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114-639: During the Kofun period , the area of Bungo had three main power centers: the Kunisaki Peninsula , the area around what is now Ōita District and the area around Hita District , each of which was ruled by a kuni no miyatsuko . By the Asuka period , the area had been consolidated into a single province called Toyo Province , also called Toyokuni no Michi no Shiri . After the Taika Reforms and

228-517: A representative democracy . The samurai lost their status as the only class with military privileges. However, during the Meiji period, most leaders in Japanese society (politics, business and military) were ex-samurai or descendants of samurai. The 1889 Meiji Constitution made relatively small concessions to civil rights and parliamentary mechanisms. Party participation was recognized as part of

342-507: A Chōshū native who has been credited with the founding of the modern Japanese army and was to become the first constitutional Prime Minister . The Supreme War Council developed a German-style general staff system with a chief of staff who had direct access to the Emperor and who could operate independently of the army minister and civilian officials. The Constitution of the Empire of Japan

456-468: A cabinet composed mostly of genrō who wanted to establish a government party to control the House of Representatives. Although not fully realized, the trend toward party politics was well established. On its return, one of the first acts of the government was to establish new ranks for the nobility. Five hundred people from the old court nobility, former daimyo, and samurai who had provided valuable service to

570-642: A cohesive, recognized state. The society was most developed in the Kinai region and the eastern Setouchi region . Japan's rulers petitioned the Chinese court for confirmation of royal titles. While the rulers' title was officially "King", they called themselves "Ōkimi" (大王, "Great King") during this period. Inscriptions on two swords (the Inariyama and Eta Funayama Swords ) read Amenoshita Shiroshimesu (治天下; "ruling Heaven and Earth") and Ōkimi , indicating that

684-456: A constitutional form of government since before 1874, and several proposals for constitutional guarantees had been drafted. While acknowledging the realities of political pressure, however, the oligarchy was determined to keep control. Thus, modest steps were taken. The Osaka Conference in 1875 resulted in the reorganization of government with an independent judiciary and an appointed Chamber of Elders (genrōin) tasked with reviewing proposals for

798-460: A key role in the transition, we need to sequence people with a higher rank." The study is known to be the most comprehensive analysis of the Japanese archipelago published to date. Daniel G. Bradley, co-leader of the research project, said, "Our insights into the complex origins of modern-day Japanese once again shows the power of ancient genomics to uncover new information about human prehistory that could not be seen otherwise." Takashi Gakuhari,

912-527: A kofun's circumference. The oldest Japanese kofun is reportedly Hokenoyama Kofun in Sakurai, Nara , which dates to the late 3rd century. In the Makimuku district of Sakurai, later keyhole kofuns ( Hashihaka Kofun , Shibuya Mukaiyama Kofun) were built during the early 4th century. The keyhole kofun spread from Yamato to Kawachi —with giant kofun, such as Daisenryō Kofun—and then throughout the country during

1026-649: A legislature. The Emperor declared that "constitutional government shall be established in gradual stages" as he ordered the Council of Elders to draft a constitution. Three years later, the Conference of Prefectural Governors established elected prefectural assemblies. Although limited in their authority, these assemblies represented a move in the direction of representative government at the national level, and by 1880 assemblies also had been formed in villages and towns. In 1880 delegates from twenty-four prefectures held

1140-555: A national convention to establish the Kokkai Kisei Dōmei . Although the government was not opposed to parliamentary rule, confronted with the drive for "people's rights", it continued to try to control the political situation. New laws in 1875 prohibited press criticism of the government or discussion of national laws. The Public Assembly Law (1880) severely limited public gatherings by disallowing attendance by civil servants and requiring police permission for all meetings. Within

1254-513: A new ruling class appeared. Inasmuch as the Meiji Restoration had sought to return the Emperor to a preeminent position, efforts were made to establish a Shinto -oriented state much like it was 1,000 years earlier. Since Shinto and Buddhism had molded into a syncretic belief in the prior thousand years and Buddhism had been closely connected with the shogunate, this involved the separation of Shinto and Buddhism ( shinbutsu bunri ) and

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1368-422: A new taxation system, and ordered new local administrative rules. The Meiji government assured the foreign powers that it would follow the old treaties negotiated by the bakufu and announced that it would act in accordance with international law. Mutsuhito, who was to reign until 1912, selected a new reign title— Meiji , or Enlightened Rule—to mark the beginning of a new era in Japanese history. To further dramatize

1482-465: A researcher conducting the experiment and a professor at Kanazawa University , explained in an interview with Ishikawa TV that mostly 40% of modern Japanese genetic ancestry was found to come from migrants that arrived during the Kofun period, somewhat contradicting the aforementioned study. However, he remained confident that the Kofun strand played a large factor in Japanese genetics today. Following

1596-759: A small but important move. Although the Office of Shinto Worship was demoted in 1872, by 1877 the Home Ministry controlled all Shinto shrines and certain Shinto sects were given state recognition. Shinto was released from Buddhist administration and its properties restored. Although Buddhism suffered from state sponsorship of Shinto, it had its own resurgence. Christianity also was legalized, and Confucianism remained an important ethical doctrine. Increasingly, however, Japanese thinkers identified with Western ideology and methods. A major proponent of representative government

1710-635: Is Japanese for the type of burial mound dating from this era. It was a period of cultural import. Continuing from the Yayoi period, the Kofun period is characterized by influence from China and the Korean Peninsula ; archaeologists consider it a shared culture across the southern Korean Peninsula, Kyūshū and Honshū . On the other hand, the most prosperous keyhole-shaped burial mounds in Japan during this period were approximately 5,000 in Japan from

