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64-501: Big Stone Lake ( Dakota : Íŋyaŋ Tháŋka Bdé ) is a long, narrow freshwater lake and reservoir on the border between western Minnesota and northeastern South Dakota in the United States . The lake covers 12,610 acres (5,100 ha), stretching 26 miles (42 km) from end to end and averaging around 1 mile (1.6 km) wide. At an elevation of 965 feet (294 m), it is South Dakota's lowest point. Big Stone Lake

128-556: A preterite . Ancient Greek grammar had the aorist form, and the grammars of other Indo-European languages and languages influenced by the Indo-European grammatical tradition, such as Middle Persian , Sanskrit , Armenian , the South Slavic languages , Georgian , Pontic Greek , and Pashto , also have forms referred to as aorist. The word comes from Ancient Greek ἀόριστος ( aóristos ' indefinite ' ), as

192-473: A comparative table of the various writing systems conceived over time for the Dakota languages, cf. the specific section of the article Sioux language . Dakota has five oral vowels, /a e i o u/ , and three nasal vowels, /ã ĩ ũ/ . In respect to phonology, Eastern and Western Dakota differ particularly in consonant clusters. The table below gives the possible consonant clusters and shows the differences between

256-465: A concept. Abstract intransitive ; (wa-) Does not specify an object and is further generalized as a concept. Abstract possessive ; (wa- + -ki; & wa- + hd-) Specifies that the action is upon one’s own, and is further generalized as a concept. Abstract transitive ; (wa-) Requires an object, and is further generalized as a concept. Auxiliary ; Follows an unconjugated verb and modifies it. Benefactive ; Dative 2; (-kíči-) An action that

320-605: A dual Dakota/Lakota program, offering an Associate of Science degree in Dakhótiyapi. The Cankdeska Cikana Community College on the Spirit Lake reservation offers a Dakota Language Certification. A Dakota-English Dictionary by Stephen Return Riggs is a historic resource for referencing dialect and historic documents. The accuracy of the work is disputed, as Riggs left provisions in the English copy untranslated in

384-468: A noun, signifies the different parts of one's self. For example, the possessive natural article pronoun mi- , which means "my," can be added to nouns such as "eye," in miíšta , or "words," in mióie; for inalienable objects such as one's body or intellectual property, and in some cases for possessive form of relative terms such as "my little brother," misúŋ, or "my daughter," mičhúŋkši. (However most relative terms are in their base form possessive; or use

448-568: A revival among younger speakers in Serbia, as its forms are simpler and shorter to type out than the perfect. In Bulgarian, which has produced a new regular formation, the aorist is used in indirect and in presumptive quotations. Bulgarian has separate inflections for aorist (past imperfective) and general perfective. The aorist may be used with the imperfective to produce a compound perfective–imperfective aspect . The aorist in Macedonian

512-565: A tense that described an action that happened "immediately before the moment of speech" despite the fact that aorist never carried such a meaning inherently among native speakers. In an effort to reinforce the use of the unified and standardized language in public discourse and education, the usage of the aorist gradually became prescriptively stigmatized by the communist regime and filtered from official use in PR Serbia and PR Montenegro . Belić's redefinition and use of aorist in fiction writing

576-567: Is a mainly polysynthetic language , meaning that different morphemes in the form of affixes can be combined to form a single word. Nouns in Dakota can be broken down into two classes, primitive and derivative. Primitive nouns are nouns whose origin cannot be deduced from any other word (for example makhá or earth, phéta or fire, and até or father), while derivative nouns are nouns that are formed in various ways from words of other grammatical categories. Primitive nouns stand on their own and are separate from other words. Derivative nouns, on

640-523: Is also used for events that took place before the story itself (past-within-past). The aorist indicative is also used to express things that happen in general, without asserting a time (the " gnomic aorist"). It can also be used of present and future events; the aorist also has several specialized senses meaning present action. Non-indicative forms of the aorist (subjunctives, optatives, imperatives, infinitives) are usually purely aspectual, with certain exceptions including indirect speech constructions and

