160-683: GISAID ( / ˈ ɡ ɪ s eɪ d / ), the Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data , previously the Global Initiative on Sharing Avian Influenza Data , is a global science initiative established in 2008 to provide access to genomic data of influenza viruses. The database was expanded to include the coronavirus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic , as well as other pathogens. The database has been described as "the world's largest repository of COVID-19 sequences". GISAID facilitates genomic epidemiology and real-time surveillance to monitor
320-598: A Local Grouping of Transnational Cooperation [ fr ] ( GLCT in French, a public entity under Swiss law) in charge of organizing cooperation within the cross-border metropolitan area of Geneva (in particular metropolitan transports). The Grand Genève GLCT extends over 1,996 km (771 sq mi) and had a population of 1,046,168 in Jan. 2021 (Swiss estimates and French census), 58.3% of them living on Swiss territory, and 41.7% on French territory. Geneva
480-477: A dry cough , sore or dry throat , hoarse voice , and a stuffy or runny nose . Coughing is the most common symptom. Gastrointestinal symptoms may also occur, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and gastroenteritis, especially in children. The standard influenza symptoms typically last for two to eight days. Some studies suggest influenza can cause long-lasting symptoms in a similar way to long COVID . Symptomatic infections are usually mild and limited to
640-458: A runny nose . The time between exposure to the virus and development of symptoms (the incubation period ) is one to four days, most commonly one to two days. Many infections are asymptomatic. The onset of symptoms is sudden, and initial symptoms are predominately non-specific, including fever, chills, headaches, muscle pain , malaise , loss of appetite , lack of energy, and confusion. These are usually accompanied by respiratory symptoms such as
800-706: A "fair and transparent" mechanism for sharing data. It was one of the first countries to do so. In February 2007, GISAID and the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB) announced a cooperation agreement, with the SIB building and administering the EpiFlu database on behalf of GISAID. Ultimately, GISAID was launched in May 2008 in Geneva on the occasion of the 61st World Health Assembly, as a registration-based database rather than
960-584: A Database Access Agreement that governs the way GISAID data can be used. These Terms of Use are "weighted in favour of the data provider and gives them enduring control over the genetic data they upload". They prevent users from sharing any data with other users who have not agreed to them, and require that users of the data must credit the data generators in published work, and also make a reasonable attempt to collaborate with data generators and involve them in research and analysis that uses their data. A difficulty that GISAID's Data Access Agreement attempts to address
1120-519: A certain strain in childhood still possess antibodies to that strain at a reasonable level later in life, which can provide some protection to related strains. There is, however, an " original antigenic sin ", in which the first HA subtype a person is exposed to influences the antibody-based immune response to future infections and vaccines. Annual vaccination is the primary and most effective way to prevent influenza and influenza-associated complications, especially for high-risk groups. Vaccines against
1280-526: A child or children. There were 1,852 households that were made up of unrelated people and 3,038 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing. In 2000 , there were 743 single family homes (or 10.6% of the total) out of a total of 6,990 inhabited buildings. There were 2,758 multi-family buildings (39.5%), along with 2,886 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (41.3%) and 603 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (8.6%). Of
1440-632: A consortium. In 2009 SIB disconnected the database from the GISAID portal over a contract dispute, resulting in litigation. In April 2010 the Federal Republic of Germany announced during the 7th International Ministerial Conference on Avian and Pandemic Influenza in Hanoi , Vietnam , that GISAID had entered into a cooperation agreement with the German government, making Germany the long-term host of
1600-901: A culture of mammalian cells or embryonated eggs for 3–10 days to monitor cytopathic effect. Final confirmation can then be done via antibody staining, hemadsorption using red blood cells , or immunofluorescence microscopy. Shell vial cultures, which can identify infection via immunostaining before a cytopathic effect appears, are more sensitive than traditional cultures with results in 1–3 days. Cultures can be used to characterize novel viruses, observe sensitivity to antiviral drugs, and monitor antigenic drift, but they are relatively slow and require specialized skills and equipment. Serological assays can be used to detect an antibody response to influenza after natural infection or vaccination. Common serological assays include hemagglutination inhibition assays that detect HA-specific antibodies, virus neutralization assays that check whether antibodies have neutralized
1760-461: A distinct "head" and "stalk" structure. M2 proteins form proton channels through the viral envelope that are required for viral entry and exit. Influenza B viruses contain a surface protein named NB that is anchored in the envelope, but its function is unknown. The viral life cycle begins by binding to a target cell. Binding is mediated by the viral HA proteins on the surface of the envelope, which bind to cells that contain sialic acid receptors on
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#17327717638451920-460: A favourable Franco-Swiss tax regime for French residents working in Switzerland. The official language of Geneva (both the city and the canton) is French . English is also common due to a high number of Anglophone residents working in international institutions and the bank sector. In 2000 there were 128,622 residents, or 72.3% of the population, who spoke French as a first language. English
2080-425: A hemagglutinin-esterase fusion (HEF) protein on one segment that merges the functions of HA and NA. The final genome segment encodes the viral nucleoprotein (NP). Influenza viruses also encode various accessory proteins, such as PB1-F2 and PA-X, that are expressed through alternative open reading frames and which are important in host defense suppression, virulence, and pathogenicity. The virus particle, called
2240-401: A higher risk of developing complications if these individuals are still shedding the virus. Antiviral treatment is also recommended if a person is hospitalized with suspected influenza instead of waiting for test results to return and if symptoms are worsening. Most antiviral drugs against influenza fall into two categories: neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors and M2 inhibitors. Baloxavir marboxil is
2400-613: A higher temperature than mammalian influenza viruses. Newly synthesized viral polymerase subunits and NP proteins are imported to the nucleus to further increase the rate of viral replication and form RNPs. HA, NA, and M2 proteins are trafficked with the aid of M1 and NEP proteins to the cell membrane through the Golgi apparatus and inserted into the cell's membrane. Viral non-structural proteins including NS1, PB1-F2, and PA-X regulate host cellular processes to disable antiviral responses. PB1-F2 also interacts with PB1 to keep polymerases in
2560-553: A limited number, so it is difficult to predict when the next will happen. The Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System of the World Health Organization (GISRS) tests several millions of specimens annually to monitor the spread and evolution of influenza viruses. People who are infected can transmit influenza viruses through breathing, talking, coughing, and sneezing, which spread respiratory droplets and aerosols that contain virus particles into
2720-509: A lowest price per square metre (11 sq ft) of 4,874 Swiss francs (CHF), and a maximum price of 21,966 Swiss francs (CHF). William Monter calculates that the city's total population was 12,000–13,000 in 1550, doubling to over 25,000 by 1560. The historical population is given in the following chart: The 2000 census recorded 66,491 residents (37.4% of the population) as Catholic, while 41,289 people (23.20%) belonged to no church or were agnostic or atheist , 24,105 (13.5%) belonged to
2880-414: A major focus of research pertaining to antiviral drugs, vaccines, and other measures against influenza. Influenza C virus is subclassified into six genetic/antigenic lineages. Influenza D virus has been isolated from pigs and cattle, the latter being the natural reservoir. Infection has also been observed in humans, horses, dromedary camels, and small ruminants such as goats and sheep. Influenza D virus
3040-548: A major health threat? Let's get our priorities straight." Peter Bogner , a German in his 40s based in the US and who previously had no experience in public health, read an article about Capua's call and helped to found and fund GISAID. Bogner met Nancy Cox , who was then leading the US Centers for Disease Control 's influenza division at a conference, and Cox went on to chair GISAID's Scientific Advisory Council. The acronym GISAID