1824-483: Is also observable from several imports, including Chinese mirrors and coins , Korean raw materials for iron production, and Chinese characters inscribed on metal implements. Several lines of archaeological evidence support the introduction of new large settlements to Japan, most likely from the southern Korean peninsula , during the Yayoi-Kofun cultural transition, which could reflect the general route taken by

1938-528: Is an era in the history of Japan from about 300 to 538 AD (the date of the introduction of Buddhism ), following the Yayoi period . The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes collectively called the Yamato period . This period is the earliest era of recorded history in Japan, but studies depend heavily on archaeology since the chronology of historical sources tends to be distorted. The word kofun

2052-478: Is called the Battle of Tabaruzuka. During this eight-day-battle, Saigō's nearly ten thousand strong army battled hand-to-hand the equally matched national army. Both sides suffered nearly four thousand casualties during this engagement. Due to conscription, however, the Japanese army was able to reconstitute its forces, while Saigō's was not. Later, forces loyal to the emperor broke through rebel lines and managed to end

2166-453: Is seen in haniwa ( 埴輪 , "clay ring") , clay offerings placed in a ring on and around the tomb mounds of the ruling elite. The most important of these haniwa were found in southern Honshū (especially the Kinai region around Nara Prefecture ) and northern Kyūshū . Haniwa grave offerings were sculpted as horses, chickens, birds, fans, fish, houses, weapons, shields, sunshades, pillows, and male and female humans. Another funerary piece,

2280-519: Is unclear if the rival country was near the Yamato nucleus or further away. Kai Province is mentioned as a location where prince Yamato Takeru traveled on his military expedition. The period's northern frontier was explained in Kojiki as the legend of Shido Shōgun's (四道将軍, "Shōguns to four ways") expedition. One of four shōguns , Ōbiko set out northward to Koshi and his son Take Nunakawawake left for

2394-509: Is usually believed to have begun about 250 AD, and it is generally agreed that Yamato rulers had keyhole-kofun culture and hegemony in Yamato until the 4th century. Autonomy of local powers remained throughout the period, particularly in Kibi (the present-day Okayama Prefecture ), Izumo (current Shimane Prefecture ), Koshi (current Fukui and Niigata Prefecture ), Kenu (northern Kantō ), Chikushi (northern Kyūshū ), and Hi (central Kyūshū). During

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2508-632: The Book of Sui , Silla and Baekje greatly valued relations with the Kofun-period Wa and the Korean kingdoms made diplomatic efforts to maintain their good standing with the Japanese. The Book of Song reported that a Chinese emperor appointed the five kings of Wa in 451 to supervise military Affairs of Wa, Silla, Imna , Gara, Jinhan and Mahan. According to the Nihon Shoki , Silla

2622-561: The Kirishitan faith, he recanted his baptism and began a vigorous campaign to exterminate Christianity in the province. However, he subsequently was accused of cowardice during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) and was dispossessed. Bungo was divided into small holdings. Unlike many of the provinces of Kyūshū, Bungo was not dominated by a single daimyō ; rather, it was divided into tenryō territory directly governed by

2736-782: The Nihon Shoki as a son of Emperor Kōgen ). A number of clans claimed origin in China or the Korean Peninsula. During the 5th century, the Katsuragi clan (葛城氏, descended from the legendary grandson of Emperor Kōgen) was the most prominent power in the court and intermarried with the imperial family. After the clan declined, late in the century, it was replaced by the Ōtomo clan . When Emperor Buretsu died with no apparent heir, Ōtomo no Kanamura recommended Emperor Keitai (a distant imperial relative in Koshi Province ) as

2850-412: The kami Inari . Other immigrants who settled in Japan beginning in the 4th century were the progenitors of Japanese clans. According to Kojiki and Nihon Shoki , the oldest record of a Silla immigrant is Amenohiboko : a legendary prince of Silla who settled in Japan at the era of Emperor Suinin , possibly during the 3rd or 4th centuries. Baekje and Silla sent their princes as hostages to

2964-585: The magatama ( 勾玉 , "curved jewel") , became symbolic of imperial power. Much of the material culture of the Kofun period demonstrates that Japan was in close political and economic contact with continental Asia (especially with the southern dynasties of China) via the Korean Peninsula; bronze mirrors cast from the same mould have been found on both sides of the Tsushima Strait . Irrigation , sericulture , and weaving were brought to Japan by immigrants, who are mentioned in ancient Japanese histories;

3078-503: The Hata clan introduced sericulture and certain types of weaving. The introduction of Buddhism in 538 marked the transition from the Kofun to the Asuka period , which coincided with the reunification of China under the Sui dynasty later in the century. Japan became deeply influenced by Chinese culture, adding a cultural context to the religious distinction between the periods. According to

3192-699: The Heike clan was destroyed in the Genpei War , Minamoto no Yoritomo established the Ōtomo clan as shugo over Bungo Province in order to suppress the pro-Taira clan samurai in Kyushu. The Ōtomo ruled the area from the Kamakura period into the Muromachi period and over the course of many conflicts expanded their control into neighboring provinces. The area saw an influx of western culture and technology with