704-455: Is called the "past definite complete tense" ( минато определено свршено време ) and refers to a completed action in the past tense. It most often corresponds to the simple past tense in English: I read the book, I wrote the letter, I ate my supper , etc. In contemporary standard Macedonian, the aorist is formed almost exclusively from perfective verbs. The formation of the aorist for most verbs

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768-446: Is commonly called reduplication. Examples are as such; waštéšte "good things", p’op’ó "it is very foggy", and šigšíčA "bad things, ugly things" In order to show possession in Dakota, a possessive pronoun may be prefixed whichever noun is being possessed. Two forms of possessive nouns occur, the natural class and the artificial or alienable class. Natural class pronouns express possession that cannot be alienated, and when prefixed to

832-450: Is commonly used in enquiries about someone's wishes, as in Bir şey yemek ister misiniz? ("Would you like to eat something?"). That makes a question like Domuz eti yer misiniz? ambiguous, as the listener may interpret it as an informational question ("Are you someone who eats pork"?) or as an offer ("Would you [like to] eat pork?"). In J. R. R. Tolkien 's constructed language Quenya ,

896-450: Is done in kind to one another. Reflexive ; (-ič’i- & -ihd-) An action done to or for one's self. Stative ; A verb describing a state of being. Transitive ; An action that requires an object or subject. In the Dakota language, affixes are used to change the meaning of words by attaching to the root word. Affixes can be added to both nouns and verbs, and they come in the form of prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes are added to

960-544: Is for someone else’s benefit or on their behalf. Causative ; (-ye, -ya & -yaŋ) An action that causes something or someone to change state or action. Dative 1; (-ki- & -khi-) An action that indicates an object or recipient. Ditransitive ; An action that requires two objects, whether the actor and another or two items. Intransitive ; An action that doesn’t need an object. Possessive ; (-ki-, & -hd-) An action that targets one's own. Reciprocal ; (-kičhi- +/- -pi) An action between two parties that

1024-621: Is in fact lexically closer to the Lakota language than it is to Santee-Sisseton. The following table gives some examples: Yankton-Yanktonai has the same three ablaut grades as Lakota (a, e, iŋ), while in Santee-Sisseton there are only two (a, e). This significantly impacts word forms, especially in fast speech and it is another reason why Yankton-Yanktonai has better mutual intelligibility with Lakota than with Santee-Sisseton. Some examples: There are other grammatical differences between

1088-501: Is not complex, but there are numerous small subcategories that must be learned. All verbs in the aorist (except сум ) take the same endings, but there are complexities in the aorist stem vowel and possible consonant alternations. All verbs (except сум ) take the following endings in the aorist: (The sign ∅ indicates a zero ending: nothing is added after the stem vowel.) In the Indo-European languages Greek and Sanskrit ,

1152-680: Is part of the standardized varieties of Serbo-Croatian but is no longer part of standard Slovene . In both languages, the aorist appears mostly in older literature, scripture, religious services and legislation and so carries an archaic tone. In Serbo-Croatian, aorist finds natural use only in certain locales while it is completely supplanted by the perfect in others. As such, its use in formal settings can be construed as either pretentious and bombastic or conversely as rustic and unsophisticated, depending on locale. Its disuse does not cause ambiguity, as Slavic verbs have distinct grammatical aspects to convey related yet distinct meaning. The prevalence of

1216-786: Is the source of the Minnesota River , which flows 332 miles (534 km) to the Mississippi River . Flow from the lake to the Minnesota River is regulated by the Big Stone Lake Dam, built in 1937 at the lake's southern end. Although modest, the dam controls a maximum capacity of 205,000 acre-feet . It is owned and operated by the state of Minnesota. At its north end, the lake is fed by the Little Minnesota River , which flows through

1280-655: Is the work of Dr. Clifford Canku as well as Michael Simon. The Dakhóta Iápi Okhódakičhiye worked with Dakota language speakers, teachers, and linguists to create their Speak Dakota! textbooks, which are a fully illustrated series that is linguistically and pedagogically consistent. In 2023, the group released a free Dakota language app called, Dakhód Iápi Wičhóie Wówapi , containing more than 28,000 words and 40,000 audio files to aid in pronunciation. Aorist Aorist ( / ˈ eɪ ə r ɪ s t / AY -ər-ist ; abbreviated AOR ) verb forms usually express perfective aspect and refer to past events , similar to