3200-709: A member of the Municipal Council. The Council holds its meetings in the Town Hall ( Hôtel de Ville ), in the old city. The last election of the Municipal Council was held on 15 March 2020 for the term 2020–2025. Currently, the Municipal Council consists of: 19 members of the Social Democratic Party (PS), 18 Green Party (PES), 14 Les Libéraux-Radicaux (PLR), 8 Christian Democratic People's Party ; (PDC) 7 Geneva Citizens' Movement (MCG), 7 Ensemble à Gauche (an alliance of
3360-476: A model for future initiatives; Because of this work, the entity has been described as "a critical shield for humankind". GISAID maintains what has been described as "the world's largest repository of COVID-19 sequences", and "by far the world's largest database of SARS-CoV-2 sequences". By mid-April 2021, GISAID's SARS-CoV-2 database reached over 1,200,000 submissions, a testament to the hard work of researchers in over 170 different countries. Only three months later,
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#17327717638453520-532: A nonprofit organisation based in Washington DC and the organisation began to be operated by a German association called Freunde von GISAID (Friends of GISAID). Some of the earliest SARS-CoV-2 genetic sequences were released by the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention and shared through GISAID in mid January 2020. Since 2020, millions of SARS-CoV-2 genome sequences have been uploaded to
3680-503: A notable exception, which targets the endonuclease activity of the viral RNA polymerase and can be used as an alternative to NA and M2 inhibitors for influenza A virus and influenza B virus. Geneva Geneva ( / dʒ ə ˈ n iː v ə / jə- NEE -və ; Arpitan : [dzəˈnɛva] ; French: Genève [ʒənɛv] ) is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich ) and
3840-465: A one-room apartment was 641.60 CHF (US$ 510, £290, €410), a two-room apartment was about 874.46 CHF (US$ 700, £390, €560), a three-room apartment was about 1126.37 CHF (US$ 900, £510, €720) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 2691.07 CHF (US$ 2150, £1210, €1720). The average apartment price in Geneva was 104.2% of the national average of 1116 CHF. The vacancy rate for the municipality, in 2010 ,
4000-450: A pandemic. Influenza C virus, like influenza B virus, is primarily found in humans, though it has been detected in pigs, feral dogs, dromedary camels, cattle, and dogs. Influenza C virus infection primarily affects children and is usually asymptomatic or has mild cold-like symptoms, though more severe symptoms such as gastroenteritis and pneumonia can occur. Unlike influenza A virus and influenza B virus, influenza C virus has not been
4160-449: A period of improvement in symptoms for one to three weeks followed by recurrent fever, sputum production, and fluid buildup in the lungs , but can also occur just a few days after influenza symptoms appear. About a third of primary pneumonia cases are followed by secondary pneumonia, which is most frequently caused by the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus . Influenza viruses comprise four species, each
4320-454: A population of 1,046,168 in Jan. 2021 (Swiss estimates and French census), 58.3% of them living on Swiss territory, and 41.7% on French territory. Geneva does not have any sister relationships with other cities. It declares itself related to the entire world. The city of Geneva ( ville de Genève ) had a population 203,856 in 2021 (Jan. estimate) within its small municipal territory of 16 km (6 sq mi). The city of Geneva
4480-565: A profit at prices many poor nations cannot afford". In a 2022 piece in The Lancet , it was further noted that scientists in North America and Europe sought unrestricted access, with "scientists from Africa requiring sufficient protections for those who generate and share data as per the GISAID terms and conditions". Unlike public-domain databases such as GenBank and EMBL , users of GISAID must have their identity confirmed and agree to
4640-424: A secondary bacterial infection occurs, then antibiotics may be necessary. Antiviral drugs are primarily used to treat severely ill patients, especially those with compromised immune systems. Antivirals are most effective when started in the first 48 hours after symptoms appear. Later administration may still be beneficial for those who have underlying immune defects, those with more severe symptoms, or those who have
4800-532: A simple way of obtaining assay results, are low cost, and produce results in less than 30 minutes, so they are commonly used, but they can not distinguish between influenza A virus and influenza B virus or between influenza A virus subtypes and are not as sensitive as nucleic-acid based tests. Nucleic acid-based tests (NATs) amplify and detect viral nucleic acid. Most of these tests take a few hours, but rapid molecular assays are as fast as RIDTs. Among NATs, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)
4960-459: A total of 85,330 apartments (83.8% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 13,644 apartments (13.4%) were seasonally occupied and 2,820 apartments (2.8%) were empty. As of 2009 , the construction rate of new housing units was 1.3 new units per 1000 residents. As of 2003 , the average price to rent an average apartment in Geneva was 1163.30 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$ 930, £520, €740 approx. exchange rate from 2003). The average rate for
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5120-448: A transcriptase, PB2, which recognizes 5' caps , and PA (P3 for influenza C virus and influenza D virus), an endonuclease . The M1 matrix protein and M2 proton channel share a segment, as do the non-structural protein (NS1) and the nuclear export protein (NEP). For influenza A virus and influenza B virus, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) are encoded on one segment each, whereas influenza C virus and influenza D virus encode
5280-476: A type of white blood cell, produce antibodies that bind to influenza antigens HA and NA (or HEF ) and other proteins to a lesser degree. Once bound to these proteins, antibodies block virions from binding to cellular receptors, neutralizing the virus. In humans, a sizeable antibody response occurs about one week after viral exposure. This antibody response is typically robust and long-lasting, especially for influenza C virus and influenza D virus. People exposed to
5440-550: A type-1 hemagglutinin (H) protein and a type-1 neuraminidase (N) protein. Almost all possible combinations of H (1 thru 16) and N (1 thru 11) have been isolated from wild birds. In addition H17, H18, N10 and N11 have been found in bats. The influenza A virus subtypes in circulation among humans as of 2018 are H1N1 and H3N2. Influenza B virus mainly infects humans but has been identified in seals, horses, dogs, and pigs. Influenza B virus does not have subtypes like influenza A virus but has two antigenically distinct lineages, termed
5600-450: A unique distinction with municipalities such as New York City ( global headquarters of the UN ), Basel ( Bank for International Settlements ), and Strasbourg ( Council of Europe ) as a city which serves as the headquarters of at least one critical international organization without being the capital of a country. The city has been referred to as the world's most compact metropolis and
5760-425: A virion, is pleomorphic and varies between being filamentous, bacilliform, or spherical in shape. Clinical isolates tend to be pleomorphic, whereas strains adapted to laboratory growth typically produce spherical virions. Filamentous virions are about 250 nanometers (nm) by 80 nm, bacilliform 120–250 by 95 nm, and spherical 120 nm in diameter. The core of the virion comprises one copy of each segment of
5920-400: A year, once for each hemisphere, to discuss which strains should be included based on observation from HA inhibition assays. Other manufacturing methods include an MDCK cell culture-based inactivated vaccine and a recombinant subunit vaccine manufactured from baculovirus overexpression in insect cells. Influenza can be prevented or reduced in severity by post-exposure prophylaxis with
6080-714: Is a global city , a financial centre , and a worldwide centre for diplomacy due to the presence of numerous international organizations , including the headquarters of many agencies of the United Nations and the ICRC and IFRC of the Red Cross . In the aftermath of World War I , it hosted the League of Nations . It was where the Geneva Conventions on humanitarian treatment in war were signed. It shares
6240-465: Is a sudden, drastic change in an influenza virus' antigen, usually HA. During antigenic shift, antigenically different strains that infect the same cell can reassort genome segments with each other, producing hybrid progeny. Since all influenza viruses have segmented genomes, all are capable of reassortment. Antigenic shift only occurs among influenza viruses of the same genus and most commonly occurs among influenza A viruses. In particular, reassortment
