initiated

18392-449: The political system by the North, and the chaos breaking out across the country, motivated elements within the military to consider decisive action. The federal government, dominated by Northern Nigeria, allowed the crisis to unfold with the intention of declaring a state of emergency and placing the Western Region under martial law. This administration of the Nigerian federal government was widely perceived to be corrupt. In January 1966,

18544-491: The process of declaring the restoration of Biafra and in October 2023, it convened a three-day convention where the possibility of a Biafra referendum was discussed, attended by over 500 Biafrans and delegates globally. On 1 February 2024, a digital E-Voting was adopted, and a self-referendum kick-started the same day. Within days of the referendum exercise, more than two million electorates were reportedly recorded. Prior to

18696-399: The provisional revolutionary government of the Cibao were commanded by General Juan Luis Franco Bidó. In a few days they surrounded the city of Santo Domingo, thus initiating a civil war. The hostilities lasted almost a year. The groups in conflict fought with all the means at their disposal to emerge victorious, increasing violence and destruction in the country. The triumph of the revolution

18848-569: The rain forest region to the south through trade or slave raiding , processed (and taxed) them and then sent them north to cities along the Mediterranean . By the 12th century AD, the Hausa were becoming one of Africa's major trading powers, competing with Kanem-Bornu and the Mali Empire . The primary exports were leather , gold , cloth , salt , kola nuts , slaves , animal hides, and henna . Certainly trade influenced religion. By

19000-400: The region of today's West Cameroon, including an area around today's Equatorial Guinea. The German publisher Johann Heinrich Zedler , in his encyclopedia of 1731 , published the exact geographical location of the capital of Biafara, namely alongside the river Rio dos Camaroes in today's Cameroon, underneath 6 degrees 10 min latitude. The words Biafara and Biafares also appear on maps from

19152-765: The region was de jure independent, before acceding to India on 15 October 1949. After intense diplomatic pressure, the Manipur King Bodhchandra Singh relented and acceded Manipur to India in 1949 following the Manipur Merger Agreement. Republic of South Maluku Although frequently referred to as the PRRI/Permesta rebellion, the Permesta rebels were a separate movement in Sulawesi , that had pledged allegiance with

19304-769: The revolt of the Don Cossacks and the German advance into the region as a result of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk , the republic was overthrown and its leaders fled. The Don Cossacks' Don Republic took over the territory of the Don Soviet Republi In June 2021, the nine jailed leaders were pardoned. Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez said that he pardoned them because it was the best decision for Spain and Catalonia, but did not overturn their bans from holding public office. Hausa people The Hausa have, in

19456-552: The sacrifice of animals for personal ends, but it is not legitimate to practise Maguzanci magic for harm. People of urbanized areas tend to retain a "cult of spirit possession ," known as Bori . It incorporates the old religion's elements of African Traditional Religion and magic . The Hausa were famous throughout the Middle Ages for their cloth weaving and dyeing, cotton goods, leather sandals, metal locks, horse equipment and leather-working and export of such goods throughout

19608-614: The self-referendum exercise, BRGIE had already inaugurated a committee for the Biafra restoration declaration process in January 2024. List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies These lists of historical unrecognized or partially recognized states or governments give an overview of extinct geopolitical entities that wished to be recognized as sovereign states , but did not enjoy worldwide diplomatic recognition . The entries listed here had de facto control over their claimed territory and were self-governing with

19760-532: The situation reached a breaking point. A military coup occurred during which a mixed but predominantly Igbo group of army officers assassinated 30 political leaders, including Nigeria's Prime Minister, Sir  Abubakar Tafawa Balewa , and the Northern premier, Sir  Ahmadu Bello . The four most senior officers of Northern origin were also killed. Nnamdi Azikiwe , the President, of Igbo extraction, and

19912-487: The support of most Biafrans. The FMG attacked Biafra on 6 July 1967. Nigeria's initial efforts were unsuccessful; the Biafrans successfully launched their own offensive, and expansion efforts; occupying areas in the mid-Western Region in August ;1967. This led to the creation of the Republic of Benin , a short lived puppet state. However, with the support of British, American and Soviet governments, Nigeria turned

