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58-494: Gall described the projection in 1855 at a science convention and published a paper on it in 1885. Peters brought the projection to a wider audience beginning in the early 1970s through his "Peters World Map". The name "Gall–Peters projection" was first used by Arthur H. Robinson in a pamphlet put out by the American Cartographic Association in 1986. The Gall–Peters projection achieved notoriety in

116-583: A pseudo-cylindrical projection that intends to strike a compromise between distortions in areas and in distances, in order to attain a more natural visualization. The projection has been widely used since its introduction. In 1988, National Geographic adopted it for their world maps but replaced it in 1998 with the Winkel tripel projection . Robinson produced over 60 articles for professional publications, as well as fifteen books and monographs. Books: National Council of Churches The National Council of

174-418: A geometric error that, taken literally, implies standard parallels of 46°02′ N/S. However the text accompanying the description made it clear that he had intended the standard parallels to be 45° N/S, making his projection identical to Gall's orthographic. In any case, the difference is negligible in a world map. The name "Gall–Peters projection" seems to have been used first by Arthur H. Robinson in

232-706: A negotiated solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . In partnership with the World Council of Churches , it has traditionally sought to balance its approach, seeking safety and protection for both the Jewish and Palestinian communities. It has focused on meeting needs of the victims of this conflict in all communities and supporting continued negotiations. Since the late 1960s the NCC has taken positions sympathetic towards Palestinian land rights and supportive of

290-606: A pamphlet put out by the American Cartographic Association in 1986. Before 1973 it had been known, when referred to at all, as the "Gall orthographic" or "Gall's orthographic". Most Peters supporters refer to it as the "Peters projection". During the years of controversy , the cartographic articles tended to use one name or the other, while acknowledging both names. In recent years "Gall–Peters" seems to dominate. The Gall–Peters projection initially passed unnoticed when presented by Gall in 1855. It achieved more widespread attention after Arno Peters reintroduced it in 1973. He promoted it as

348-491: A response to "industrial problems" that arose during the rapid industrialization of the United States . The primary concern was the protection of workers in a host of areas including wages, working conditions, child labor , and a six-day work week (reduced from seven). During the next 40 plus years, FCC remained engaged in the domestic social problems of the day as well as international problems that threatened to draw

406-603: A secure Israel. More recently, NCC has been particularly concerned with the plight of Christian communities in the region. Some of NCC's member communions have congregations or partners in the region that are being directly affected. However, the NCC's "witness to the need for vigilance in brokering peace extends to our concern for all people in the region, whether they be Christians, Jews , Muslims , Baháʼís or others, and whether they be Israelis , Palestinians , Syrians , Egyptians , or others." The council has supported many poverty alleviation efforts, including increases to

464-459: A son and a daughter. After the death of his first wife, Robinson remarried in 1993. His second wife was Martha Elizabeth Rodabaugh Phillips (1914–2010), a widow, with whom he had attended school in Oxford, Ohio. Robinson was a prolific writer and influential philosopher on cartography: According to Robinson, “the aim of cartographic design is to present the geographical data in such a fashion that

522-540: A superior alternative to the commonly used Mercator projection , on the basis that the Mercator projection greatly distorts the relative sizes of regions on a map. In particular, he criticized that the Mercator projection causes wealthy Europe and North America to appear very large relative to poorer Africa and South America. These arguments swayed many socially concerned groups to adopt the Gall–Peters projection, including

580-540: Is a member of the interdenominational World Council of Churches and, through the WCC, is in communication with denominations of numerous theological stances. They have released several joint statements over the years. Rev. Dr. Angelique Walker Smith of the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. , a member church of the NCC, is the WCC's president from North America. The NCC Faith and Order Commission

638-476: Is an ongoing, scholarly, ecumenical dialogue among North American Christian theologians and ecclesiastical historians, including evangelical, Pentecostal, Roman Catholic , Orthodox, mainline Protestant, and African-American scholars. In 2007, the commission celebrated its fiftieth anniversary. Through the "Interreligious Relations Convening Table", the NCC is in dialogue with representatives of Islam , Judaism , Hinduism , Buddhism and Sikhism . Since 2004,

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696-674: Is based. The series began in 1872 under the auspices of the National Sunday School Convention. The NCC also published until 2012 the annual Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches , since 1916 a widely used reference work on trends, statistics and programmatic information on religious organizations in North America. Future editions of the yearbook will be published by the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies (ASARB). The NCC

754-654: Is in dialogue with the National Council of Synagogues, a partnership of Reformed , Conservative , and the Reconstructionist groups in Judaism for the purpose of interfaith affairs. The main focus of discussion between the NCC and NCS is pastoral affairs and community issues such as antisemitism . Their most recent meeting was in December of 2023. Orthodox Judaism is presently not in dialogue with

812-471: Is suggestive of the orthographic projection in that distances between parallels of the Gall–Peters are a constant multiple of the distances between the parallels of the orthographic. That constant is √ 2 . In 1967, the German filmmaker Arno Peters independently devised a similar projection, which he presented in 1973 as the "Peters world map". Peters's original description of his projection contained