6400-468: Is acidified by cellular vATPase to have lower pH, which triggers a conformational change in HA that allows fusion of the viral envelope with the endosomal membrane. At the same time, hydrogen ions diffuse into the virion through M2 ion channels, disrupting internal protein-protein interactions to release RNPs into the host cell's cytosol . The M1 protein shell surrounding RNPs is degraded, fully uncoating RNPs in
6560-647: Is at the centre of the Geneva metropolitan area , a Functional Urban Area (as per Eurostat methodology) which extends over Swiss territory (entire Canton of Geneva and part of the canton of Vaud ) and French territory (parts of the departments of Ain and Haute-Savoie ). The Geneva Functional Urban Area covers a land area of 2,292 km (885 sq mi) (24.2% in Switzerland, 75.8% in France) and had 1,053,436 inhabitants in Jan. 2021 (Swiss estimates and French census), 57.8% of them on Swiss territory and 42.2% on French territory. The Geneva metropolitan area
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6720-763: Is characterized by high levels of viral replication in the lower respiratory tract, accompanied by a strong pro-inflammatory response called a cytokine storm . Infection with H5N1 or H7N9 especially produces high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In bacterial infections, early depletion of macrophages during influenza creates a favorable environment in the lungs for bacterial growth since these white blood cells are important in responding to bacterial infection. Host mechanisms to encourage tissue repair may inadvertently allow bacterial infection. Infection also induces production of systemic glucocorticoids that can reduce inflammation to preserve tissue integrity but allow increased bacterial growth. The pathophysiology of influenza
6880-419: Is dependent on vaccination with biosecurity. Diagnosis based on symptoms is fairly accurate in otherwise healthy people during seasonal epidemics and should be suspected in cases of pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), sepsis , or if encephalitis, myocarditis , or breakdown of muscle tissue occur. Because influenza is similar to other viral respiratory tract illnesses, laboratory diagnosis
7040-436: Is diagnosed with laboratory methods such as antibody or antigen tests and a polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) to identify viral nucleic acid . The disease can be treated with supportive measures and, in severe cases, with antiviral drugs such as oseltamivir . In healthy individuals, influenza is typically self-limiting and rarely fatal, but it can be deadly in high-risk groups. In a typical year, five to 15 percent of
7200-477: Is distantly related to influenza C virus. While cattle workers have occasionally tested positive to prior influenza D virus infection, it is not known to cause disease in humans. Influenza C virus and influenza D virus experience a slower rate of antigenic evolution than influenza A virus and influenza B virus. Because of this antigenic stability, relatively few novel lineages emerge. Every year, millions of influenza virus samples are analysed to monitor changes in
7360-425: Is exported out of the nucleus and translated by host ribosomes in a cap-dependent manner to synthesize viral proteins. RdRp also synthesizes complementary positive-sense strands of the viral genome in a complementary RNP complex which are then used as templates by viral polymerases to synthesize copies of the negative-sense genome. During these processes, RdRps of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) function optimally at
7520-427: Is in the area about two meters around an infected person via respiratory droplets that come into contact with mucosa of the upper respiratory tract. Transmission through contact with a person, bodily fluids, or intermediate objects ( fomites ) can also occur, since influenza viruses can survive for hours on non-porous surfaces. If one's hands are contaminated, then touching one's face can cause infection. Influenza
7680-506: Is intracellular and performed by ubiquitous proteases, which allows for infection of a greater variety of cells, thereby contributing to more severe disease. Cells possess sensors to detect viral RNA, which can then induce interferon production. Interferons mediate expression of antiviral proteins and proteins that recruit immune cells to the infection site, and they notify nearby uninfected cells of infection. Some infected cells release pro-inflammatory cytokines that recruit immune cells to
7840-685: Is made up of the Canton of Geneva , the Nyon District (in the canton of Vaud), and the Pôle métropolitain du Genevois français [ fr ] (literally 'Metropolitan hub of the French Genevan territory'), this last one a federation of eight French intercommunal councils in Ain and Haute-Savoie . The Grand Genève GLCT extends over 1,996 km (771 sq mi) and had
8000-614: Is necessary for confirmation. Common sample collection methods for testing include nasal and throat swabs. Samples may be taken from the lower respiratory tract if infection has cleared the upper but not lower respiratory tract. Influenza testing is recommended for anyone hospitalized with symptoms resembling influenza during flu season or who is connected to an influenza case. For severe cases, earlier diagnosis improves patient outcome. Diagnostic methods that can identify influenza include viral cultures , antibody- and antigen-detecting tests, and nucleic acid-based tests. Viruses can be grown in
8160-734: Is not known to cause illness. In humans, influenza viruses are primarily transmitted through respiratory droplets from coughing and sneezing. Transmission through aerosols and surfaces contaminated by the virus also occur. Frequent hand washing and covering one's mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing reduce transmission, as does wearing a mask. Annual vaccination can help to provide protection against influenza. Influenza viruses, particularly influenza A virus, evolve quickly, so flu vaccines are updated regularly to match which influenza strains are in circulation. Vaccines provide protection against influenza A virus subtypes H1N1 and H3N2 and one or two influenza B virus subtypes. Influenza infection
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#17327717638458320-568: Is one of the fastest growing in Europe. Its population rose from 906,603 in Jan. 2010 to 1,053,436 in Jan. 2021, which means the metropolitan area registered a population growth rate of +1.39% per year during those 11 years. Growth is higher in the French part of the metropolitan area (+1.80% per year between 2010 and 2021) than in the Swiss part (+1.10% per year between 2010 and 2021), as Geneva attracts many French commuters due to high Swiss salaries and
8480-544: Is recommended for people who have yet to receive a vaccine for the current flu season, who have been vaccinated less than two week since contact, if there is a significant mismatch between vaccine and circulating strains, or during an outbreak in a closed setting regardless of vaccination history. These are the main ways that influenza spreads When vaccines and antiviral medications are limited, non-pharmaceutical interventions are essential to reduce transmission and spread. The lack of controlled studies and rigorous evidence of
8640-413: Is recommended to avoid alcohol and tobacco use while ill. Aspirin is not recommended to treat influenza in children due to an elevated risk of developing Reye syndrome . Corticosteroids are not recommended except when treating septic shock or an underlying medical condition, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma exacerbation, since they are associated with increased mortality. If
8800-764: Is removed and facilities are disinfected and "no carry-over" policies to eliminate infectious material before new poultry arrive can be used to reduce the spread of influenza viruses. If a novel influenza viruses has breached the aforementioned biosecurity measures, then rapid detection to stamp it out via quarantining, decontamination, and culling may be necessary to prevent the virus from becoming endemic. Vaccines exist for avian H5, H7, and H9 subtypes that are used in some countries. In China, for example, vaccination of domestic birds against H7N9 successfully limited its spread, indicating that vaccination may be an effective strategy if used in combination with other measures to limit transmission. In pigs and horses, management of influenza
8960-464: Is significantly influenced by which receptors influenza viruses bind to during entry into cells. Mammalian influenza viruses preferentially bind to sialic acids connected to the rest of the oligosaccharide by an α-2,6 link, most commonly found in various respiratory cells, such as respiratory and retinal epithelial cells. AIVs prefer sialic acids with an α-2,3 linkage, which are most common in birds in gastrointestinal epithelial cells and in humans in
9120-566: Is simpler. Examples are B/Santiago/29615/2020 and C/Minnesota/10/2015. Influenza viruses have a negative-sense , single-stranded RNA genome that is segmented. The negative sense of the genome means it can be used as a template to synthesize messenger RNA (mRNA). Influenza A virus and influenza B virus have eight genome segments that encode 10 major proteins. Influenza C virus and influenza D virus have seven genome segments that encode nine major proteins. Three segments encode three subunits of an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) complex: PB1,