20064-503: The surrender of Biafrans, some Igbos who had fled the conflict returned to their properties but were unable to claim them back from new occupants. This became law in the Abandoned Properties Act (28 September 1979). It was purported that at the start of the civil war, Igbos withdrew their funds from Nigerian banks and converted it to the Biafran currency. After the war, bank accounts owned by Biafrans were seized and

20216-481: The tide of the war. By October 1967, the FMG had regained the land after intense fighting. In September 1968, the federal army planned what Gowon described as the "final offensive". Initially, the final offensive was neutralised by Biafran troops. In the latter stages, a Southern FMG offensive managed to break through the fierce resistance. Due to the proliferation of television and international news organizations,

20368-625: The total blockade of the region by the Nigerian government, Biafran forces under Nigeria's motto of "No-victor, No-vanquished" surrendered to the Nigerian Federal Military Government (FMG) . The surrender was facilitated by the Biafran Vice President and Chief of General Staff, Major General Philip Effiong , who assumed leadership of the Republic of Biafra after the first President, Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu , fled to Ivory Coast . After

20520-509: The traffic. As a result, the European merchants in Kano had to stockpile sacks of groundnuts in the streets." (Shillington 338). The Boko script was implemented by the British and French colonial authorities and made the official Hausa alphabet in 1930. Boko is a Latin alphabet used to write the Hausa language . The first boko was devised by Europeans in the early 19th century, and developed in

20672-434: The turban around this to veil the face, called Alasho . The women can be identified by wrappers called zani, made with colourful cloth known as atampa or Ankara , (a descendant of early designs from the famous Tie-dye techniques the Hausa have for centuries been known for, named after the Hausa name for Accra the capital of what is now Ghana, and where an old Hausa speaking trading community still lives) accompanied by

20824-477: The war found a global audience. 1968 saw the images of malnourished and starving Biafran children reach the mass media of Western countries and led to non-governmental organisations become involved to provide humanitarian aid, leading to the Biafran airlift . After two-and-a-half years of war, during which almost two million Biafran civilians (three-quarters of them small children) died from starvation caused by

20976-474: The war in their growing years exhibit reduced adult stature, increased likelihood of being overweight, earlier age at first birth, and lower educational attainment. Exposure to a primary education program mitigates impacts of war exposure on education. War-exposed men marry later and have fewer children. War exposure of mothers (but not fathers) has adverse impacts on child growth, survival, and education. Impacts vary with age of exposure. For mother and child health,

21128-738: The way to or back from the Hijaz region, many settled, often indigenizing to some degree. For example, many Hausa in Saudi Arabia identify as both Hausa and Afro-Arab. In the Arab world, the surname "Hausawi" (alternatively spelled "Hawsawi") is an indicator of Hausa ancestry. The homeland of Hausa people is Hausaland ("Kasar Hausa"), situated in Northern Nigeria and Southern Niger. However, Hausa people are found throughout Africa and Western Asia. Cambridge scholar Charles Henry Robinson wrote in

21280-764: The welfare of victims. In their study Smallpox and its Eradication , Fenner and colleagues describe how vaccine supply shortages during the Biafra smallpox campaign led to the development of the focal vaccination technique, later adopted worldwide by the World Health Organization of the United Nations , which led to the early and cost-effective interruption of smallpox transmission in West Africa and elsewhere. In 2010, researchers from Karolinska Institutet in Sweden and University of Nigeria at Nsukka showed that Igbos born in Biafra during

21432-492: The west African region as well as to north Africa (Hausa leather was erroneously known to medieval Europe as Moroccan leather ). They were often characterized by their Indigo blue dressing and emblems which earned them the nickname "bluemen". They traditionally rode on fine Saharan camels and horses . Tie-dye techniques have been used in the Hausa region of West Africa for centuries with renowned indigo dye pits located in and around Kano , Nigeria . The tie-dyed clothing