3306-551: The Nakatomi and Inbe clans handled rituals. The Soga clan provided the government's chief minister, the Ōtomo and Mononobe clans provided secondary ministers, and provincial leaders were called kuni no miyatsuko . Craftsmen were organized into guilds. In addition to archaeological findings indicating a local monarchy in Kibi Province as an important rival, the legend of the 4th-century Prince Yamato Takeru alludes to

3420-561: The Rikken Kaishintō (Constitutional Progressive Party), which called for a British-style constitutional democracy. In response, government bureaucrats, local government officials, and other conservatives established the Rikken Teiseitō (Imperial Rule Party), a pro-government party, in 1882. Numerous political demonstrations followed, some of them violent, resulting in further government restrictions. The restrictions hindered

3534-717: The Tokugawa shogunate and a number small feudal domains . Following the Meiji restoration , each of the feudal domains briefly became prefectures. These were merged on December 25, 1871 to form Ōita Prefecture. Per the early Meiji period Kyudaka kyuryo Torishirabe-chō ( 旧高旧領取調帳 ) , an official government assessment of the nation's resources, Bungo Province had 1812 villages with a total kokudaka of 466,611 koku . Bungo Province consisted of: [REDACTED] Media related to Bungo Province at Wikimedia Commons Kofun period The Kofun period ( 古墳時代 , Kofun jidai )

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3648-555: The Tosa Memorial  [ ja ] in 1874, criticizing the unbridled power of the oligarchy and calling for the immediate establishment of representative government. Between 1871 and 1873, a series of land and tax laws were enacted as the basis for modern fiscal policy. Private ownership was legalized, deeds were issued, and lands were assessed at fair market value with taxes paid in cash rather than in kind as in pre-Meiji days and at slightly lower rates. Dissatisfied with

3762-721: The United States Constitution as "too liberal", and the British system as too unwieldy, and having a parliament with too much control over the monarchy; the French and Spanish models were rejected as tending toward despotism. Ito was put in charge of the new Bureau for Investigation of Constitutional Systems in 1884, and the Council of State was replaced in 1885 with a cabinet headed by Ito as prime minister. The positions of chancellor (or chief-minister), minister of

3876-554: The "civilized countries of the West", leaving behind the "hopelessly backward" Asian neighbors, namely Korea and China . This essay certainly encouraged the economic and technological rise of Japan in the Meiji era, but it also may have laid the intellectual foundations for later Japanese colonialism in the region. The Meiji era saw a flowering of public discourse on the direction of Japan. Works like Nakae Chōmin 's A Discourse by Three Drunkards on Government debated how best to blend

3990-542: The 122nd emperor. This coincided with pressure on the ruling shogunate to modernize Japan, combining modern advances with traditional values. Mutsuhito was sympathetic to these ideas, leading to a call for the restoration of the governing power to the emperor. On November 9, 1867, then- shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu tendered his resignation to the Emperor, and "put his prerogatives at the Emperor’s disposal", formally stepping down ten days later. Imperial restoration occurred

4104-617: The 5th century. Keyhole kofun disappeared later in the 6th century, probably because of the drastic reformation of the Yamato court; Nihon Shoki records the introduction of Buddhism at this time. The last two great kofun are the 190-metre-long (620 ft) Imashirozuka kofun in Osaka (currently believed by scholars to be the tomb of Emperor Keitai ) and the 135-metre long (443 ft) Iwatoyama kofun in Fukuoka, recorded in Fudoki of Chikugo as

4218-485: The 6th century, the Yamato clans began to dominate the southern half of Japan. According to the Book of Song , Yamato relationships with China probably began in the late 4th century. The Yamato polity , which emerged by the late 5th century, was distinguished by powerful clans (豪族, gōzoku ). Each clan was headed by a patriarch (氏上, Uji-no-kami ), who performed sacred rituals to the clan's kami (objects of worship) to ensure its long-term welfare. Clan members were

4332-594: The Asian mainland and construction of railroads, shipyards, munitions factories, mines, textile manufacturing facilities, factories, and experimental agriculture stations. Greatly concerned about national security, the leaders made significant efforts at military modernization, which included establishing a small standing army, a large reserve system, and compulsory militia service for all men. Foreign military systems were studied, foreign advisers, especially French ones, were brought in, and Japanese cadets sent abroad to Europe and

4446-616: The Charter Oath was an end to exclusive political rule by the bakufu (a shōgun ' s direct administration including officers), and a move toward more democratic participation in government. To implement the Charter Oath, a rather short-lived constitution with eleven articles was drawn up in June 1868. Besides providing for a new Council of State , legislative bodies, and systems of ranks for nobles and officials, it limited office tenure to four years, allowed public balloting, provided for

4560-561: The Conscription Law of 1873, and all the reforms and progress, the new Japanese army was still untested. That all changed in 1877, when Saigō Takamori led the last rebellion of the samurai in Kyūshū. In February 1877, Saigō left Kagoshima with a small contingent of soldiers on a journey to Tokyo. Kumamoto castle was the site of the first major engagement when garrisoned forces fired on Saigō's army as they attempted to force their way into

4674-581: The Emperor were organized into a new peerage, the Kazoku , consisting of five ranks: prince, marquis , count , viscount , and baron . In the transition between the Edo period and the Meiji era, the Ee ja nai ka movement, a spontaneous outbreak of ecstatic behavior, took place. In 1885, noted public intellectual Yukichi Fukuzawa wrote the influential essay " Leaving Asia ", arguing that Japan should orient itself at