9280-516: Is slower in B than A and slowest in C and D. Antigenic drift is a major cause of seasonal influenza, and requires that flu vaccines be updated annually. HA is the main component of inactivated vaccines, so surveillance monitors antigenic drift of this antigen among circulating strains. Antigenic evolution of influenza viruses of humans appears to be faster than in swine and equines. In wild birds, within-subtype antigenic variation appears to be limited but has been observed in poultry. Antigenic shift
9440-426: Is that many researchers fear sharing of influenza sequence data could facilitate its misappropriation through intellectual property claims by the vaccine industry and others, hindering access to vaccines and other items in developing countries, either through high costs or by preventing technology transfer . While most public interest experts agree with GISAID that influenza sequence data should be made public, and this
9600-461: Is the most traditional and considered the gold standard for diagnosing influenza because it is fast and can subtype influenza A virus, but it is relatively expensive and more prone to false-positives than cultures. Other NATs that have been used include loop-mediated isothermal amplification -based assays, simple amplification-based assays, and nucleic acid sequence-based amplification. Nucleic acid sequencing methods can identify infection by obtaining
9760-516: Is the subject of agreement by many researchers, some provide the information only after filing patent claims while others have said that access to it should be only on the condition that no patents or other intellectual property claims are filed, as was controversial with the Human Genome Project . GISAID's Data Access Agreement addresses this directly to promote sharing data. GISAID's procedures additionally suggest that those who access
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#17327717638459920-407: Is usually transmissible from one day before the onset of symptoms to 5–7 days after. In healthy adults, the virus is shed for up to 3–5 days. In children and the immunocompromised, the virus may be transmissible for several weeks. Children ages 2–17 are considered to be the primary and most efficient spreaders of influenza. Children who have not had multiple prior exposures to influenza viruses shed
10080-501: Is very common in AIVs, creating a large diversity of influenza viruses in birds, but is uncommon in human, equine, and canine lineages. Pigs, bats, and quails have receptors for both mammalian and avian influenza A viruses, so they are potential "mixing vessels" for reassortment. If an animal strain reassorts with a human strain, then a novel strain can emerge that is capable of human-to-human transmission. This has caused pandemics, but only
10240-437: Is wasteland. Of the built-up area, industrial buildings made up 3.4%, housing and buildings made up 46.2% and transportation infrastructure 25.8%, while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 15.7%. Of the agricultural land, 0.3% is used for growing crops. Of the water in the municipality, 0.2% is composed of lakes and 2.9% is rivers and streams. The altitude of Geneva is 373.6 m (1,225.7 ft) and corresponds to
10400-519: Is when an influenza virus' antigens change due to the gradual accumulation of mutations in the antigen's (HA or NA) gene. This can occur in response to evolutionary pressure exerted by the host immune response. Antigenic drift is especially common for the HA protein, in which just a few amino acid changes in the head region can constitute antigenic drift. The result is the production of novel strains that can evade pre-existing antibody-mediated immunity. Antigenic drift occurs in all influenza species but
10560-592: The Directory annexed Geneva. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars , on 1 June 1814, Geneva was admitted to the Swiss Confederation . In 1907, the separation of Church and State was adopted. Geneva flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries, becoming the seat of many international organizations. Geneva is located at 46°12' North, 6°09' East, at the south-western end of Lake Geneva , where
10720-513: The Green Party (11.4%), the PDC (10.7%), and the solidaritéS (8.8%). In the federal election a total of 36,490 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 44.1%. The city centre of Geneva is located only 1.9 km (1.2 mi) from the border of France . As a result, the urban area and the metropolitan area largely extend across the border on French territory. Due to the small size of
10880-681: The PdA / solidaritéS (10%, +1.3), the PDC (5.4%, -5.3), the pvl (5%, +2.9), and MCR (4.9%, -2.7). In the federal election a total of 34,319 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 39.6%. In the 2015 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the PS which received 23.8% of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the PLR (17.6%), the UDC (16.3%),
11040-709: The Rhône flows out. It is surrounded by three mountain chains, each belonging to the Jura : the Jura main range lies north-westward, the Vuache southward, and the Salève south-eastward. The city covers an area of 15.93 km (6.2 sq mi), while the area of the canton is 282 km (108.9 sq mi), including the two small exclaves of Céligny in Vaud . The part of
11200-635: The Swiss Reformed Church , and 8,698 (4.89%) were Muslim . There were also 3,959 members of an Orthodox church (2.22%), 220 individuals (or about 0.12% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland , 2,422 (1.36%) who belonged to another Christian church, and 2,601 people (1.46%) who were Jewish. There were 707 individuals who were Buddhist, 474 who were Hindu and 423 who belonged to another church. 26,575 respondents (14.93%) did not answer
11360-471: The upper respiratory tract , but progression to pneumonia is relatively common. Pneumonia may be caused by the primary viral infection or a secondary bacterial infection . Primary pneumonia is characterized by rapid progression of fever, cough, labored breathing , and low oxygen levels that cause bluish skin . It is especially common among those who have an underlying cardiovascular disease such as rheumatic heart disease . Secondary pneumonia typically has
11520-495: The "Peace Capital". In 2023, Geneva was ranked as the world's tenth most important financial centre by the Global Financial Centres Index , second in Europe behind London. In 2019, Geneva was ranked among the ten most liveable cities in the world by Mercer , alongside Zürich and Basel, as well as the thirteenth most expensive city in the world. In a UBS ranking of global cities in 2018, Geneva
11680-510: The Administrative Council and the administration. The delegates are selected by means of a system of proportional representation with a seven percent threshold. The sessions of the Municipal Council are public. Unlike members of the Administrative Council, members of the Municipal Council are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of Geneva allowed to vote can be elected as
11840-528: The Australian non-profit organization Cambia and the Creative Commons project Science Commons . Although no essential ground rules for sharing were established, the correspondence letter was signed by over 70 leading scientists, including seven Nobel laureates , because access to the most current genetic data for the highly pathogenic H5N1 zoonotic virus was often restricted, in part due to
12000-569: The B/Victoria/2/1987-like and B/Yamagata/16/1988-like lineages, or simply (B/)Victoria(-like) and (B/)Yamagata(-like). Both lineages are in circulation in humans, disproportionately affecting children. However, the B/Yamagata lineage might have become extinct in 2020/2021 due to COVID-19 pandemic measures. Influenza B viruses contribute to seasonal epidemics alongside influenza A viruses but have never been associated with
12160-563: The CRFG created in 1973. Finally in 2012 the Projet d’agglomération franco-valdo-genevois was renamed Grand Genève ('Greater Geneva'), and the following year it was transformed into a Local Grouping of Transnational Cooperation [ fr ] ( GLCT ), a public entity under Swiss law, which now serves as the executive body of the Grand Genève . The Grand Genève GLCT
12320-473: The CRFG defined for the first time a planning territory called agglomération franco-valdo-genevoise ('Franco- Vaud -Genevan urban area'). 2001 saw the creation of a Comité stratégique de développement des transports publics régionaux ('Strategic Committee for the Development of Regional Public Transports', DTPR ), a committee which adopted in 2003 a 'Charter for Public Transports', first step in
12480-437: The EpiFlu database consult the countries of origin of genetic sequences and the researchers who discovered the sequences. As a result, the GISAID license has been important in rapid pandemic preparedness. However, these restrictions evidence common criticisms to an open data model . GISAID describes itself as "open access", which is naturally replicated by the media and in journal publications. This description indeed aligns with
