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102-783: The Gathas ( / ˈ ɡ ɑː t ə z , - t ɑː z / ) are 17 hymns in the Avestan language from the Zoroastrian oral tradition of the Avesta , the oldest surviving text fragment of which dates from 1323 CE. They are traditionally believed to have been composed by the prophet Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) himself. They form the core of the Zoroastrian liturgy (the Yasna ). They are arranged in five different modes or metres. The Avestan term gāθā (𐬔𐬁𐬚𐬁 "hymn", but also "mode, metre")

204-538: A deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification . The word hymn derives from Greek ὕμνος ( hymnos ), which means "a song of praise". A writer of hymns is known as a hymnist . The singing or composition of hymns is called hymnody . Collections of hymns are known as hymnals or hymn books. Hymns may or may not include instrumental accompaniment. Polyhymnia is the Greco/Roman goddess of hymns. Although most familiar to speakers of English in

306-688: A voiceless r . Miller suggested that rt was restored when a scribe was aware of the morpheme boundary between the /r/ and /t/ (that is, whether the writer maintained the –ta suffix). Avestan druj , like its Vedic Sanskrit cousin druh , appears to derive from the PIE root * dhreugh , also continued in Persian دروغ / d[o]rūġ "lie", Welsh drwg "evil", and German Trug "fraud, deception". Old Norse draugr and Middle Irish airddrach mean "spectre, spook". The Sanskrit cognate druh means "affliction, afflicting demon". In Avestan, druj- has

408-407: A cappella congregations, hymns are typically sung in unison. In some cases complementary full settings for organ are also published, in others organists and other accompanists are expected to adapt the available setting, or extemporise one, on their instrument of choice. In traditional Anglican practice, hymns are sung (often accompanied by an organ) during the processional to the altar, during

510-548: A congregation while singing it." Christian hymns are often written with special or seasonal themes and these are used on holy days such as Christmas , Easter and the Feast of All Saints , or during particular seasons such as Advent and Lent . Others are used to encourage reverence for the Bible or to celebrate Christian practices such as the eucharist or baptism . Some hymns praise or address individual saints , particularly

612-593: A detailed scholarly approach to the Gathas, but an intensive comparison of its single lines and their respective glosses with their Gathic originals usually reveals the train of thought of the translator. This obviously reflects the Gatha interpretation by the priests of the Sasanian period, the general view of which is closer to the original than what is sometimes taught about the Gathas in our time." The problems that face

714-517: A familiar example is the 4th century Of the Father's Heart Begotten sung to the 11th century plainsong Divinum Mysterium . Later hymnody in the Western church introduced four-part vocal harmony as the norm, adopting major and minor keys, and came to be led by organ and choir. It shares many elements with classical music . Today, except for choirs, more musically inclined congregations and

816-472: A hymn any way they felt led to; this idea was opposed by a writer of the time, Rev. Thomas Walter, who felt it was "like Five Hundred different Tunes roared out at the same time". William Billings , a singing school teacher, created the first tune book with only American born compositions. Within his books, Billings did not put as much emphasis on " common measure " - a quatrain that rhymes ABAB and alternates four-stress and three-stress iambic lines - which

918-515: A life as Ahura Mazda has directed, and pleads to Ahura Mazda to intervene on their behalf. Other verses, from which some aspects of Zoroaster's life have been inferred, are semi-(auto)biographical, but all revolve around Zarathustra's mission to promote his view of the Truth (again Asha ). For instance, some of the passages describe Zarathustra's first attempts to promote the teachings of Ahura Mazda, and

1020-487: A list of what are otherwise all physical creations, aṣ̌a takes the place of fire. Asha Vahishta's association with atar is carried forward in the post-Gathic texts, and they are often mentioned together. In Zoroastrian cosmogony, each of the Amesha Spentas represents one aspect of creation and one of seven primordial elements that in Zoroastrian tradition are the basis of that creation. In this matrix, aṣ̌a/arta

1122-611: A new focus: expressing one's personal feelings in the relationship with God as well as the simple worship seen in older hymns. Wesley's contribution, along with the Second Great Awakening in America led to a new style called gospel , and a new explosion of sacred music writing with Fanny Crosby , Lina Sandell , Philip Bliss , Ira D. Sankey , and others who produced testimonial music for revivals, camp meetings, and evangelistic crusades. The tune style or form

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1224-551: A novel and Catholic introduction to worship, which was to be rejected. All hymns that were not direct quotations from the Bible fell into this category. Such hymns were banned, along with any form of instrumental musical accompaniment, and organs were removed from churches. Instead of hymns, biblical psalms were chanted, most often without accompaniment, to very basic melodies. This was known as exclusive psalmody . Examples of this may still be found in various places, including in some of

1326-475: A range of styles often influenced by popular music . This often leads to some conflict between older and younger congregants (see contemporary worship ). This is not new; the Christian pop music style began in the late 1960s and became very popular during the 1970s, as young hymnists sought ways in which to make the music of their religion relevant for their generation. This long tradition has resulted in

1428-513: A rich hymnody from spirituals during times of slavery to the modern, lively black gospel style. The first influences of African-American culture into hymns came from slave songs of the United States a collection of slave hymns, compiled by William Francis Allen, who had difficulty pinning them down from the oral tradition, and though he succeeded, he points out the awe-inspiring effect of the hymns when sung in by their originators. Some of