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4788-519: The Japanese emperor during Emperor Ōjin 's reign. According to Kojiki and Nihon Shoki , Baekje had also sent a scholar by the name of Wani during the reign of Emperor Ōjin . He is said to be the pioneer of the introduction of the Chinese writing system to Japan. The Samguk sagi ( Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms ) reported that Baekje and Silla sent their princes as hostages to

4902-560: The Kofun era. Japanese archaeologists emphasise that other regional chieftainships (such as Kibi ) were in close contention for dominance in the first half of the Kofun period; Kibi's Tsukuriyama Kofun is Japan's fourth-largest. The Yamato court exercised power over clans in Kyūshū and Honshū , bestowing titles (some hereditary) on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with Japan as Yamato rulers suppressed other clans and acquired agricultural land. Based on Chinese models (including

5016-683: The Kofun people. However, a study that examines the genetic relationship between ancient Korea and the Kofun period is yet to be made. The researchers noted that ancestral heterogeneity exists across Japan today, which is not fully captured by this standard reference set. They also stated that with the limited resources they had as only three Kofun skeletons were available for examination, there are still many more questions that need to be answered. "The Kofun individuals sequenced were not buried in keyhole-shaped mounds [reserved for high-ranking individuals], which implies that they were lower-ranking people", Nakagome said. "To see if this East Asian ancestry played

5130-473: The Meiji era adapted many aspects of Victorian taste, as seen in the construction of Western-style pavilions and reception rooms called yōkan or yōma in their homes. These parts of Meiji homes were displayed in popular magazines of the time, such as Ladies' Graphic, which portrayed the often empty rooms of the homes of the aristocracy of all levels, including the imperial palaces. Integrating Western cultural forms with an assumed, untouched native Japanese spirit

5244-656: The United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (O-yatoi gaikokujin). In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the US to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialization policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which

5358-816: The United States to attend military and naval schools. In 1854, after US Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry forced the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa , Japanese elites took the position that they needed to modernize the state's military capacities, or risk further coercion from Western powers. In 1868, the Japanese government established the Tokyo Arsenal. The same year, Ōmura Masujirō established Japan's first military academy in Kyoto. Ōmura further proposed military billets be filled by all classes of people including farmers and merchants. The shōgun class, not happy with Ōmura's views on conscription, assassinated him

5472-418: The West. The Industrial Revolution in Japan occurred during the Meiji era. The industrial revolution began around 1870 as Meiji era leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to

5586-440: The Yamato court in exchange for military support to continue their military campaigns; King Asin of Baekje sent his son ( Jeonji ) in 397, and King Silseong of Silla sent his son Misaheun in 402. Hogong , from Japan, helped to found Silla. In mid 2021, The Nikkei published a new finding of the genetic makeup of modern Japanese and found much of Japanese make-up could be divided into two major groups, one being "Jomon" and

5700-549: The Yamato court in exchange for military support. King Muryeong of Baekje was born in Kyushu ( 筑紫 ) of Japan as the child of a hostage in 462, and left a son in Japan who was an ancestor of the minor-noble Yamato no Fubito ( 和史 , "Scribes of Yamato" ) clan. According to the Shoku Nihongi ( 続日本紀 ) , Yamato no Fubito's relative ( Takano no Niigasa ) was a 10th-generation descendant of King Muryeong of Baekje who

5814-433: The Yamato government gave preferential treatment to toraijin . According to the 815 book, Shinsen Shōjiroku , 317 of 1,182 clans in the Kinai region of Honshū were considered to have foreign ancestry. 163 were of Chinese origin (written as "Kan"), 104 from Baekje ("Paekche" in the older romanization), 41 from Goguryeo , 6 from Silla , and 3 from Gaya . They may have immigrated to Japan between 356 and 645. Some of

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5928-470: The Yayoi period. A study published in the journal Science Advance s found that the people of Japan bore genetic signatures from three ancient populations rather than just two as previously thought. The study states that in addition to the previously discovered Jōmon and Yayoi strands, a new strand was hypothesized to have been introduced during the Yayoi-Kofun transition period that had strong cultural and political affinity with Korea and China. This group

6042-562: The adoption of the Chinese written language ), they began to develop a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains with no permanent capital. Powerful clans were the Soga , Katsuragi , Heguri and Koze clans in the Yamato and Bizen Provinces and the Kibi clans in the Izumo Province . The Ōtomo and Mononobe clans were military leaders, and

6156-434: The aristocracy, and the royal line which controlled the Yamato court was at its zenith. Clan leaders were awarded kabane , inherited titles denoting rank and political standing which replaced family names. The Kofun period is called the Yamato period by some Western scholars, since this local chieftainship became the imperial dynasty at the end of the period. However, the Yamato clan ruled just one polity among others during

6270-621: The associated destruction of various Buddhist temples and related violence ( haibutsu kishaku ). Furthermore, a new State Shinto had to be constructed for the purpose. In 1871, the Office of Shinto Worship ( ja:神祇省 ) was established, ranking even above the Council of State in importance. The kokutai ideas of the Mito school were embraced, and the divine ancestry of the Imperial House was emphasized. The government supported Shinto teachers,

6384-452: The borders of the Yamato and battlegrounds in the region; a frontier was near the later Izumo Province (eastern present-day Shimane Prefecture ). Another frontier, in Kyūshū , was apparently north of present-day Kumamoto Prefecture . According to the legend, there was an eastern land in Honshū "whose people disobeyed the imperial court" and against whom Yamato Takeru was sent to fight. It