21584-588: The world's fastest growing as of 2011 and that growth continues through 2019. In 1819, Zwide made another expedition against the Zulus, but Shaka again changed his tactics, letting the Ndwandwe army penetrate his territory and responding with guerrilla warfare. Shortage of supplies caused the Ndandwe to return home, but when they were crossing the river Mhlatuze in early 1820, their forces were split and defeated at

21736-469: The years of the famine were of higher risk of suffering from obesity, hypertension and impaired glucose metabolism compared to controls born a short period after the famine had ended in the early 1970s. The findings are in line with the developmental origin of health and disease hypothesis suggesting that malnutrition in early life is a predisposing factor for cardiovascular diseases and diabetes later in life. A 2017 paper found that Biafran "women exposed to

21888-514: Was Siddiq Abubakar III , who held the position for 50 years from 1938 to 1988. He was known as a stabilising force in Nigerian politics, particularly in 1966 after the assassination of Ahmadu Bello , the Premier of Northern Nigeria. Following the construction of the Nigerian railway system , which extended from Lagos in 1896 to Ibadan in 1900 and Kano in 1911, the Hausa of northern Nigeria became major producers of groundnuts. They surprised

22040-464: Was annulled. Santana returned to govern with the Constitution of 1854 that guaranteed an authoritarian government. The following day, July 8, 1857, the "Dominican Republic" awoke with two government administrations: the provisional revolutionary government of Cibao and the "government" of President Buenaventura Báez. On September 25, the provisional revolutionary Government of the Cibao summoned

22192-469: Was chosen as president of the anti-Báez and Santana provisional government, and the lawyer Benigno Filomeno Rojas as vice president. Both counted on the support of the tobacco producers and the Cibaenian trade. Among its first measures was the organization of an armed movement to march to the city of Santo Domingo, in order to overthrow President Buenaventura Báez, who was prepared to resist. The troops of

22344-632: Was demarcated primarily along ethnic lines: Hausa and Fulani majority in the north, Yoruba majority in the West, and Igbo majority in the East. Ethnic tension had simmered in Nigeria during discussions of independence, but in the mid-twentieth century, ethnic and religious riots began to occur. In 1945 an ethnic riot flared up in Jos in which Hausa-Fulani people targeted Igbo people and left many dead and wounded. Police and Army units from Kaduna had to be brought in to restore order. A newspaper article describes

22496-775: Was established as an organisation concurrent to the Slovak National Council in November 1918. The council was led by Viktor Dvorcsák  [ sk ] , an advocate and ex-archivist from Prešov working for the Hungarian revisionist movement. Claiming the territory of the Don Host Oblast , the republic was proclaimed in March 1918 after the retreat of the White Army from the area. In May, after

22648-399: Was established on a transitory basis that the next constitutional government was chosen by the members of the constituent assembly, which they did on March 1, 1858. The constituent assembly of Moca was integrated by the provisional government of Santiago, chaired by General José Desiderio Valverde, who convened on September 25, 1857, to elect deputies from December 7, 1857. For the assembly,

22800-521: Was resounding, Báez renounced power and traveled to exile, but the project would be frustrated, since the liberal thinking of the Cibaenians would be overshadowed by the military figure of General Pedro Santana, who returned to the Presidency of the Republic in 1858 and ignored the liberal constitution of Moca. In this way, the revolution of July 7, 1857, ended and the liberal constitution of Moca

22952-498: Was sympathetic to Biafra. Before he won the 1968 election , he accused Nigeria of committing a genocide against Biafrans and called for the United States to intervene in the war to support Biafra. However, he was ultimately unsuccessful in his efforts to aid Biafra due to the demands of the Vietnam War . An early institution created by the Biafran government was the Bank of Biafra, accomplished under "Decree No. 3 of 1967". The bank carried out all central banking functions including

23104-463: Was used as the national language. The Republic of Biafra, a short-lived secessionist state in Nigeria from 1967 to 1970, was characterized by a unitary republic structure administered under emergency measures. It comprised an executive branch led by the Biafran president and the Biafran Cabinet, along with a judicial branch that included the Ministry of Justice, the Biafran Supreme Court, and other subordinate courts, reflecting its attempts to establish

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