1530-433: A secondary derivation, the adjective drəguuaṇt- ( Young Avestan druuaṇt- ), "partisan of deception, deceiver" for which the superlative draojišta- and perhaps the comparative draoj(ii)ah- are attested (Kellens, 2010, pp. 69 ff.). Aṣ̌a "cannot be precisely rendered by some single word in another tongue" but may be summarized as follows: It is, first of all, 'true statement'. This 'true statement', because it

1632-657: A single congregation, often between revivalist and traditionalist movements. Swedish composer and musicologist Elisabet Wentz-Janacek mapped 20,000 melody variants for Swedish hymns and helped create the Swedish Choral Registrar, which displays the wide variety of hymns today. In modern times, hymn use has not been limited to strictly religious settings, including secular occasions such as Remembrance Day , and this "secularization" also includes use as sources of musical entertainment or even vehicles for mass emotion. Hymn writing, composition, performance and

1734-575: A theme, and all four call on the Truth. It is Airyaman that – together with fire – will "melt the metal in the hills and mountains, and it will be upon the earth like a river" ( Bundahishn 34.18). In Zoroastrian tradition, metal is the domain of Xshathra [Vairya] , the Amesha Spenta of "[Desirable] Dominion", with whom Aṣ̌a is again frequently identified. Dominion is moreover "a form of truth and results from truth." In Denkard 8.37.13, Asha Vahishta actually takes over Airyaman's healer role as

1836-578: A translator of the Avestan Gathas are significant: "No one who has ever read a stanza of [the Gathas] in the original will be under any illusions as to the labour that underlies the effort [of translating the hymns]. The most abstract and perplexing thought, veiled further by archaic language, only half understood by later students of the seer's own race and tongue, tends to make the Gathas the hardest problem to be attempted by those who would investigate

1938-399: A wide variety of hymns. Some modern churches include within hymnody the traditional hymn (usually describing God), contemporary worship music (often directed to God) and gospel music (expressions of one's personal experience of God). This distinction is not perfectly clear; and purists remove the second two types from the classification as hymns. It is a matter of debate, even sometimes within

2040-593: Is arta- . In Middle Iranian languages the term appears as ard- . The word is also the proper name of the divinity Asha, the Amesha Spenta that is the hypostasis or "genius" of "Truth" or "Righteousness". In the Younger Avesta , this figure is more commonly referred to as Asha Vahishta ( Aṣ̌a Vahišta , Arta Vahišta ), "Best Truth". The Middle Persian descendant is Ashawahist or Ardwahisht ; New Persian Ardibehesht or Ordibehesht . In

2142-665: Is aṣ̌aŋāč "having aṣ̌a following". One of Haoma 's stock epithets is aṣ̌avazah- "furthering aṣ̌a " ( Yasht 20.3; Yasna 8.9, 10.1.14, 11.10 et al.). Atar "possesses strength through aṣ̌a " ( aṣ̌a-ahojah , Yasna 43.4). In the Zoroastrian calendar , the third day of the month and the second month of the year are dedicated to and named after aṣ̌a and Asha Vahishta (calledارديبهشت Ordibehesht in Modern Persian both in Iranian Calendar and Yazdgerdi calendar). A special service to aṣ̌a and Aṣ̌a, known as

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2244-501: Is cognate with Sanskrit gāthā (गाथा), both from the Proto-Indo-Iranian word *gaHtʰáH , from the root *gaH- "to sing". The Gathas are in verse, metrical in the nature of ancient Iranian religious poetry, that is extremely terse. The 17 hymns of the Gathas consist of 238 stanzas , of about 1300 lines or 6000 words in total. They were later incorporated into the 72-chapter Yasna (chapter: ha or had , from

2346-555: Is haiθiia- "true". Similarly, the adjective corresponding to Vedic ŗtá- "truth" is sátya- "true". The opposite of both aṣ̌a/arta- and haithya- is druj- "lie" or "false". In contrast, in the Vedas the opposite of both ŗtá- and sátya- is druh- and ánŗta- , also "lie" or "false". However, while the Indo-Iranian concept of truth is attested throughout Zoroastrian tradition, ŗtá- disappears in post-Vedic literature and

2448-404: Is active in good thoughts, Sraosha in good words and Aṣ̌a in good deeds. ( Denkard 3.13-14). Aṣ̌a is thus "represented as active and effective." Subject to context, aṣ̌a/arta- is also frequently translated as "right working" or "[that which is] right". The word then ( cf. Bartholomae's and Geldner 's translations as German language " Recht ") has the same range of meaning of "right" as in

2550-546: Is also what was commonly understood by the term as attested in Greek myth of Isis and Osiris 47, Plutarch calls the divinity Αλήθεια Aletheia , "Truth." The adjective corresponding to the noun aṣ̌a/arta , "truth", is Avestan haithya- ( haiθiia- ), "true", the opposite of which is also druj- . Avestan haithya- derives from Indo-Iranian *sātya that in turn derives from Indo-European *h 1 s-ṇt- "being, existing". The Sanskrit cognate sátya - means "true" in