6498-411: The castle. Rather than leave an enemy behind him, Saigō laid siege to the castle. Two days later, Saigō's rebels, while attempting to block a mountain pass, encountered advanced elements of the national army en route to reinforce Kumamoto castle. After a short battle, both sides withdrew to reconstitute their forces. A few weeks later the national army engaged Saigō's rebels in a frontal assault at what now

6612-555: The changes to Japan were profound, and affected its social structure, internal politics, economy, military, and foreign relations. The period corresponded to the reign of Emperor Meiji . It was preceded by the Keiō era and was succeeded by the Taishō era , upon the accession of Emperor Taishō . The rapid modernization during the Meiji era was not without its opponents, as the rapid changes to society caused many disaffected traditionalists from

6726-445: The daimyo became governors, and the central government assumed their administrative expenses and paid samurai stipends. The han were replaced with prefectures in 1871, and authority continued to flow to the national government. Officials from the favored former han, such as Satsuma , Chōshū , Tosa , and Hizen staffed the new ministries. Formerly old court nobles , and lower-ranking samurai, replaced bakufu appointees and daimyo as

6840-487: The destruction of Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines in his domains. In 1578, he came into conflict with the Shimazu clan to the south and after being defeated in a series of battles turned to Toyotomi Hideyoshi for assistance. In 1587, following Hideyoshi's iconquest of Kyūshū , Sōrin's son, Ōtomo Yoshimune was restored to control over Bungo. Following Hideyoshi's expulsion of foreign missionaries and edicts against

6954-439: The eastern states. The father moved east from northern Koshi, and the son moved north; they met at Aizu, in present-day western Fukushima Prefecture . Although the legend is probably not factual, Aizu is near southern Tōhoku (the northern extent of late-4th-century keyhole-kofun culture). During the Kofun period, an aristocratic society with militaristic rulers developed. The period was a critical stage in Japan's evolution into

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7068-566: The establishment of a national assembly in 1890 and dismissing Okuma. Rejecting the British model, Iwakura and other conservatives borrowed heavily from the Prussian constitutional system . One of the Meiji oligarchy, Itō Hirobumi (1841–1909), a Chōshū native long involved in government affairs, was charged with drafting Japan's constitution. He led a constitutional study mission abroad in 1882, spending most of his time in Germany. He rejected

7182-591: The establishment of the Ritsuryō system in 701, Toyo Province was divided into Bungo and Buzen Provinces. The Bungo no Kuni Fudoki , which was compiled in the first half of the 8th century, is one of only five fudoki in Japan that remains in almost complete form. It is believed that the kokufu Bungo was located in the Furugō (古国府), literally "old capital," section of the city of Ōita , but as of 2023 no archaeological evidence has been found. Two shrines vie for

7296-543: The following year. In 1870, Japan expanded its military production base by opening another arsenal in Osaka. The Osaka Arsenal was responsible for the production of machine guns and ammunition. Also, four gunpowder facilities were opened at this site. Japan's production capacity gradually expanded. In 1872, Yamagata Aritomo and Saigō Jūdō , both new field marshals, founded the Corps of the Imperial Guards. Also, in

7410-421: The former samurai class to rebel against the Meiji government during the 1870s, most famously Saigō Takamori , who led the Satsuma Rebellion . However, there were also former samurai who remained loyal while serving in the Meiji government, such as Itō Hirobumi and Itagaki Taisuke . On February 3, 1867, the 14-year-old Prince Mutsuhito succeeded his father, Emperor Kōmei , to the Chrysanthemum Throne as

7524-481: The genome of the Japanese contains three ancestral groups: Jomon , Yayoi , and Kofun. He also said he would like to continue to study the mysterious origin of the Japanese people by examining the genomes of other ancient burial sites. Kenichi Shinoda, director of the National Museum of Nature and Science , added that the genetic information of the Yayoi people varies by region and time period with examples similar to that of modern Japanese people. In order to clarify

7638-412: The genrō made decisions reserved for the Emperor, and the genrō, not the Emperor, controlled the government politically. Throughout the period, however, political problems usually were solved through compromise, and political parties gradually increased their power over the government and held an ever-larger role in the political process as a result. Between 1891 and 1895, Ito served as Prime Minister with

7752-409: The governing institution Japan established in Korea at that time. After the controversy, Japanese and South Korean historians agreed that there were Japanese in the south of Korea and that the term "Mimana Nihon-fu" was not used at the time and should not be used as it was misleading. However, they could not agree on the position of the Japanese people in Korea at that time. The Japanese side claimed that

7866-464: The government included the creation of a unified modern currency based on the yen, banking, commercial and tax laws, stock exchanges, and a communications network. Establishment of a modern institutional framework conductive to an advanced capitalist economy took time, but was completed by the 1890s, by which time the government had largely relinquished direct control of the modernization process, primarily for budgetary reasons. The Land Tax Reform of 1873

7980-481: The influx of Portuguese traders in the Sengoku period , together with the introduction of firearms and Christianity. The Funai area became a center of Jesuit activity. Ōtomo Sōrin met personally with Francis Xavier in 1551, and later converted to Christianity. Referred to as the "King of Bungo" in the Jesuit records, Sōrin sent political delegations to Goa in the 1550s, and the Tenshō embassy to Rome in 1582. He also forced his subjects to convert. and ordered

8094-408: The institutions established in Korea by the Japanese people were not under the control of Koreans, but were operated independently by the Japanese people and conducted diplomatic negotiations with the Gaya confederacy. On the other hand, the South Korean side claimed that the agency was the diplomatic office of Gaya, which employed the Japanese as bureaucrats of Gaya. The collaboration ended in 2010 with