12640-540: The French departments of Ain and Haute-Savoie , extends over 2,292 km (885 sq mi) and had a population of 1,053,436 in 2021. Since 2013, the Canton of Geneva, the Nyon District (in the canton of Vaud), and the Pôle métropolitain du Genevois français [ fr ] ( lit. ' Metropolitan hub of the French Genevan territory ' , a federation of eight French intercommunal councils), have formed Grand Genève ("Greater Geneva"),
12800-578: The GISAID database. In 2022, GISAID added Mpox virus and Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) to the list of pathogens supported by its database. Indonesia's Ministry of Health announced in November 2023 the establishment of GISAID Academy in Bali , to focus on bioinformatics education, advance pathogen genomic surveillance, and increased regional response capacity. The GISAID model of incentivizing and recognizing those who deposit data has been recommended as
12960-632: The GISAID platform. Under the agreement, Germany's Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection was to ensure the sustainability of the initiative by providing technical hosting facilities, and the Federal Institute for Animal Health , the Friedrich Loeffler Institute , was to ensure the plausibility and curation of scientific data in GISAID. By 2021, the ministry was no longer involved with either database hosting nor curation. In 2013 GISAID dissolved
13120-702: The Late Roman Empire , and acquired its first bishop in the 5th century, having been connected to the Bishopric of Vienne in the 4th. In the Middle Ages , Geneva was ruled by a count under the Holy Roman Empire until the late 14th century, when it was granted a charter giving it a high degree of self-governance. Around this time, the House of Savoy came to at least nominally dominate
13280-412: The Municipal Council are carried out by the Administrative Council. Elections for the Administrative Council are held every five years. The current term of office is from 1 June 2020 to 31 May 2025. The delegates take office due to a winner-takes-all election ( French : scrutin majoritaire , Swiss Standard German : Majorzwahl or Majorz ). The mayor and vice change each year, while
13440-513: The WHO's Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS). Countries provided samples to the WHO but the data was then shared with them for free with pharmaceutical companies who could patent vaccines produced from the samples. Beginning in January 2006, Italian researcher Ilaria Capua refused to upload her data to a closed database and called for genomic data on H5N1 avian influenza to be in
13600-409: The air. A person susceptible to infection can contract influenza by coming into contact with these particles. Respiratory droplets are relatively large and travel less than two meters before falling onto nearby surfaces. Aerosols are smaller and remain suspended in the air longer, so they take longer to settle and can travel further. Inhalation of aerosols can lead to infection, but most transmission
13760-465: The airways, loss of alveolar structure, loss of lung epithelial integrity due to epithelial cell infection and death, and degradation of the extracellular matrix that maintains lung structure. In particular, alveolar cell infection appears to drive severe symptoms since this results in impaired gas exchange and enables viruses to infect endothelial cells, which produce large quantities of pro-inflammatory cytokines . Pneumonia caused by influenza viruses
13920-515: The altitude of the largest of the Pierres du Niton , two large rocks emerging from the lake which date from the last ice age . This rock was chosen by General Guillaume Henri Dufour as the reference point for surveying in Switzerland. The second main river of Geneva is the Arve , which flows into the Rhône just west of the city centre. Mont Blanc can be seen from Geneva and is an hour's drive from
14080-463: The antiviral drugs oseltamivir , which can be taken orally by those at least three months old, and zanamivir , which can be inhaled by those above seven years. Chemoprophylaxis is most useful for individuals at high risk for complications and those who cannot receive the flu vaccine. Post-exposure chemoprophylaxis is only recommended if oseltamivir is taken within 48 hours of contact with a confirmed or suspected case and zanamivir within 36 hours. It
14240-567: The border in France, dominates the southerly view from the city centre, and Mont Blanc , the highest of the Alpine range, is visible from most of the city, towering high above Chamonix , which, along with Morzine, Le Grand Bornand, La Clusaz, and resorts of the Grand Massif such as Samoens, Morillon, and Flaine, are the closest French skiing destinations to Geneva. During the years 2000–2009,
14400-469: The center of disputes between groups of scientists, which will tend to result in the losing side blaming GISAID for that outcome. Influenza Influenza , commonly known as the flu , is an infectious disease caused by influenza viruses . Symptoms range from mild to severe and often include fever , runny nose , sore throat , muscle pain , headache , coughing , and fatigue . These symptoms begin one to four (typically two) days after exposure to
14560-440: The city. The climate of Geneva is a temperate climate , more specifically an oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification : Cfb ). Winters are cool, usually with light frosts at night and thawing conditions during the day. Summers are relatively warm. Precipitation is adequate and is relatively well-distributed throughout the year, although autumn is slightly wetter than other seasons. Ice storms near Lac Léman are normal in
14720-718: The city. In the 15th century, an oligarchic republican government emerged with the creation of the Grand Council . In the first half of the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation reached the city, causing religious strife, during which Savoy rule was thrown off and Geneva allied itself with the Swiss Confederacy . In 1541, with Protestantism on the rise, John Calvin , the Protestant Reformer and proponent of Calvinism , became
14880-408: The coronavirus and the rapid rise of new variants. GISAID's restrictions on access have led to conflict with "labs and institutions whose priorities are academic rather than driven by the immediate priorities of public health protection". In January 2021, GISAID's restricted access led a group of scientists to write an open letter asking for SARS-CoV-2 sequences to be deposited in open databases, which
15040-427: The cytoplasmic side of the membrane. The viral genome is incorporated inside a viral envelope derived from portions of the cell membrane that have HA, NA, and M2 proteins. At the end of budding, HA proteins remain attached to cellular sialic acid until they are cleaved by the sialidase activity of NA proteins. The virion is then released from the cell. The sialidase activity of NA also cleaves any sialic acid residues from
15200-404: The cytosol. RNPs are then imported into the nucleus with the help of viral localization signals. There, the viral RNA polymerase transcribes mRNA using the genomic negative-sense strand as a template. The polymerase snatches 5' caps for viral mRNA from cellular RNA to prime mRNA synthesis and the 3'-end of mRNA is polyadenylated at the end of transcription. Once viral mRNA is transcribed, it
15360-419: The development of a metropolitan, cross-border commuter rail network (see Léman Express ). In 2004, a public transnational body called Projet d’agglomération franco-valdo-genevois ('Franco-Vaud-Genevan urban area project') was created to serve as the main body of metropolitan cooperation for the planning territory defined in 1997, with more local French councils taking part in this new public body than in
15520-530: The effectiveness of some measures has hampered planning decisions and recommendations. Nevertheless, strategies endorsed by experts for all phases of flu outbreaks include hand and respiratory hygiene, self-isolation by symptomatic individuals and the use of face masks by them and their caregivers, surface disinfection, rapid testing and diagnosis, and contact tracing . In some cases, other forms of social distancing including school closures and travel restrictions are recommended. Reasonably effective ways to reduce
15680-579: The emergence of new COVID-19 viral strains across the planet. Since its establishment as an alternative to sharing avian influenza data via conventional public-domain archives, GISAID has facilitated the exchange of outbreak genome data during the H1N1 pandemic in 2009, the H7N9 epidemic in 2013, the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2022–2023 mpox outbreak . Since 1952, influenza strains had been collected by National Influenza Centers (NICs) and distributed through
15840-513: The executive government of the city of Geneva and operates as a collegiate authority. It is composed of five councilors ( Conseiller administratif / Conseillère administrative ), each presiding over a department. The president of the executive department acts as mayor ( la maire/le maire ). In the governmental year 2021–2022, the Administrative Council is presided over by Madame la maire de Genève Frédérique Perler . Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by