1344-729: The Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community funded a Dakota language training program called Voices of Our Ancestors, which provided four tribal communities with the resources to immerse 20 students in 40 hours a week of language. The tribal colleges which participated were Cankdeska Cikana Community College in North Dakota, Fort Peck Community College in Montana, the Nebraska Indian Community College Santee campus and

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1408-643: The Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate college was established. They maintain a Dakota studies program, with Dakota language specialist trainings. The college has a dictionary and other materials available on their website, created through grants at their Kaksiza Caŋhdeṡka Center. These books and materials are hand crafted with the hard work and dedication of elder speakers of the Lake Traverse reservation community, with regular weekly meetings to create curriculum or work with learners; President Azure at

1472-560: The Traverse Gap . Big Stone was formed at the end of the last ice age , when glacial Lake Agassiz drained through the gap into Glacial River Warren . The valley of that river now holds Big Stone Lake. The lake is shown on the 1757 edition of Mitchell Map as "L. Tinton", referring to the Lakota people , also known as Tetonwan ("dwellers of the prairie"). Big Stone Lake was named for nearby rock outcroppings. Two state parks are at

1536-490: The habitual aspect in Turkish . In Proto-Indo-European , the aorist appears to have originated as a series of verb forms expressing manner of action . Proto-Indo-European had a three-way aspectual opposition, traditionally called "present", "aorist", and "perfect", which are thought to have been, respectively, imperfective , perfective , and stative (resultant state) aspects. By the time of Classical Greek, this system

1600-575: The unmarked (default) form of the Greek verb, such implications are often left to context. Thus, within New Testament hermeneutics , it is considered an exegetical fallacy to attach undue significance to uses of the aorist. Although one may draw specific implications from an author's use of the imperfective or perfect, no such conclusions can, in general, be drawn from the use of the aorist, which may refer to an action "without specifying whether

1664-586: The Dakota Language Program collaborated to develop the Dakota Language House Living Learning Community in hopes of it becoming a full-immersion Dakota program. It is an opportunity for students to live with others who are speaking, or learning to speak, Dakota. Dakota language instructor Šišóka Dúta ( Sisithunwan-Wahpethunwan Dakhota ) noted, "To speak the language is to literally breathe life into

1728-523: The Dakota version and sometimes revised the meaning of Dakota words to fit a Eurocentric viewpoint. Dakota Prisoner of War Letters is a great historic resource as it highlights fluently written Dakota language letters from the time of the Camp Kearney prison camp located in Davenport, IA, in 1863–1866. These letters are to relatives back home or to their closest representative they could find. It

1792-678: The Serbian linguist Aleksandar Belić was tasked by the authorities of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia with creating a formal grammar for the new Serbo-Croatian standard. He decided to curb the use of the aorist by noting that there were many speakers of the language "in Yugoslavia who rarely use aorist, or do not use it at all", alluding to primarily Croats , Slovenes , Bosniaks and Serbs of Croatia and Bosnia whose dialects had long since done away with aorist altogether; Belić redefined aorist as

1856-731: The Sisseton Wahpeton College in South Dakota. The Fort Peck Culture Department create the Yanktonai Dakota Vocab Builder in the same year. In 2018, the Lower Sioux Indian Community launched their Dakota immersion Head Start and also maintains online language classes to support the learning of their children and their families. The Dakota Wicohan program on Lower Sioux works with older youth to immerse them in

1920-403: The action is unique, repeated, ingressive, instantaneous, past, or accomplished." In particular, the aorist does not imply a "once-for-all" action, as it has commonly been misinterpreted, although it frequently refers to a simple, non-repeated action. Although quite common in older Sanskrit, the aorist is comparatively infrequent in much of classical Sanskrit, occurring, for example, 66 times in

1984-438: The aorist stem is marked by several morphological devices (the aorist indicative also has the past-tense augment ἐ- e- , which contracts with the initial vowel ). Three aorist morphological devices stand out as most common: In Georgian and Svan , the aorist marks perfective aspect. In the indicative, it marks completed events. In other moods, it marks events that are yet to be completed. In Mingrelian and Laz ,