2652-765: Is based on Revelation 5:6, 8, 9, 10, 12. Relying heavily on Scripture, Watts wrote metered texts based on New Testament passages that brought the Christian faith into the songs of the church. Isaac Watts has been called "the father of English hymnody", but Erik Routley sees him more as "the liberator of English hymnody", because his hymns, and hymns like them, moved worshippers beyond singing only Old Testament psalms, inspiring congregations and revitalizing worship. Later writers took even more freedom, some even including allegory and metaphor in their texts. Charles Wesley 's hymns spread Methodist theology , not only within Methodism, but in most Protestant churches. He developed

2754-472: Is established." The synonymy of aṣ̌a and "existence" overlaps with the stock identification of Ahura Mazda as the creator (of existence itself). Truth is existence (creation) inasmuch as falsehood is non-existence (uncreated, anti-created). Also, because aṣ̌a is everything that druj- is not (or vice versa), since aṣ̌a is, druj- is not. This notion is already expressed in the Avesta itself, such as in

2856-622: Is in conformity with the reality' or 'poetic (religious) formula with inherent fulfillment (realization)'". The kinship between Old Iranian aṣ̌a-/arta- and Vedic ŗtá- is evident in numerous formulaic phrases and expressions that appear in both the Avesta and in the RigVeda . For instance, the *ŗtásya path, "path of truth", is attested multiple times in both sources: Y 51.13, 72.11; RV 3.12.7, 7.66.3. Similarly "source of truth," Avestan aṣ̌a khá and Vedic khâm ṛtásya (Y 10.4; RV 2.28.5) The adjective corresponding to Avestan aṣ̌a/arta-

2958-399: Is likewise preserver of ŗtá- . Asha Vahishta is closely associated with fire . Fire is "grandly conceived as a force informing all the other Amesha Spentas , giving them warmth and the spark of life." In Yasht 17.20, Angra Mainyu clamours that Zoroaster burns him with Asha Vahishta. In Vendidad 4.54-55, speaking against the truth and violating the sanctity of promise is detected by

3060-420: Is not far removed from Heraclitus' conception of Logos . Both Avestan aṣ̌a/arta and Vedic ŗtá- are commonly translated as "truth" as this best reflects both the original meaning of the term as well as the opposition to their respective antonyms . The opposite of Avestan aṣ̌a/arta is druj- , "lie." Similarly, the opposites of Vedic ṛtá- are ánṛta- and druh , likewise "lie". That "truth"

3162-549: Is not preserved in post-Vedic texts. On the other hand, sátya- and ánrta- both survive in classical Sanskrit. The main theme of the Rig Veda, "the truth and the gods", is not evident in the Gathas. Thematic parallels between aṣ̌a/arta and ŗtá- , however, exist such as in Yasht 10, the Avestan hymn to Mithra . There, Mithra, who is the hypostasis and the preserver of covenant, is the protector of aṣ̌a/arta . RigVedic Mitra

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3264-665: Is present when Ahura Mazda fixed the course of the sun, the moon and the stars ( Yasna 44.3), and it is through aṣ̌a that plants grow ( Yasna 48.6). "Right working" also overlaps with both Indo-European *ár- "to (properly) join together" and with the notion of existence and realization (to make real). The word for "established", ar ə ta- , also means "proper". The antonymic anar ə ta- (or anar ə θa- ) means "improper". In Zoroastrian tradition, prayers must be enunciated with care for them to be effective. The Indo-Iranian formula *sātyas mantras ( Yasna 31.6: haiθīm mathrem ) "does not simply mean 'true Word' but formulated thought which

3366-575: Is technically designated "gospel songs" as distinct from hymns. Gospel songs generally include a refrain (or chorus) and usually (though not always) a faster tempo than the hymns. As examples of the distinction, " Amazing Grace " is a hymn (no refrain), but " How Great Thou Art " is a gospel song. During the 19th century, the gospel-song genre spread rapidly in Protestantism and to a lesser but still definite extent, in Roman Catholicism;

3468-474: Is the origin of fire, Avestan atar , which permeates through all Creation. The correspondence then is that aṣ̌a/arta "penetrates all ethical life, as fire penetrates all physical being." In the liturgy Asha Vahishta is frequently invoked together with fire. ( Yasna l.4, 2.4, 3.6, 4.9, 6.3, 7.6, 17.3, 22.6, 59.3, 62.3 etc.). In one passage, fire is a protector of aṣ̌a : "when the Evil Spirit assailed

3570-405: Is the praise of God with song; a song is the exultation of the mind dwelling on eternal things, bursting forth in the voice.") The Protestant Reformation resulted in two conflicting attitudes towards hymns. One approach, the regulative principle of worship , favoured by many Zwinglians, Calvinists and some radical reformers, considered anything that was not directly authorised by the Bible to be

3672-417: Is true, corresponds to an objective, material reality that embraces all of existence. Recognized in it is a great cosmic principle since all things happen according to it. "This cosmic [...] force is imbued also with morality, as verbal Truth, 'la parole conforme', and Righteousness, action conforming with the moral order." The correspondence between 'truth', reality and an all-encompassing cosmic principle

3774-571: The Avestan ha'iti , 'cut'), that in turn is the primary liturgical collection of texts within the greater compendium of the Avesta . The 17 hymns are identified by their chapter numbers in the Yasna , and are divided into five major sections: With the exception of Ahunavaiti Gatha, that is named after the Ahuna Vairya prayer ( Yasna 27, not in the Gathas), the names of the Gathas reflect