8208-602: The left , and minister of the right , which had existed since the seventh century as advisory positions to the Emperor, were all abolished. In their place, the Privy Council was established in 1888 to evaluate the forthcoming constitution and to advise the Emperor. To further strengthen the authority of the State, the Supreme War Council was established under the leadership of Yamagata Aritomo (1838–1922),

8322-422: The many immigrants that had significant influence in Kofun period Japan included Wani , Yuzuki no Kimi and Achi no Omi , the founders of Kawachinofumi clan / Kawachinoaya clan , Hata clan and Yamatonoaya clan , respectively. Despite being ethnically similar, many immigrants from Baekje and Silla had arrived in Japan during Emperor Ōjin 's reign carrying separate identities and foreign deities such as

8436-506: The middle of the 3rd century in the Yayoi period to the 7th century in the Asuka period, and many of them had huge tombs, but in the southern Korean Peninsula there were only 13 from the 5th century to the 6th century, and the tombs were small. Wall decorations and Japanese-style armor, which are characteristic of older Japanese burial mounds, were excavated from 5th century burial mounds in the southern Korean Peninsula. This shows that Japan and

8550-401: The new business environment. The industrial economy continued to expand rapidly, until about 1920, due to inputs of advanced Western technology and large private investments. By World War I, Japan had become a major industrial nation. Undeterred by opposition, the Meiji leaders continued to modernize the nation through government-sponsored telegraph cable links to all major Japanese cities and

8664-495: The new influences coming from the West with local Japanese culture. Grassroots movements like the Freedom and People's Rights Movement called for the establishment of a formal legislature, civil rights, and greater pluralism in the Japanese political system. Journalists, politicians, and writers actively participated in the movement, which attracted an array of interest groups, including women's rights activists. The elite class of

8778-592: The new monarch. Kanamura resigned due to the failure of his diplomatic policies, and the court was controlled by the Mononobe and Soga clans at the beginning of the Asuka period . Toraijin refers to people who immigrated to Japan from abroad via the Ryukyu Islands or the Korean Peninsula. They introduced numerous, significant aspects of Chinese culture to Japan such as Chinese writing system and Buddhism from India. Valuing their knowledge and culture,

8892-498: The new order, the capital was relocated from Kyoto , where it had been situated since 794, to Tokyo (Eastern Capital), the new name for Edo . In a move critical for the consolidation of the new regime, most daimyōs voluntarily surrendered their land and census records to the Emperor in the abolition of the Han system , symbolizing that the land and people were under the Emperor's jurisdiction. Confirmed in their hereditary positions,

9006-515: The next year on January 3, 1868, with the formation of the new government . The fall of Edo in the summer of 1868 marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate , and a new era, Meiji , was proclaimed. The first reform was the promulgation of the Five Charter Oath in 1868, a general statement of the aims of the Meiji leaders to boost morale and win financial support for the new government . Its five provisions consisted of: Implicit in

9120-519: The other being " Toraijin ", a group of people who entered Japan following the Jomon people. Jun Ohashi, the lead researcher and professor at Tokyo University , explained that 50 people's genetic samples were collected from each prefecture from a total of 47. The study explained that the Toraijin, who entered the Japanese archipelago from the southern Korean peninsula after the Yayoi people (who used

9234-466: The pace of reform after having rejoined the Council of State in 1875, Itagaki organized his followers and other democratic proponents into the nationwide Aikokusha (Society of Patriots) to push for representative government in 1878. In 1881, in an action for which he is best known, Itagaki helped found the Jiyūtō (Liberal Party), which favored French political doctrines. In 1882, Ōkuma Shigenobu established

9348-410: The period, the literary skills of foreigners seem to have been increasingly appreciated by the Japanese elite. The Inariyama Sword , tentatively dated to 471 or 531, contains a Chinese-character inscription in a style used in China at the time. The cavalry wore armour, carried swords and other weapons, and used advanced military methods similar to those of Northeast Asia . Evidence of the advances

9462-492: The political parties and led to divisions within and among them. The Jiyūtō, which had opposed the Kaishinto, was disbanded in 1884 and Ōkuma resigned as Kaishintō president. Government leaders, long preoccupied with violent threats to stability and the serious leadership split over the Korean affair, generally agreed that constitutional government should someday be established. The Chōshū leader Kido Takayoshi had favored

9576-519: The political process. The Emperor shared his authority and gave rights and liberties to his subjects. It provided for the Imperial Diet (Teikoku Gikai), composed of a popularly elected House of Representatives with a very limited franchise of male citizens who were over twenty-five years of age and paid fifteen yen in national taxes (approximately 1% of the population). The House of Peers was composed of nobility and imperial appointees. A cabinet

9690-472: The population expanded in areas such as Shikoku and Kinki." Archaeological sites in Aichi Prefecture have revealed that Jomon people and Toraijin coexisted for a long time throughout the Yayoi period. The differences between prefectures that remain in the modern Japanese archipelago as seen in this analysis may reflect events that no one knows yet that occurred in the process of mixed races during

9804-493: The publication of a final report describing the above. The full text of the minutes concerning the joint research is disclosed by the Japanese side. This period is part of the Yamato period of Japanese History . < Yayoi | History of Japan | Asuka period > Meiji period The Meiji era ( 明治時代 , Meiji jidai , [meꜜː(d)ʑi] ) was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era