16000-719: The first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, most of the SARS-CoV-2 whole-genome sequences that were generated and shared globally were submitted through GISAID. When the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant was detected in South Africa, by quickly uploading the sequence to GISAID, the National Institute for Communicable Diseases there was able to learn that Botswana and Hong Kong had also reported cases possessing
16160-514: The five seats and, for the first time in history, a female majority in the election held on 15 March / 5 April 2020. Except for the mayor, all other councillors have been elected for the first time. Le Conseil municipal of Geneva for the mandate period of 2020–2025 The Municipal Council ( French : Conseil municipal ) holds legislative power . It is made up of 80 members, with elections held every five years. The Municipal Council makes regulations and by-laws that are executed by
16320-462: The flu are trivalent or quadrivalent, providing protection against an H1N1 strain, an H3N2 strain, and one or two influenza B virus strains corresponding to the two influenza B virus lineages. Two types of vaccines are in use: inactivated vaccines that contain "killed" (i.e. inactivated) viruses and live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs) that contain weakened viruses. There are three types of inactivated vaccines: whole virus, split virus, in which
16480-541: The genome bound to NP nucleoproteins in separate ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes for each segment. There is a copy of the RdRp, all subunits included, bound to each RNP. The genetic material is encapsulated by a layer of M1 matrix protein which provides structural reinforcement to the outer layer, the viral envelope . The envelope comprises a lipid bilayer membrane incorporating HA and NA (or HEF ) proteins extending outward from its exterior surface. HA and HEF proteins have
16640-607: The heads of the other departments are assigned by the collegiate. The executive body holds its meetings in the Palais Eynard, near the Parc des Bastions . As of 2020, Geneva's Administrative Council is made up of two representatives each of the Social Democratic Party (PS) and the Green Party (PES), and one member of the Christian Democratic Party (PDC). This gives the left-wing parties four out of
16800-403: The hesitancy of World Health Organization member states to share their virus genomes and put ownership rights at risk. Towards the end of 2006, Indonesia announced it would not share samples of avian flu with the WHO which led to a global health crisis due to an ongoing epidemic. By October 2006, Indonesia had agreed to share their data with GISAID, which their health minister considered to have
16960-404: The lake that is attached to Geneva has an area of 38 km (14.7 sq mi) and is sometimes referred to as petit lac ('small lake'). The canton has only a 4.5 km-long (2.8 mi) border with the rest of Switzerland. Of 107.5 km (66.8 mi) of the border, 103 are shared with France, the department of Ain to the north and west and the department of Haute-Savoie to
17120-660: The late 1800s, pandemic outbreaks of novel influenza strains have occurred every 10 to 50 years. Five flu pandemics have occurred since 1900: the Spanish flu from 1918 to 1920, which was the most severe; the Asian flu in 1957; the Hong Kong flu in 1968; the Russian flu in 1977; and the swine flu pandemic in 2009. The symptoms of influenza are similar to those of a cold, although usually more severe and less likely to include
17280-406: The left parties PST-POP ( Parti Suisse du Travail – Parti Ouvrier et Populaire ) and solidaritéS ), 6 Swiss People's Party (UDC). In the 2019 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the Green Party which received 26% (+14.6) of the vote. The next seven most popular parties were the PS (17.9%, -5.9), PLR (15.1%, -2.4), the UDC (12.6%, -3.7),
17440-400: The lower respiratory tract. Cleavage of the HA protein into HA 1 , the binding subunit, and HA 2 , the fusion subunit, is performed by different proteases, affecting which cells can be infected. For mammalian influenza viruses and low pathogenic AIVs, cleavage is extracellular, which limits infection to cells that have the appropriate proteases, whereas for highly pathogenic AIVs, cleavage
17600-900: The mean yearly temperature was 11 °C and the mean number of sunshine-hours per year was 2003. The highest temperature recorded in Genève–Cointrin was 39.7 °C (103.5 °F) in July 2015, and the lowest temperature recorded was −20.0 °C (−4.0 °F) in February 1956. The city is divided into eight quartiers , or districts, sometimes composed of several neighbourhoods. On the left bank are: (1) Jonction, (2) Centre, Plainpalais , and Acacias; (3) Eaux-Vives; and (4) Champel . The right bank includes: (1) Saint-Jean and Charmilles; (2) Servette and Petit-Saconnex; (3) Grottes and Saint-Gervais; and (4) Paquis and Nations. The Administrative Council ( French : Conseil administratif ) constitutes
17760-716: The most populous in the French-speaking Romandy . Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva , it is the capital of the Republic and Canton of Geneva , and a centre for international diplomacy . Geneva hosts the highest number of international organizations in the world. The city of Geneva ( Ville de Genève ) had a population of 203,856 in January 2021 within its municipal territory of 16 km (6 sq mi). The Geneva metropolitan area as officially defined by Eurostat , including suburbs and exurbs in Vaud and
17920-500: The municipality of Geneva (16 km (6 sq mi)) and extension of the urban area over an international border, official bodies of transnational cooperation were developed as early as the 1970s to manage the cross-border Greater Geneva area at a metropolitan level. In 1973, a Franco-Swiss agreement created the Comité régional franco-genevois ('Franco-Genevan Regional Committee', CRFG ). In 1997 an 'Urban planning charter' of
18080-498: The municipality, and an average of 1.9 persons per household. There were 44,373 households that consist of only one person and 2,549 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 89,269 households that answered this question, 49.7% were households made up of just one person and there were 471 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 17,429 married couples without children, 16,607 married couples with children. There were 5,499 single parents with
18240-439: The need for control and openness". In April 2023, Science and The Economist reported these issues continue as well as the lack of transparency of its governance. An investigation by The Telegraph into claims made by Science noted the incentives of various potential competitors in the field, for whom GISAID is an obstacle to consolidation of control over the field, and also noted that GISAID's position inevitably places it at
18400-520: The nucleic acid sequence of viral samples to identify the virus and antiviral drug resistance. The traditional method is Sanger sequencing , but it has been largely replaced by next-generation methods that have greater sequencing speed and throughput. Treatment in cases of mild or moderate illness is supportive and includes anti-fever medications such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen , adequate fluid intake to avoid dehydration, and rest. Cough drops and throat sprays may be beneficial for sore throat. It
18560-414: The nucleus longer. M1 and NEP proteins localize to the nucleus during the later stages of infection, bind to viral RNPs and mediate their export to the cytoplasm where they migrate to the cell membrane with the aid of recycled endosomes and are bundled into the segments of the genome. Progeny viruses leave the cell by budding from the cell membrane, which is initiated by the accumulation of M1 proteins at
18720-432: The number of uploaded SARS-CoV-2 sequences had doubled again, to over 2.4 million. By late 2021, the database contained over 5 million genome sequences; as of December 2021, over 6 million sequences had been submitted; by April 2022, there were 10 million sequences accumulated; and in January 2023 the number had reached 14.4 million. In January 2020, the SARS-CoV-2 genetic sequence data was shared through GISAID. Throughout
18880-489: The original announcement of the consortium, which also mentioned depositing the data to the databases participating in the INSDC . As of March 2023, this is not the case, as "GISAID does not offer a mechanism to release data to any other database". A few academic papers have compared GISAID's licensing model to unrestricted, open databases , highlighting the differences while other researchers have signed an open letter calling for
19040-418: The population contracts influenza. There are 3 to 5 million severe cases annually, with up to 650,000 respiratory-related deaths globally each year. Deaths most commonly occur in high-risk groups, including young children, the elderly, and people with chronic health conditions. In temperate regions , the number of influenza cases peaks during winter, whereas in the tropics , influenza can occur year-round. Since
19200-433: The population has changed at a rate of 7.2%; a rate of 3.4% due to migration and at a rate of 3.4% due to births and deaths. As of 2008 , the gender distribution of the population was 47.8% male and 52.2% female. The population was made up of 46,284 Swiss men (24.2% of the population) and 45,127 (23.6%) non-Swiss men. There were 56,091 Swiss women (29.3%) and 43,735 (22.9%) non-Swiss women. As of 2000 approximately 24.3% of