3876-537: The Blessed Virgin Mary ; such hymns are particularly prevalent in Catholicism , Eastern Orthodoxy and to some extent High Church Anglicanism . A writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist, and the practice of singing hymns is called hymnody ; the same word is used for the collectivity of hymns belonging to a particular denomination or period (e.g. "nineteenth century Methodist hymnody" would mean

3978-521: The Chinvat bridge across which souls must pass. According to a lost Avestan passage that is only preserved in a later (9th century) Pahlavi text, towards the end of time and the final renovation, Aṣ̌a and Airyaman will together come upon the earth to do battle with the Az, the daeva of greed ( Zatspram 34.38-39). The third Yasht , which is nominally addressed to Asha Vahishta, is in fact mostly devoted to

4080-590: The Gathas —the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism, thought to have been composed by Zoroaster —it is seldom possible to distinguish between moral principle and the divinity. Later texts consistently use the 'Best' epithet when speaking of the Amesha Spenta; only once in the Gathas is 'best' an adjective of aṣ̌a/arta . Avestan aṣ̌a and its Vedic equivalent ṛtá both derive from Proto-Indo-Iranian *ṛtá- "truth", which in turn continues Proto-Indo-European * h 2 r-to- "properly joined, right, true", from

4182-532: The Jesus movement and Jesus music . In recent years, Christian traditional hymns have seen a revival in some churches, usually more Reformed or Calvinistic in nature, as modern hymn writers such as Keith & Kristyn Getty and Sovereign Grace Music have reset old lyrics to new melodies, revised old hymns and republished them, or simply written a song in a hymn-like fashion such as " In Christ Alone ". In ancient and medieval times, string instruments such as

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4284-674: The Missouri Harmony , Kentucky Harmony , Hesperian Harp , D.H. Mansfield's The American Vocalist , The Social Harp , the Southern Harmony , William Walker 's Christian Harmony , Jeremiah Ingalls ' Christian Harmony , and literally many dozens of others. Shape notes were important in the spread of (then) more modern singing styles, with tenor-led 4-part harmony (based on older English West Gallery music ), fuging sections, anthems and other more complex features. During this period, hymns were incredibly popular in

4386-623: The Presbyterian churches of western Scotland . The other Reformation approach, the normative principle of worship , produced a burst of hymn writing and congregational singing. Martin Luther is notable not only as a reformer, but as the author of hymns including "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" (" A Mighty Fortress Is Our God "), " Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ " ("Praise be to You, Jesus Christ"), and many others . Luther and his followers often used their hymns, or chorales, to teach tenets of

4488-482: The cymbals and the triangle only. The Indian Orthodox (Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church) use the organ . The Tewahedo Churches use drums , cymbals and other instruments on certain occasions. Thomas Aquinas , in the introduction to his commentary on the Psalms, defined the Christian hymn thus: " Hymnus est laus Dei cum cantico; canticum autem exultatio mentis de aeternis habita, prorumpens in vocem ." ("A hymn

4590-572: The harp , lyre and lute were used with psalms and hymns. Since there is a lack of musical notation in early writings, the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised. During the Middle Ages a rich hymnody developed in the form of Gregorian chant or plainsong. This type was sung in unison, in one of eight church modes , and most often by monastic choirs. While they were written originally in Latin , many have been translated;

4692-458: The ' Jashan of Ardavisht', is held on the day on which month-name and day-name dedications intersect. In the Fasli and Bastani variants of the Zoroastrian calendar , this falls on April 22. Rapithwin, one of the five gah s (watches) of the day, under the protection of Aṣ̌a. ( Bundahishn 3.22) This implies that all prayers recited between noon and three invoke Aṣ̌a. Noon is considered to be

4794-558: The 1860s musical reformers like Lowell Mason (the so-called "better music boys") were actively campaigning for the introduction of more "refined" and modern singing styles, and eventually these American tune books were replaced in many churches, starting in the Northeast and urban areas, and spreading out into the countryside as people adopted the gentler, more soothing tones of Victorian hymnody, and even adopted dedicated, trained choirs to do their church's singing, rather than having

4896-611: The 19th century witnessed an explosion of hymn tune composition and congregational four-part singing in Wales . Along with the more classical sacred music of composers ranging from Charpentier (19 Hymns, H.53 - H.71) to Mozart to Monteverdi , the Catholic Church continued to produce many popular hymns such as Lead, Kindly Light , Silent Night , O Sacrament Most Holy, and Faith of Our Fathers . In some radical Protestant movements, their own sacred hymns completely replaced

4998-539: The Avesta, the "radiant quarters" of aṣ̌a is "the best existence", i.e. Paradise (cf. Vendidad 19.36), entry to which is restricted to those who are recognized as "possessing truth" ( aṣ̌avan ). The key to this doctrine is Yasna 16.7: "We worship the radiant quarters of Aṣ̌a in which dwell the souls of the dead, the Fravašis of the aṣ̌avan s; the best existence (=Paradise) of the aṣ̌avan s we worship, (which is) light and according all comforts." 'Aṣ̌a' derives from

5100-553: The Early Church still sung today include ' Phos Hilaron ', ' Sub tuum praesidium ', and ' Te Deum '. One definition of a hymn is "...a lyric poem, reverently and devotionally conceived, which is designed to be sung and which expresses the worshipper's attitude toward God or God's purposes in human life. It should be simple and metrical in form, genuinely emotional, poetic and literary in style, spiritual in quality, and in its ideas so direct and so immediately apparent as to unify