9918-497: The publication, an interview with the research team was conducted by The Asahi Shimbun , in which the team explained that the remains of only three Kofun people excavated in Kanazawa City were used to study the genes of Kofun people and that it is necessary to study the genes of the remains of many other people in order to confirm the new hypothesis. Takashi Gakuhari said that this is the first study to provide evidence that

10032-411: The results, he said it is necessary to increase the number of human bones to be analyzed. Under an agreement reached at the 2001 Japan-South Korea summit, Japanese and South Korean historians conducted joint historical research in two phases, including the relationship between Japan and the Korean Peninsula during the Kofun period. The point at issue was the "Mimana Nihon-fu" (任那日本府) which was said to be

10146-566: The rulers invoked the Mandate of Heaven . The title Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi was used until the 7th century, when it was replaced by Tennō . Many of the clans and local chieftains who made up the Yamato polity claimed descent from the imperial family or kami . Archaeological evidence for the clans is found on the Inariyama Sword, on which the bearer recorded the names of his ancestors to claim descent from Ōbiko (大彦, recorded in

10260-463: The ruling circle, however, and despite the conservative approach of the leadership, Okuma continued as a lone advocate of British-style government, a government with political parties and a cabinet organized by the majority party, answerable to the national assembly. He called for elections to be held by 1882 and for a national assembly to be convened by 1883; in doing so, he precipitated a political crisis that ended with an 1881 imperial rescript declaring

10374-558: The ruling class from the 3rd to the 7th centuries in Japan, and the Kofun period takes its name from the distinctive earthen mounds. The mounds contained large stone burial chambers, and some are surrounded by moats . Kofun have four basic shapes: round and square are the most common, followed by 'scallop-shell' and 'keyhole.' The keyhole tomb is a distinct style found only in Japan, with a square front and round back. Kofun range in size from several meters to over 400 meters long, and unglazed pottery figures ( Haniwa ) were often buried under

10488-508: The same design. Another trend in the Meiji era was for women's under-kimono made by combining pieces of different fabric, sometimes of radically different colors and designs. For men, the trend was for highly decorative under-kimono that would be covered by outer kimono that were plain or very simply designed. Even the clothing of infants and young children used bold colors, intricate designs, and materials common to adult fashions. Japanese exports led to kimono becoming an object of fascination in

10602-452: The same route), were concentrated in a specific region of Japan contrary to popular belief. The researchers were intrigued that the genomes found in Kinki , Hokuriku , and Shikoku regions were mostly made up of Toraijin while the rest were mostly composed of Jomon strands. Professor Ohashi said "In northern Kyushu, the population of migrants did not increase much even after landing, but rather

10716-456: The same year, the hyobusho (war office) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department. The samurai class suffered great disappointment the following years, when in January the Conscription Law of 1873 was passed. This monumental law, signifying the beginning of the end for the samurai class, initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted

10830-406: The siege on Kumamoto Castle after fifty-four days. Saigō's troops fled north and were pursued by the national army. The national army caught up with Saigō at Mt. Enodake . Saigō's army was outnumbered seven-to-one, prompting a mass surrender of many samurai. The remaining five hundred samurai loyal to Saigō escaped, travelling south to Kagoshima. The rebellion ended on September 24, 1877, following

10944-523: The southern Korean Peninsula influenced each other. According to the Nihon Shoki , Buddhism and the Chinese writing system were introduced near the end of the period from Baekje . The Kofun period recorded Japan's earliest political centralization, when the Yamato clan rose to power in southwestern Japan, established the Imperial House , and helped control trade routes across the region. Kofun (from Middle Chinese kú 古 "ancient" + bjun 墳 "burial mound") are burial mounds built for members of

11058-442: The speed of Japan's modernization: the employment of more than 3,000 foreign experts (called o-yatoi gaikokujin or 'hired foreigners') in a variety of specialist fields such as teaching foreign languages, science, engineering, the army and navy, among others; and the dispatch of many Japanese students overseas to Europe and America, based on the fifth and last article of the Charter Oath of 1868: 'Knowledge shall be sought throughout

11172-773: The term for military service, ketsu-eki (blood tax) literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary. Avoidance methods included maiming, self-mutilation, and local uprisings. In conjunction with the new conscription law, the Japanese government began modeling their ground forces after the French military. Indeed, the new Japanese army used the same rank structure as the French. The enlisted corps ranks were: private, noncommissioned officers, and officers. The private classes were: jōtō-hei or upper soldier, ittō-sotsu or first-class soldier, and nitō-sotsu or second-class soldier. The noncommissioned officer class ranks were: gochō or corporal, gunsō or sergeant, sōchō or sergeant major, and tokumu-sōchō or special sergeant major. Despite

11286-650: The title of ichinomiya of Bungo Province: the Yusuhara Hachimangū and the Sasamuta Shrine , both of which are located in the city of Ōita, as is the Bungo Kokubun-ji . Usa Jingū , commonly known as "Usa Hachimangū", is often mistakenly stated to be the ichinomiya of the province, but it is located in former Buzen Province and not Bungo. In 1185, at the end of the Heian period , after

11400-430: The tomb of Iwai (political archrival of Emperor Keitai ). Kofun burial mounds on the island of Tanegashima and two very old Shinto shrines on the island of Yakushima suggest that these islands were the southern boundary of the Yamato state ; it extended north to Tainai in the present-day Niigata Prefecture , where excavated mounds have been associated with a person closely linked to the Yamato kingdom. Yamato rule