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2048-468: The aorist ( Turkish : geniş zaman , literally "broad time") is a habitual aspect and is similar to the English present simple . For example, the statement Et yemem ("I do not eat meat") informs the listener that the speaker is a vegetarian and not merely that they happen not to be eating meat at that very moment. To convey the latter message, the present progressive Et yemiyorum ("I am not eating meat") would be appropriate. The Turkish aorist

2112-496: The aorist entirely. In the development of Latin, for example, the aorist merged with the perfect. The preterites (past perfectives) of the Romance languages, which are sometimes called "aorist", are an independent development. In Ancient Greek , the indicative aorist is one of the two main forms used in telling a story; it is used for undivided events, such as the individual steps in a continuous process (narrative aorist); it

2176-575: The aorist indicative and to some extent the participle is essentially a mixture of past tense and perfective aspect . Because the aorist was not maintained in either Latin or the Germanic languages, there have long been difficulties in translating the Greek New Testament into Western languages. The aorist has often been interpreted as making a strong statement about the aspect or even the time of an event, when, in fact, due to its being

2240-422: The aorist is basically a past tense and can be combined with both perfective and imperfective aspects as well as the imperative and the subjunctive moods. In Khinalug , the aorist is a perfective aspect, and the two terms ("aorist" and "perfective") are often used interchangeably. In Udi , the aorist is an imperfective aspect that is usually a past tense but can also replace the present tense. In Turkish ,

2304-516: The aorist tense contrasts with the imperfect in describing the past occurs in Xenophon 's Anabasis , when the Persian aristocrat Orontas is executed: "and those who had been previously in the habit of bowing ( προσεκύνουν prosekúnoun , imperfect) to him, bowed ( προσεκύνησαν prosekúnēsan , aorist) to him even then." Here the imperfect refers to a past habitual or repeated act, and

2368-458: The aorist to a single one. There is disagreement as to which functions of the Greek aorist are inherent within it. Some of the disagreement applies to the history of the development of the various functions and forms. Most grammarians differentiate the aorist indicative from the non-indicative aorists. Many authors hold that the aorist tends to be about the past because it is perfective, and perfectives tend to describe completed actions; others that

2432-533: The aorist varied widely by region prior to the grammatical changes during the communists ' rise to power in SFR Yugoslavia after World War II . Historically, in Croatia and Croatian dialects, the aorist was naturally displaced by the perfect in most dialects ( Chakavian , Kajkavian and Shtokavian ). In Serbia and Serbian dialects, the aorist was historically commonly used to describe the past. In 1933,

2496-513: The aorist was the unmarked (default) form of the verb, and thus did not have the implications of the imperfective aspect , which referred to an ongoing or repeated situation, or the perfect , which referred to a situation with a continuing relevance; instead it described an action "pure and simple". Because the aorist was the unmarked aspect in Ancient Greek, the term is sometimes applied to unmarked verb forms in other languages, such as

2560-498: The beginning of a word, infixes inside of the word, and suffixes are added to the end of a word. For example, the verb wóyakA means "to tell a story" in Dakota. By adding the infixed " -ki- ", the word becomes wókiyakA , which means "to tell someone". On the other hand, by adding the suffix " -pi ," the word becomes " wóyakapi ", which can mean "a story, a narrative" or "they are all telling stories". Dakota being an agglutinative language means that affixes are added to

2624-458: The causative suffix -yA .) Meanwhile, artificial possessive pronouns are used to signify property and possessions that can be transferred or traded. For example, the artificial pronoun tha- , which may become thi- , and tho- , is equivalent to the verb tháwa , "his or hers," can be prefixed onto nouns such as "bow," in thinázipe , and "friend," in thakhódaku . Dakota is mainly a subject-object-verb (SOV) language, where nouns, whether they are