19360-401: The population of Swiss citizens increased by 33, while the foreign population increased by 619. There were 465 Swiss men and 498 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland. At the same time, there were 2933 non-Swiss men and 2662 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders)
19520-511: The population of the municipality were born in Geneva and lived there in 2000 – 43,296. A further 11,757 or 6.6% who were born in the same canton, while 27,359 or 15.4% were born elsewhere in Switzerland, and 77,893 or 43.8% were born outside of Switzerland. In 2008 , there were 1,147 live births to Swiss citizens and 893 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in the same time span there were 1,114 deaths of Swiss citizens and 274 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration,
19680-695: The primary measures used. Placing poultry houses and piggeries on high ground away from high-density farms, backyard farms, live poultry markets, and bodies of water helps to minimize contact with wild birds. Closure of live poultry markets appears to the most effective measure and has shown to be effective at controlling the spread of H5N1, H7N9, and H9N2 . Other biosecurity measures include cleaning and disinfecting facilities and vehicles, banning visits to poultry farms, not bringing birds intended for slaughter back to farms, changing clothes, disinfecting foot baths, and treating food and water. If live poultry markets are not closed, then "clean days" when unsold poultry
19840-420: The primary reservoir of influenza A virus, especially aquatic birds such as ducks, geese, shorebirds, and gulls, but the virus also circulates among mammals, including pigs, horses, and marine mammals. Subtypes of Influenza A are defined by the combination of the antigenic viral proteins haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) in the viral envelope ; for example, " H1N1 " designates an IAV subtype that has
20000-462: The primary source of influenza A virus (IAV), which is also widespread in various mammals, including humans and pigs. Influenza B virus (IBV) and influenza C virus (ICV) primarily infect humans, and influenza D virus (IDV) is found in cattle and pigs. Influenza A virus and influenza B virus circulate in humans and cause seasonal epidemics , and influenza C virus causes a mild infection, primarily in children. Influenza D virus can infect humans but
20160-400: The probability of reassortment. In general, influenza vaccines are only effective if there is an antigenic match between vaccine strains and circulating strains. Most commercially available flu vaccines are manufactured by propagation of influenza viruses in embryonated chicken eggs, taking 6–8 months. Flu seasons are different in the northern and southern hemisphere, so the WHO meets twice
20320-502: The public domain. At a conference of the OIE/FAO Network of Expertise on Animal Influenza , Capua persuaded participants to agree to each sequence and release data on 20 strains of influenza. Some scientists had concerns about sharing their data in case others published scientific papers using the data before them, but Capua dismissed this telling Science "What is more important? Another paper for Ilaria Capua's team or addressing
20480-400: The public. The board of Friends of GISAID consists of Peter Bogner and two German lawyers who are not involved in the day-to-day operations of the organisation. Scientific advice to the organization is provided by its Scientific Advisory Council, including directors of leading public health laboratories , such as WHO Collaborating Centres for Influenza. In 2023, GISAID's lack of transparency
20640-477: The question. According to 2012 statistics by Swiss Bundesamt für Statistik 49.2% of the population were Christian , (34.2% Catholic , 8.8% Swiss Reformed (organized in the Protestant Church of Geneva ) and 6.2% other Christians, mostly other Protestants ), 38% of Genevans were non-religious , 6.1% were Muslim and 1.6% were Jews. Geneva has historically been considered a Protestant city and
20800-402: The result of lung inflammation and compromise caused by epithelial cell infection and death, combined with inflammation caused by the immune system's response to infection. Non-respiratory organs can become involved, but the mechanisms by which influenza is involved in these cases are unknown. Severe respiratory illness can be caused by multiple, non-exclusive mechanisms, including obstruction of
20960-450: The same gene sequence. In March 2023, GISAID temporarily suspended database access for some scientists, removing raw data relevant to investigations of the origins of SARS-CoV-2 . GISAID stated that they do not delete records from their database, but data may become temporarily invisible during updates or corrections. Availability of the data was restored, with an additional restriction that any analysis based thereon would not be shared with
21120-507: The sanitizing effect lasts for longer. In hospitals, quaternary ammonium compounds and bleach are used to sanitize rooms or equipment that have been occupied by people with influenza symptoms. At home, this can be done effectively with a diluted chlorine bleach. Since influenza viruses circulate in animals such as birds and pigs, prevention of transmission from these animals is important. Water treatment , indoor raising of animals, quarantining sick animals, vaccination, and biosecurity are
21280-458: The sick, there is mixed evidence on beneficial effects in the community. Smoking raises the risk of contracting influenza, as well as producing more severe disease symptoms. Since influenza spreads through both aerosols and contact with contaminated surfaces, surface sanitizing may help prevent some infections. Alcohol is an effective sanitizer against influenza viruses, while quaternary ammonium compounds can be used with alcohol so that
21440-422: The single family homes, 197 were built before 1919, while 20 were built between 1990 and 2000. The greatest number of single family homes (277) were built between 1919 and 1945. In 2000 , there were 101,794 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 27,084. There were 21,889 single room apartments and 11,166 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments,
21600-492: The site of infection. Immune cells control viral infection by killing infected cells and phagocytizing viral particles and apoptotic cells. An exacerbated immune response can harm the host organism through a cytokine storm. To counter the immune response, influenza viruses encode various non-structural proteins, including NS1, NEP, PB1-F2, and PA-X, that are involved in curtailing the host immune response by suppressing interferon production and host gene expression. B cells ,
21760-428: The sole member of its own genus. The four influenza genera comprise four of the seven genera in the family Orthomyxoviridae . They are: Influenza A virus is responsible for most cases of severe illness as well as seasonal epidemics and occasional pandemics. It infects people of all ages but tends to disproportionately cause severe illness in the elderly, the very young, and those with chronic health issues. Birds are
21920-412: The south and east. Of the land in the city, 0.24 km (0.093 sq mi), or 1.5%, is used for agricultural purposes, while 0.5 km (0.19 sq mi), or 3.1%, is forested. The rest of the land, 14.63 km (5.65 sq mi), or 91.8%, is built up (buildings or roads), 0.49 km (0.19 sq mi), or 3.1%, is either rivers or lakes and 0.02 km (4.9 acres), or 0.1%,
22080-415: The spiritual leader of the city and established the Republic of Geneva . By the 18th century, Geneva had come under the influence of Catholic France, which cultivated the city as its own. France tended to be at odds with the ordinary townsfolk, which inspired the failed Geneva Revolution of 1782 , an attempt to win representation in the government for men of modest means. In 1798, revolutionary France under
22240-411: The sun, and crowding. Influenza viruses that infect the upper respiratory tract like H1N1 tend to be more mild but more transmissible, whereas those that infect the lower respiratory tract like H5N1 tend to cause more severe illness but are less contagious. In humans, influenza viruses first cause infection by infecting epithelial cells in the respiratory tract. Illness during infection is primarily
22400-475: The surface of the cell membrane. For N1 subtypes with the "G147R" mutation and N2 subtypes, the NA protein can initiate entry. Prior to binding, NA proteins promote access to target cells by degrading mucus, which helps to remove extracellular decoy receptors that would impede access to target cells. After binding, the virus is internalized into the cell by an endosome that contains the virion inside it. The endosome
22560-438: The transmission of influenza include good personal health and hygiene habits such as: not touching the eyes, nose or mouth; frequent hand washing (with soap and water, or with alcohol-based hand rubs); covering coughs and sneezes with a tissue or sleeve; avoiding close contact with sick people; and staying home when sick. Avoiding spitting is also recommended. Although face masks might help prevent transmission when caring for