5202-454: The English language: truth, righteousness, rightfulness, lawfullness, conformity, accord, order (cosmic order, social order, moral order). These various meanings of "right" are frequently combined, such as "the inexorable law of righteousness," or as "the eternal fitness of things that are in accord with the divine order." As (the hypostasis of) regularity and "right working", aṣ̌a/arta-

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5304-545: The Gathas and is in turn reflected in Zoroastrian tradition. In Bundahishn 26.8, Vohu Manah stands at the left hand of God, while Aṣ̌a stands at the right. Yasht 1, the hymn dedicated to Ahura Mazda, provides a list of 74 "names" by which the Creator is invoked. In the numbered list of Yasht 1.7, 'Asha Vahishta' "Best Truth" is the fourth name. A later verse, Yasht 1.12, includes 'Aṣ̌avan' "Possessing Truth" and 'Aṣ̌avastəma' "Most Righteous". In Yasna 40.3, Ahura Mazda

5406-529: The Gathas, Gathic or Old Avestan , belongs to the old Iranian language group that is a sub-group of Eastern families of the Indo-European languages . Although arising from the same family, it is still not possible to translate them using Proto Sanskrit or Pali . Sassanid era translations and commentaries (the Zend ) have been used to interpret the Gathas, but by the 3rd century the Avestan language

5508-557: The Gathas—is only systematically described in Zoroastrian tradition (e.g. Bundahishn 3.12), aṣ̌a is the second (cf. Yasna 47.1) of the six primeval creations realized ("created by His thought") by Ahura Mazda. It is through these six, the Amesha Spentas that all subsequent creation was accomplished. In addition to Asha Vahishta's role as an Amesha Spenta and hence one of the primordial creations through which all other creation

5610-763: The Hurrian Hymn to Nikkal ; the Rigveda , an Indian collection of Vedic hymns; hymns from the Classic of Poetry ( Shijing ), a collection of Chinese poems from 11th to 7th centuries BC; the Gathas —Avestan hymns believed to have been composed by Zoroaster ; and the Biblical Book of Psalms . The Western tradition of hymnody begins with the Homeric Hymns , a collection of ancient Greek hymns,

5712-433: The United States, and one or more of the above-mentioned tunebooks could be found in almost every household. It is not uncommon to hear accounts of young people and teenagers gathering together to spend an afternoon singing hymns and anthems from tune books, which was considered great fun, and there are surviving accounts of Abraham Lincoln and his sweetheart singing together from the Missouri Harmony during his youth. By

5814-498: The Zoroastrian calendar , below. Although there are numerous eschatological parallels between Aṣ̌a and Aši "recompense, reward" (most notably their respective associations with Sraosha and Vohu Manah), and are on occasion even mentioned together ( Yasna 51.10), the two are not etymologically related. The feminine abstract noun aši/arti derives from ar- , "to allot, to grant." Aši also has no Vedic equivalent. In Zoroastrian cosmogony and cosmology , which—though alluded to in

5916-645: The absence of instruments in worship by the church in the first several centuries of its existence, and adhere to an unaccompanied a cappella congregational singing of hymns. These groups include the 'Brethren' (often both 'Open' and 'Exclusive'), the Churches of Christ , Mennonites , several Anabaptist-based denominations—such as the Apostolic Christian Church of America — Primitive Baptists , and certain Reformed churches, although during

6018-461: The aid of brilliant fire". In Yasna 34-44 devotees "ardently desire [Mazda's] mighty fire, through aṣ̌a." In Yasna 43–44, Ahura Mazda "shall come to [Zoroaster] through the splendour of [Mazda's] fire, possessing the strength of (through) aṣ̌a and good mind (=Vohu Manah)." That fire "possesses strength through aṣ̌a " is repeated again in Yasna 43.4. In Yasna 43.9, Zoroaster, wishing to serve fire, gives his attention to aṣ̌a . In Yasna 37.1, in

6120-417: The body of hymns written and/or used by Methodists in the 19th century). A collection of hymns is called a hymnal , hymn book or hymnary . These may or may not include music; among the hymnals without printed music, some include names of hymn tunes suggested for use with each text, in case readers already know the tunes or would like to find them elsewhere. A student of hymnody is called a hymnologist , and

6222-465: The chanting ( bhajan and kirtan ) of the devotional songs of the poet- sants ( Basava , Chandidas , Dadu Dayal , Haridas , Hith Harivansh , Kabir , Meera Bai , Namdev , Nanak , Ramprasad Sen , Ravidas , Sankardev , Surdas , Vidyapati ) in local languages in a number of groups, namely Dadu panth, Kabir panth , Lingayatism , Radha-vallabha , Sikhism , completely or significantly replaced all previous Sanskrit literature . The same and with

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6324-518: The consumption of "water, blazing, of golden color, having the power to detect guilt." This analogy of truth that burns and detecting truth through fire is already attested in the very earliest texts, that is, in the Gathas and in the Yasna Haptanghaiti . In Yasna 43–44, Ahura Mazda dispenses justice through radiance of His fire and the strength of aṣ̌a. Fire "detects" sinners "by hand-grasping" ( Yasna 34.4). An individual who has passed