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2688-608: The dialects. The University of Minnesota was the first American University to establish a Dakota language class in their American Indian studies department. In 1966 a small group petitioned the University's administration to "establish links between the University and Minnesota's eleven federally-recognized tribes to develop recruitment and retention efforts for American Indian students, and to create courses on issues of importance to American Indian communities". In 2022, University of Minnesota's American Indian Studies Department and

2752-599: The dialects: The two dialects also differ in the diminutive suffix ( -daŋ, -da in Santee, and -na in Yankton-Yanktonai and in Sisseton) and in a number of other phonetic issues that are harder to categorize. The following table gives examples of words that differ in their phonology. There are also numerous lexical differences between the two Dakota dialects as well as between the sub-dialects. Yankton-Yanktonai

2816-633: The first book of the Rāmāyaṇa , 8 times in the Hitopadeśa , 6 times in the Bhagavad-Gītā , and 6 times in the story of Śakuntalā in the Mahābhārata . In the later language, the aorist indicative had the value of a preterite , while in the older language it was closer in sense to the perfect. The aorist was also used with the ancient injunctive mood , particularly in prohibitions. The Indo-European aorist

2880-442: The first, the second, and the third. Person is indicated through the addition (first and second person) or subtraction (third person, the verb is used in its simplest form) of personal pronoun affixes. There are two forms of tense in the language, the aorist (as verbs, adjectives, and other nouns, sometimes called the indefinite) and the future . In order to express the future tense, the suffixes kta or kte are placed after

2944-469: The lake contains over 30 other species. There are 12 public accesses for fishing use. The lake is stocked every two years with 7,000,000 walleye fry. The communities of Ortonville, Minnesota , and Big Stone City, South Dakota , are at the lake's southern tip; Browns Valley, Minnesota , is at the northern tip. [REDACTED] Media related to Big Stone Lake at Wikimedia Commons Dakota language Dakota, similar to many Native American languages,

3008-502: The lake: Big Stone Lake State Park in Minnesota and Hartford Beach State Park in South Dakota. They have picnic, boat launching, trail, and camping facilities. An educational center is part of the Minnesota park. Several vacation resorts are along the shores of Big Stone Lake as well. Visitors are attracted to the lake especially for its fishing : walleye , northern pike , and bluegills are all popular game fish with anglers, and

3072-491: The language and culture. Dakota Wicohan offers curriculum on Dakota values, language and customs through their website. In North Dakota, there are state and tribal colleges teaching Dakota. The University of North Dakota has an Indigenous Language Education program up through a Bachelor of Science degree. Sitting Bull College , which serves the Standing Rock Indian Reservation maintains

3136-428: The language because you're using the air to speak language, and so, in a metaphorical but in the literal way. So by speaking the language, we're breathing life into it and that's actually a phrase in our language". The University's classes currently include classes on teaching Dakota, alongside Dakota Linguistics, for years one through four. In 2023, the University introduced a Dakota language major program. In 1979,

3200-418: The nouns, both subject and object, are always placed at the beginning of the clause. Dakota has two major dialects with two sub-dialects each: The two dialects differ phonologically, grammatically, and to a large extent, also lexically. They are mutually intelligible to a high extent, although Western Dakota appears lexically closer to the Lakota language with which it has high mutual intelligibility. For

3264-443: The other hand, are formed by the addition of affixes to words in other grammatical categories. Verbs in Dakota can appropriate, through agglutination and synthesis, many of the pronominal , prepositional , and adverbial or modal affixes of the language. There are many verbal roots, all of which are only used once certain causative prefixes are added, forming participles . Like in English, Dakota verbs also have three persons ,

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3328-422: The prefix a- meaning "upon" AkáȟpA + -kiči + -čhiyA = Akáȟpekičičhiye . Overall, affixes in the Dakota language play an important role in creating new words and adding nuances to the meaning of existing words. They allow speakers to express complex ideas in a concise and efficient manner. Infixoids are morphemes that can occur either as infixes , circumfixes , or transfixes depending on

3392-453: The root word without changing the form of the root word. This can result in long, complex words that can convey a lot of information in a single word. For example, the Dakota word akáȟpekičičhiyA , means "to cover up something for one; to pass by a matter, forgive, or cancel". This word is made up of the root word kaȟpÁ (meaning "to cover, knock down or take something down"), the suffix - kičičhiyA meaning "to or for, (causative)", and