11514-443: The wealthy elite, could be owned by anyone. Faster and cheaper manufacture allowed more people to afford silk kimono, and enabled designers to create new patterns. The Emperor issued a proclamation promoting Western dress over the allegedly effeminate Japanese dress. Fukuzawa Yukichi 's descriptions of Western clothing and customs were influential. Western dress became popular in the public sphere: many men adopted Western dress in

11628-421: The workplace, although kimono were still the norm for men at home and for women. In the 1890s the kimono reasserted itself, with people wearing bolder and brighter styles. A new type called the hōmongi bridged the gap between formal dress and everyday dress. The technology of the time allowed for subtle color gradients rather than abrupt changes of color. Another trend was for outer and inner garments of

11742-706: The world so as to strengthen the foundations of Imperial rule.' The process of modernization was closely monitored and heavily subsidized by the Meiji government, enhancing the power of the great zaibatsu firms such as Mitsui and Mitsubishi . Hand in hand, the zaibatsu and government led Japan through the process of industrialization, borrowing technology and economic policy from the West. Japan gradually took control of much of Asia's market for manufactured goods, beginning with textiles. The economic structure became very mercantilistic , importing raw materials and exporting finished products—a reflection of Japan's relative poverty in raw materials. Other economic reforms passed by

11856-485: Was Itagaki Taisuke (1837–1919), a powerful Tosa leader who had resigned from the Council of State over the Korean affair in 1873. Itagaki sought peaceful, rather than rebellious, means to gain a voice in government. He started a school and a movement aimed at establishing a constitutional monarchy and a legislative assembly . Such movements were called The Freedom and People's Rights Movement . Itagaki and others wrote

11970-471: Was another significant fiscal reform by the Meiji government, establishing the right of private land ownership for the first time in Japan's history. Many of the former daimyo, whose pensions had been paid in a lump sum, benefited greatly through investments they made in emerging industries. Those who had been informally involved in foreign trade before the Meiji Restoration also flourished. Old bakufu -serving firms that clung to their traditional ways failed in

12084-450: Was based in home workshops in rural areas. Due to the importing of new textile manufacturing technology from Europe, between 1886 and 1897, Japan's total value of yarn output rose from 12 million to 176 million yen. In 1886, 62% of yarn in Japan was imported; by 1902, most yarn was produced locally. By 1913, Japan was producing 672 million pounds of yarn per year, becoming the world's fourth-largest exporter of cotton yarn. The first railway

12198-524: Was characteristic of Meiji society, especially at the top levels, and represented Japan's search for a place within a new world power system in which European colonial empires dominated. The production of kimono started to use Western technologies such as synthetic dye , and decoration was sometimes influenced by Western motifs. The textile industry modernized rapidly and silk from Tokyo's factories became Japan's principal export. Cheap synthetic dyes meant that bold purples and reds, previously restricted to

12312-399: Was chosen as a concubine for Emperor Kōnin and was the mother of Emperor Kanmu . In 2001, Emperor Akihito confirmed his ancient royal Korean heritage through Emperor Kanmu. Chinese , Japanese , and Koreans wrote historical accounts primarily in Chinese characters , making original pronunciation difficult to trace. Although writing was largely unknown to the indigenous Japanese of

12426-553: Was classified under the "East Asian" ancestry, which was represented by the northern Han Chinese in Beijing . It is believed that modern Japanese people are composed of Jōmon, Northeast Asian (Yayoi) and the newly discovered East Asian ancestries. The Nikkei published an article that showed the Kofun strand in modern day Japanese was concentrated in specific regions such as Kinki , Hokuriku and Shikoku . Strong cultural and political affinity between Japan , Korea and China

12540-603: Was conquered by the Japanese Empress-consort Jingū in the third century. However, due to lack of evidence, this story is considered to be mythological in nature. It reported that the prince of Silla came to Japan to serve the emperor of Japan , and lived in Tajima Province . Known as Amenohiboko, his descendant is Tajima Mori . According to Kojiki and Nihon Shoki , Geunchogo of Baekje presented stallions, broodmares and trainers to

12654-546: Was enacted on November 29, 1890. It was a form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy . The Emperor of Japan was legally the supreme leader, and the Cabinet were his followers. The Prime Minister would be elected by a Privy Council . In reality, the Emperor was head of state but the Prime Minister was the actual head of government. Class distinctions were mostly eliminated during modernization to create

12768-524: Was opened between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1872. The rail system was rapidly developed throughout Japan well into the twentieth century. The introduction of railway transportation led to more efficient production due to the decrease in transport costs, allowing manufacturing firms to move into more populated interior regions of Japan in search for labor input. The railway also enabled newfound access to raw materials that had previously been too difficult or too costly to transport. There were at least two reasons for

12882-638: Was responsible to the Emperor and independent of the legislature. The Diet could approve government legislation and initiate laws, make representations to the government, and submit petitions to the Emperor. The Meiji Constitution lasted as the fundamental law until 1947. In the early years of constitutional government, the strengths and weaknesses of the Meiji Constitution were revealed. A small clique of Satsuma and Chōshū elite continued to rule Japan, becoming institutionalized as an extra-constitutional body of genrō (elder statesmen). Collectively,

12996-476: Was the first half of the Empire of Japan , when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization by Western powers to the new paradigm of a modern, industrialized nation state and emergent great power , influenced by Western scientific, technological, philosophical, political, legal, and aesthetic ideas. As a result of such wholesale adoption of radically different ideas,

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