6426-584: The context of Christianity , hymns are also a fixture of other world religions , especially on the Indian subcontinent ( stotras ). Hymns also survive from antiquity, especially from Egyptian and Greek cultures. Some of the oldest surviving examples of notated music are hymns with Greek texts. Ancient Eastern hymns include the Egyptian Great Hymn to the Aten , composed by Pharaoh Akhenaten ;

6528-468: The creation of Good Truth, Good Thought and Fire intervened" ( Yasht 13.77) In later Zoroastrian tradition, Asha Vahishta is still at times identified with the fire of the household hearth. In addition to the role of fire as the agent of Truth , fire, among its various other manifestations, is also "the fire of judicial ordeal, prototype of the fiery torrent of judgement day, when all will receive their just deserts 'by fire and by Aṣ̌a' ( Y 31.3)." In

6630-464: The entire congregation participate. But in many rural areas the old traditions lived on, not in churches, but in weekly, monthly or annual conventions were people would meet to sing from their favorite tunebooks. The most popular one, and the only one that survived continuously in print, was the Sacred Harp , which could be found in the typical rural Southern home right up until the living tradition

6732-658: The faith to worshipers. The first Protestant hymnal was published in Bohemia in 1532 by the Unitas Fratrum . Count Zinzendorf , the Lutheran leader of the Moravian Church in the 18th century wrote some 2,000 hymns. The earlier English writers tended to paraphrase biblical texts, particularly Psalms ; Isaac Watts followed this tradition, but is also credited as having written the first English hymn which

6834-424: The fiery test ( garmo-varah , ordeal by heat ), has attained physical and spiritual strength, wisdom, truth and love with serenity ( Yasna 30.7). Altogether, "there are said to have been some 30 kinds of fiery tests in all." According to the post- Sassanid Dadestan i denig (I.31.10), at the final judgement a river of molten metal will cover the earth. The righteous, as they wade through this river, will perceive

6936-421: The first Yasht , dedicated to Ahura Mazda , in which the "fifth name is the whole good existence of Mazda, the seed of Asha" ( Yasht 1.7). Similarly, in the mythology of Gandar ə βa , the 'yellow-heeled' dragon of the druj- that emerges from the deep to destroy the "living world (creation) of Aṣ̌a" ( Yasht 19.41) In the ethical goals of Zoroastrianism ("good thoughts, good words, good deeds"), Vohu Manah

7038-558: The first hymns in the black church were renderings of Isaac Watts hymns written in the African-American vernacular English of the time. The meter indicates the number of syllables for the lines in each stanza of a hymn. This provides a means of marrying the hymn's text with an appropriate hymn tune for singing. In practice many hymns conform to one of a relatively small number of meters (syllable count and stress patterns). Care must be taken, however, to ensure that not only

7140-498: The first word(s) of the first hymn within them. The meter of the hymns is historically related to the Vedic tristubh-jagati family of meters. Hymns of these meters are recited, not sung. The sequential order of the Gathas is structurally interrupted by the Yasna Haptanghaiti ("seven-chapter Yasna ", chapters 35–41, linguistically as old as the Gathas but in prose) and by two other minor hymns at Yasna 42 and 52. The language of

7242-476: The gospel-song genre is unknown in the worship per se by Eastern Orthodox churches, which rely exclusively on traditional chants (a type of hymn). The Methodist Revival of the 18th century created an explosion of hymn-writing in Welsh , which continued into the first half of the 19th century. The most prominent names among Welsh hymn-writers are William Williams Pantycelyn and Ann Griffiths . The second half of

7344-624: The healer of all spiritual ills and Airyaman then only retains the role of healer of corporeal ills. Although Airyaman has no dedication in the Siroza, the invocations to the divinities of the Zoroastrian calendar , Airyaman is twice invoked together with Aṣ̌a. ( Siroza 1.3 and 2.3) Aogemadaecha 41-47 prototypes death as a journey that has to be properly prepared for: As mortals acquires material goods as they go through life, so also should they furnish themselves with spiritual stores of righteousness. They will then be well provisioned when they embark on

7446-766: The holy scripture of the Sikhs, regarded as the teachings of the Ten Gurus. The role of Guru Granth Sahib, as a source or guide of prayer, is pivotal in Sikh worship. Sutra chanting is a religious action recommended for Shin Buddhist followers to carry out in their daily lives. Temple service chanting may include: dedications to the Three Treasures ( Buddha , Dharma , Sangha ) common to all Buddhist traditions; selections from The Three Pure Land Sutras , which record

7548-451: The journey from which they will not return. Aṣ̌a's role is not limited to judgement: In Bundahishn 26.35, Aṣ̌a prevents daevas from exacting too great a punishment to souls consigned to the House of Lies. Here, Aṣ̌a occupies the position that other texts assign to Mithra , who is traditionally identified with fairness. For the relationship between Aṣ̌a, eschatology and Nowruz , see in

7650-835: The last century or so, several of these, such as the Free Church of Scotland have abandoned this stance. Eastern Christianity (the Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches) has a variety of ancient hymnographical traditions. In the Byzantine Rite , chant is used for all forms of liturgical worship: if it is not sung a cappella , the only accompaniment is usually an ison , or drone . Organs and other instruments were excluded from church use, although they were employed in imperial ceremonies. However, instruments are common in some other Oriental traditions. The Coptic tradition makes use of