22720-564: The use of any of the INSDC's unrestricted databases. In 2017, GISAID's editorial board stated that " re3data.org and DataCite , the world's leading provider of digital object identifiers (DOI) for research data, affirmed the designation of access to GISAID's database and data as Open Access". However, after several researchers had their accounts suspended in March 2023 as reported by the journal Science and other news outlets, its open access status
22880-536: The viral surface, which helps prevent newly assembled viruses from aggregating near the cell surface and improving infectivity. Similar to other aspects of influenza replication, optimal NA activity is temperature- and pH-dependent. Ultimately, presence of large quantities of viral RNA in the cell triggers apoptosis (programmed cell death), which is initiated by cellular factors to restrict viral replication. Two key processes that influenza viruses evolve through are antigenic drift and antigenic shift . Antigenic drift
23040-477: The virus and last for about two to eight days. Diarrhea and vomiting can occur, particularly in children. Influenza may progress to pneumonia from the virus or a subsequent bacterial infection . Other complications include acute respiratory distress syndrome , meningitis , encephalitis , and worsening of pre-existing health problems such as asthma and cardiovascular disease . There are four types of influenza virus: types A, B, C, and D. Aquatic birds are
23200-461: The virus at greater quantities and for a longer duration than other children. People at risk of exposure to influenza include health care workers, social care workers, and those who live with or care for people vulnerable to influenza. In long-term care facilities, the flu can spread rapidly. A variety of factors likely encourage influenza transmission, including lower temperature, lower absolute and relative humidity , less ultraviolet radiation from
23360-613: The virus is disrupted by a detergent, and subunit, which only contains the viral antigens HA and NA. Most flu vaccines are inactivated and administered via intramuscular injection. LAIVs are sprayed into the nasal cavity. Vaccination recommendations vary by country. Some recommend vaccination for all people above a certain age, such as 6 months, whereas other countries limit recommendations to high-risk groups. Young infants cannot receive flu vaccines for safety reasons, but they can inherit passive immunity from their mother if vaccinated during pregnancy. Influenza vaccination helps to reduce
23520-481: The virus' antigenic properties, and to inform the development of vaccines. To unambiguously describe a specific isolate of virus, researchers use the internationally accepted influenza virus nomenclature, which describes, among other things, the species of animal from which the virus was isolated, and the place and year of collection. As an example – A/chicken/Nakorn-Patom/Thailand/CU-K2/04(H5N1) : The nomenclature for influenza B, C and D, which are less variable,
23680-560: The virus, and enzyme-linked immunoabsorbant assays. These methods tend to be relatively inexpensive and fast but are less reliable than nucleic-acid based tests. Direct fluorescent or immunofluorescent antibody (DFA/IFA) tests involve staining respiratory epithelial cells in samples with fluorescently-labeled influenza-specific antibodies, followed by examination under a fluorescent microscope. They can differentiate between influenza A virus and influenza B virus but can not subtype influenza A virus. Rapid influenza diagnostic tests (RIDTs) are
23840-652: The winter: Geneva can be affected by the Bise , a north-easterly wind. This can lead to severe icing in winter. In summer, many people swim in the lake and patronise public beaches such as Genève Plage and the Bains des Pâquis . The city, in certain years, receives snow during colder months. The nearby mountains are subject to substantial snowfall and are suitable for skiing. Many world-renowned ski resorts such as Verbier and Crans-Montana are less than three hours away by car. Mont Salève (1,379 m (4,524 ft)), just across
24000-464: Was 0.25%. In June 2011, the average price of an apartment in and around Geneva was 13,681 CHF per square metre (11 sq ft). The average can be as high as 17,589 Swiss francs (CHF) per square metre (11 sq ft) for a luxury apartment and as low as 9,847 Swiss francs (CHF) for an older or basic apartment. For houses in and around Geneva, the average price was 11,595 Swiss francs (CHF) per square metre (11 sq ft) (June 2011), with
24160-566: Was an increase of 135 and the non-Swiss population increased by 3181 people. This represents a population growth rate of 1.8%. As of 2000 , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) made up 18.2% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) made up 65.8% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 16%. As of 2000 , there were 78,666 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 74,205 married individuals, 10,006 widows or widowers and 15,087 individuals who are divorced. As of 2000 , there were 86,231 private households in
24320-469: Was coined in a correspondence letter published in the journal Nature in August 2006, putting forward an initial aspiration of creating a consortium for a new Global Initiative on Sharing Avian Influenza Data (later, "All" would replace "Avian"), whereby its members would release data in publicly available databases up to six months after analysis and validation. Initially the organisation collaborated with
24480-702: Was criticized by some GISAID funders, including the European Commission and the Rockefeller Foundation , with long-term funding being denied from International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers and Associations (IFPMA) . In June 2023, it was reported in Vanity Fair that Bogner had said that "GISAID will soon launch an independent compliance board 'responsible for addressing a wide range of governance matters'". The Telegraph similarly reported that GISAID's in-house counsel
24640-601: Was developing new governance processes intended to be transparent and allow for the resolution of scientific disputes without the involvement of Bogner. The creation of the GISAID database was motivated in part by concerns raised by researchers from developing countries , with Scientific American noting in 2009 that that "a previous data-sharing system run by WHO forced them to give up intellectual property rights to their virus samples when they sent them to WHO. The virus samples would then be used by private pharmaceutical companies to make vaccines that are awarded patents and sold at
24800-631: Was known as pagus major Genevensis or Comitatus Genevensis (also Gebennensis ). After 1400 it became the Genevois province of Savoy (albeit not extending to the city proper, until the reformation of the seat of the Bishop of Geneva ). Geneva was an Allobrogian border town, fortified against the Helvetii tribe, when the Roman Republic took it in 121 BC. It became Christian under
24960-482: Was known as the Protestant Rome due to it being the base of John Calvin , William Farel , Theodore Beza and other Protestant reformers . Over the past century, substantial immigration from France and other predominantly Catholic countries, as well as general secularization, has changed its religious landscape. As a result, three times as many Roman Catholics as Protestants lived in the city in 2000, while
25120-715: Was ranked first for gross earnings , second most expensive, and fourth in purchasing power . The city was mentioned in Latin texts, by Caesar , with the spelling Genava , probably from the Celtic * genawa- from the stem * genu- ("mouth"), in the sense of an estuary , an etymology shared with the Italian port city of Genoa (in Italian Genova ). The medieval county of Geneva in Middle Latin
25280-440: Was replicated in the journals Nature and Science . Furthermore, the article from Science points out that the lack of transparency in access to the database also prevents many scientists from even criticising the platform. A paper from 2017 describing the success of GISAID mentions that revoking researchers' credentials was rare, but it did happen. The same publication described a "perceived merit in GISAID's formula for balancing
25440-588: Was revoked by the Registry of Research Data Repositories (re3data) , which now classifies it as a "restricted access repository". In 2020 the World Health Organization chief scientist Soumya Swaminathan called the initiative "a game changer", while the co-director of the European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI) Rolf Apweiler has argued that because it does not allow sequences to be reshared publicly, it hampers efforts to understand
25600-410: Was the second most common (7,853 or 4.4%), followed by Spanish (7,462 or 4.2%), Italian (7,320 or 4.1%), and German (7,050 or 4.0%); 113 spoke Romansh , an official language in Switzerland. In the city of Geneva, as of 2013 , 48% of the population are resident foreign nationals. For a list of the largest groups of foreign residents see the cantonal overview . Over the last 10 years (1999–2009),
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