3456-526: The specific context and meaning of the word being used. Locatives Abstract and indefinite object markers A duplifix is a morpheme that is a morphological process in which the root or part of a word (or even the whole word) is repeated exactly or with a slight change. Unlike other types of affixes, duplifixes can emphasize or intensify the meaning of the word rather than change its grammatical function, or can be used to indicate plurality or repetition, or to modify adjectives or verbs for emphasis. This

3520-419: The subject or object, always come before the verb. And when two nouns are used in the same clause, where one is the subject and the other is the object, the subject is most usually placed first. Verbs are also usually placed after adjectives that are used to qualify either the subject or the object and adverbs that qualify the verb. When additional words are used within a clause that are not either nouns or verbs,

3584-677: The time said, "Many of our graduates are now out in the community and k-12 schools teaching what they learned and how they learned it, and are continuing to succeed in language revitalization". They also have an online Dakota/English dictionary. The University of Minnesota and the Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate College are working together to create the Dakota Language Audio Journal, which will be the first publicly available language journal, featuring recordings of conversations and stories. In 2017,

3648-676: The use of optative as part of the sequence of tenses in dependent clauses. There are aorist infinitives and imperatives that do not imply temporality at all. For example, the Lord's Prayer in Matthew 6:11 uses the aorist imperative in " Give ( δός dós ) us this day our daily bread", in contrast to the analogous passage in Luke 11:3, which uses the imperfective aspect, implying repetition, with " Give ( δίδου dídou , present imperative) us day by day our daily bread." An example of how

3712-459: The verb eyÁ "to say something" uses the same affix in an infixed position, so if you want to say "she says to you", you would add the same affix ki- as an infix instead, with ni- 2sT resulting in " eníčiye " ( ni- + ki- + eyÁ ). Similarly, the affix -uŋ- which can mean "you and I" (1d), and is shared with -uŋ-...-pi "we all, us all" (1p), can be found in both positions of prefix and infix, depending on

3776-406: The verb in use. The verb iyáyA "to leave or pass by" in 1s ibdábde (I leave), while in 1d uŋkíyaye (you and I leave). The same affix in the verb máni "to walk" is infixed as 1d maúŋni . This phenomenon of affixes functioning as both prefixes and infixes in Dakota language is an example of the complex morphological structure of the language, and it requires careful attention to

3840-407: The verb, much in contrast to expressing the aorist tense, which requires no marking, but is instead derived from the context of what is being said. Source: Abstract benefactive ; (wa- + -kíči-) An action that is for someone else's benefit and is further generalized as a concept. Abstract causative ; (wa- + -yA) An action that causes something to change state or action and is generalized as

3904-431: The word they are attached to. In the case of Dakota language, some affixes can function as both a prefix and an infix, depending on the specific instance of the word. For example, the Dakota verb " dá " means "to ask for something". If you want to say "I ask for something from you", you add the affixes ki- to indicate dative 1 case (to someone), and čhi- 1s-2s (I to you) resulting in " čhičída ". However,

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3968-611: Was inherited by the Slavic languages but has survived intact only in the South Slavic languages . It retains its function entirely in the Eastern South Slavic languages, Bulgarian and Macedonian . However, in Western South Slavic languages it has become, along with the imperfect and pluperfect , largely obsolete in daily parlance and mostly superseded by the perfect and circumlocution . The aorist

4032-474: Was maintained largely in independent instances of the non-indicative moods and in the nonfinite forms. But in the indicative, and in dependent clauses with the subjunctive and optative , the aspects took on temporal significance. In this manner, the aorist was often used as an unmarked past tense, and the perfect came to develop a resultative use, which is why the term perfect is used for this meaning in modern languages. Other Indo-European languages lost

4096-416: Was tolerated due to abundance of its use in older literature. Nevertheless, aorist is still widespread in rural parts of Serbia, especially among the older and less educated part of the population. In standardized forms, the aorist is used for witnessed actions from a specific time in the past, mostly with verbs of perfective aspect. In modern forms of communication, the aorist has experienced something of

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