7752-585: The late 19th century Ira D. Sankey and Dwight L. Moody developed the relatively new subcategory of gospel hymns . Earlier in the 19th century, the use of musical notation, especially shape notes , exploded in America, and professional singing masters went from town to town teaching the population how to sing from sight , instead of the more common lining out that had been used before that. During this period hundreds of tune books were published, including B.F. White's Sacred Harp , and earlier works like

7854-503: The literary monuments." Some of the verses of the Gathas are directly addressed to the Omniscient Creator Ahura Mazda . These verses, devotional in character, expound on the divine essences of truth ( Asha ), the good-mind ( Vohu Manah ), and the spirit of righteousness. Some other verses are addressed to the public that may have come to hear the prophet, and in these verses, he exhorts his audience to live

7956-413: The metre of words and tune match, but also the stresses on the words in each line. Technically speaking an iambic tune, for instance, cannot be used with words of, say, trochaic metre. The meter is often denoted by a row of figures besides the name of the tune, such as "87.87.87", which would inform the reader that each verse has six lines, and that the first line has eight syllables, the second has seven,

8058-410: The molten metal as a bath of warm milk. The wicked will be scorched. For details on aṣ̌a's role in personal and final judgement, see aṣ̌a in eschatology , below. Fire is moreover the "auxiliary of the truth," "and not only, as in the ordeal, of justice and of truth at the same time." In Yasna 31.19, "the man who thinks of aṣ̌a , [...] who uses his tongue in order to speak correctly, [does so] with

8160-551: The oldest of which were written in the 7th century BC, praising deities of the ancient Greek religions . Surviving from the 3rd century BC is a collection of six literary hymns ( Ὕμνοι ) by the Alexandrian poet Callimachus . The Orphic Hymns are a collection of 87 short poems in Greek religion. Patristic writers began applying the term ὕμνος , or hymnus in Latin , to Christian songs of praise, and frequently used

8262-422: The other concepts, only Vohu Manah "Good Purpose" appears nearly as often (136 occurrences). In comparison, the remaining four of the great sextet appear only 121 times altogether. Although a formal hierarchy is not evident in the Gathas, the group of six "divides naturally into three dyads ." In this arrangement, Aṣ̌a is paired with Vohu Manah. This reflects the frequency in which the two appear (together) in

8364-586: The praise of the airyaman ishya ( airy ә mā īšyo , "Longed-for airyaman "), the fourth of the four great Gathic prayers. In present-day Zoroastrianism it is considered to invoke Airyaman just as the Ashem Vohu , is the second of the four great Gathic prayers, is dedicated to Aṣ̌a. All four prayers (the first is the Ahuna Vairya , the third is the Yenghe Hatam ) have judgement and/or salvation as

8466-485: The publishing of Christian hymnals were prolific in the 19th-century and were often linked to the abolitionist movement by many hymn writers. Stephen Foster wrote a number of hymns that were used during church services during this era of publishing. Thomas Symmes, a clergyman of the third generation of Puritans in New England, spread throughout churches a new idea of how to sing hymns, in which anyone could sing

8568-550: The qualities of God and why one should meditate on God's name. The Guru Granth Sahib is divided by their musical setting in different ragas into fourteen hundred and thirty pages known as Angs (limbs) in Sikh tradition. Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), the tenth guru, after adding Guru Tegh Bahadur 's bani to the Adi Granth affirmed the sacred text as his successor, elevating it to Guru Granth Sahib . The text remains

8670-583: The receiving of communion, during the recessional , and sometimes at other points during the service. The Doxology is also sung after the tithes and offerings are brought up to the altar. Contemporary Christian worship , as often found in Evangelicalism and Pentecostalism , may include the use of contemporary worship music played with electric guitars and the drum kit , sharing many elements with rock music . Other groups of Christians have historically excluded instrumental accompaniment, citing

8772-489: The root * h 2 ar . The word is attested in Old Persian as arta . It is unclear whether the Avestan variation between aṣ̌a and arta is merely orthographical. Benveniste suggested š was only a convenient way of writing rt and should not be considered phonetically relevant. According to Gray, ṣ̌ is a misreading, representing – not /ʃ/ - but /rr/, of uncertain phonetic value but "probably" representing

8874-629: The same Proto-Indo-European root as ' Airyaman ', the divinity of healing who is closely associated with Asha Vahishta. At the last judgement, the common noun airyaman is an epithet of the saoshyans , the saviours that bring about the final renovation of the world. The standing epithet of these saviour figures is ' astvat ә r ә ta ', which likewise has arta as an element of the name. These saviours are those who follow Ahura Mazda's teaching "with acts inspired by aṣ̌a" ( Yasna 48.12). Both Airyaman and Asha Vahishta (as also Atar ) are closely associated with Sraosha "[Voice of] Conscience" and guardian of

8976-537: The same hymn (e.g., the hymn "I Sing a Song of the Saints of God"), the meter is called Irregular. The Rigveda is the earliest and foundational Indian collection of over a thousand liturgical hymns in Vedic Sanskrit . Between other notable Hindu hymns ( stotras and others) or their collections there are: A hymnody acquired tremendous importance during the medieval era of the bhakti movements . When

9078-407: The scholarly study of hymns, hymnists and hymnody is hymnology . The music to which a hymn may be sung is a hymn tune . In many Evangelical churches, traditional songs are classified as hymns while more contemporary worship songs are not considered hymns. The reason for this distinction is unclear, but according to some it is due to the radical shift of style and devotional thinking that began with

9180-446: The sense of "really existing." This meaning is also preserved in Avestan, for instance in the expression haiθīm var ə z , "to make true" as in "to bring to realization." Another meaning of "reality" may be inferred from the component parts of the aṣ̌a/arta : from (root) ŗ with a substantivizing -ta suffix. The root ŗ corresponds to Old Avestan ar ə ta- and Younger Avestan ə r ə ta- "established", hence aṣ̌a/arta "that which

9282-517: The songs of Baul movement. That is, the new hymns themselves received the status of holy scripture. An example of a hymnist, both lyricist and composer is the 15th–16th centuries Assamese reformer guru Sankardev with his borgeet -songs. The Sikh holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib ( Punjabi : ਗੁਰੂ ਗ੍ਰੰਥ ਸਾਹਿਬ Punjabi pronunciation: [ɡʊɾu ɡɾəntʰ sɑhɪb] ), is a collection of hymns ( Shabad ) or Gurbani describing

9384-437: The subsequent rejection by his kinsmen. This and other rejection led him to have doubts about his message, and in the Gathas he asked for assurance from Ahura Mazda, and requests repudiation of his opponents. Selected translations available online: Hymn A hymn is a type of song , and partially synonymous with devotional song , specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer , and typically addressed to

9486-526: The teachings of the Buddha; compositions of Pure Land Buddhist teachers such as Nagarjuna and Shandao . Stotras are Sanskrit hymns or eulogies sung in praise of the divine and the transcendent. Usually associated with the Hindu and Jain traditions, stotras are melodic expressions of devotion and inspiration found in other Sanskrit religious movements as well. Asha Its Old Persian equivalent

9588-459: The third line eight, etc. The meter can also be described by initials; L.M. indicates long meter, which is 88.88 (four lines, each eight syllables long); S.M. is short meter (66.86); C.M. is common metre (86.86), while D.L.M., D.S.M. and D.C.M. (the "D" stands for double) are similar to their respective single meters except that they have eight lines in a verse instead of four. Also, if the number of syllables in one verse differ from another verse in

9690-766: The word as a synonym for " psalm ". Originally modelled on the Book of Psalms and other poetic passages (commonly referred to as " canticles ") in the Scriptures, Christian hymns are generally directed as praise to the Christian God . Many refer to Jesus Christ either directly or indirectly. In the New Testament, Saint Paul wrote to the Ephesian and Colossian churches, enjoining the singing of psalms and hymns for "mutual encouragement and edification." This

9792-586: The written Bible. An example of this, the Book of Life (Russian: "Zhivotnaya kniga") is the name of all oral hymns of the Doukhobors , the Russian denomination, similar to western Quakers . The Book of Life of the Doukhobors (1909) is firstly printed hymnal containing songs, which to have been composed as an oral piece to be sung aloud. Many churches today use contemporary worship music which includes

9894-532: Was "re-discovered" by Alan Lomax in the 1960s (although it had been well-documented by musicologist George Pullen Jackson prior to this). Since then there has been a renaissance in "Sacred Harp singing", with annual conventions popping up in all 50 states and in a number of European countries recently, including the UK , Germany , Ireland and Poland , as well as in Australia . African-Americans developed

9996-505: Was demonstrated when he joined Silas in singing hymns in the Phillipian jail, even during unfortunate circumstances. Psalms 30:4 and Revelation 14:3 , among other Scriptural verses, encourage Christians to sing hymns to praise God. As such, since the earliest times, Christians have sung "psalms and hymns and spiritual songs", both in private devotions and in corporate worship. Non-scriptural hymns (i.e. not psalms or canticles) from

10098-494: Was not a direct paraphrase of Scripture. Watts (1674–1748), whose father was an Elder of a dissenter congregation, complained at age 16, that when allowed only psalms to sing, the faithful could not even sing about their Lord, Christ Jesus. His father invited him to see what he could do about it; the result was Watts' first hymn, "Behold the glories of the Lamb". Found in few hymnals today, the hymn has eight stanzas in common metre and

10200-506: Was realized, Truth is one of the "organs, aspects or emanations" of Ahura Mazda through which the Creator acts and is immanent in the world. Although Vohu Manah regularly stands first in the list of the Amesha Spenta (and of Ahura Mazda's creations), in the Gathas Asha Vahishta is the most evident of the six, and also the most commonly associated with Wisdom (Mazda). In the 238 verses of these hymns, Aṣ̌a appears 157 times. Of

10302-492: Was the typical way hymns were sung. Noting in his preface the fondness of other compilers for tunes in common measure, Billings promised his subscribers a well-balanced collection, with "a Sufficiency in each measure ". And indeed The Singing Master's Assistant has many tunes whose declamation is based on the dactyl in duple time . Boston's Handel and Haydn Society aimed at raising the level of church music in America, publishing their "Collection of Church Music" in 1822. In

10404-515: Was virtually extinct, and a dependency on the medieval texts is often discouraged as the commentaries are frequently conjectural. While some scholars argue that an interpretation using younger texts is inadvisable ( Geldner , Humbach ), others argue that such a view is excessively skeptical ( Spiegel , Darmesteter ). The risks of misinterpretation are real, but lacking alternates, such dependencies are perhaps necessary. "The Middle Persian translation seldom offers an appropriate point of departure for

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