870-477: Is what distinguishes the variations of cylindric equal-area projection. The various specializations of the cylindric equal-area projection differ only in the ratio of the vertical to horizontal axis. This ratio determines the standard parallel of the projection, which is the parallel at which there is no distortion and along which distances match the stated scale. The standard parallels of the Gall–Peters are 45° N and 45° S. Several other specializations of

928-470: The Catholic Church , fundamentalist groups, Southern Baptists , and Missouri Synod Lutherans , which are not officially a part of the council's membership. All NCC member organizations subscribe to the NCC's statement of faith, which forms the preamble to the NCC's charter: The National Council of Churches is a community of Christian communions, which, in response to the gospel as revealed in

986-512: The Federal Council of Churches in 1908, and expanded through merger with several other ecumenical organizations to become the National Council of Churches in 1950. Its Interim President and General Secretary is Bishop Vashti Murphy McKenzie. The first efforts at ecumenical organization emerged in May 1908 with the creation of the Federal Council of Churches (FCC). The FCC was created as

1044-719: The Map communication model . During World War II, Robinson served as director of the map division of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). In 1941, when Robinson joined OSS, there were no cartographers as we know them today. Robinson engaged geographers with some interest in mapping and the group developed their techniques on the job. Led by Robinson, the OSS cartographers designed a massive 50-inch globe for President Franklin Roosevelt , which became known as "The President's Globe." A copy of

1102-514: The National Council of Churches and the magazine New Internationalist . His campaign was bolstered by the inaccurate claim that the Gall–Peters projection was the only "area-correct" map. In actuality, some of the oldest projections are equal-area (such as the sinusoidal projection ), and hundreds have been described. He also inaccurately claimed that it possessed "absolute angle conformality", had "no extreme distortions of form", and

1160-659: The Vietnam War , the NCC found itself in opposition to growing US military action . In 1965, the General Board stated that "unilateral action by the United States in Southeast Asia will not lead to peace." The NCC's position against the Vietnam War became increasingly strident in the 1960s and 1970s, and in some cases, alienated the laity of some member communions. NCC has been a consistent supporter of

1218-688: The 1908 creed, the "Social Creed for the 21st Century" included additional principles, including: These creeds have formed the basis, growing out of a common Christian faith, of the work of the NCC in public policy matters. For a number of years, the NCC maintained a separate policy advocacy office in Washington, D.C. Located in the United Methodist Building on Capitol Hill , the NCC Washington Office served as an ecumenical hub through which it could interact with

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1276-410: The 1970s , NCC issued a statement in which it called for "Ecological Justice". The statement called for more work on renewable energy, reductions in energy sources that pollute, and support for energy sources that did not have adverse effects on communities (health, economic, etc.). This statement helped form the basis for the creation of the NCC's Eco-Justice program. Housed in the NCC Washington Office,

1334-414: The American Cartographic Association (now Cartography and Geographic Information Society ) to produce a series of booklets (including Which Map Is Best ) designed to educate the public about map projections and distortion in maps. In 1989 and 1990, after some internal debate, seven North American geographic organizations adopted a resolution rejecting all rectangular world maps, a category that includes both

1392-661: The Black Curriculum Resource Center. W. Sterling Cary , the first Black president of the NCC who was elected in 1972, was a vocal advocate for racial justice and the Black Power movement . Since its inception, the NCC had been skeptical of the usefulness of war. During World War II, the Federal Council of Churches formed a Committee on Conscientious Objectors to advocate for the right of people of faith to refuse military service. During

1450-674: The Churches of Christ in the USA , usually identified as the National Council of Churches ( NCC ), is the largest ecumenical body in the United States . NCC is an ecumenical partnership of 38 Christian faith groups in the United States . Its member communions include mainline Protestant , Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox , African-American , evangelical , and historic peace churches . Together, it encompasses more than 100,000 local congregations and 40 million adherents. It began as

1508-538: The Eurocentric global concept, incapable of developing this egalitarian world map which alone can demonstrate the parity of all peoples of the earth. As Peters's promotions gained popularity, the cartographic community reacted with hostility to his criticisms, as well as to the inaccuracy and lack of novelty of his claims. They called attention to the long list of cartographers who, over the preceding century, had formally expressed frustration with publishers' overuse of

1566-438: The Mercator and advocated for alternatives. In addition, several scholars criticized the particularly large distortions present in the Gall–Peters projection, and remarked on the irony of its undistorted presentation of the mid latitudes, including Peters's native Germany, at the expense of the low latitudes, which host more of the technologically underdeveloped nations. The increasing publicity of Peters's claims in 1986 motivated

1624-573: The Mercator and the Gall–Peters projections, though the North American Cartographic Information Society notably declined to endorse it. The two camps never made any real attempts toward reconciliation. The Peters camp largely ignored the protests of the cartographers, and did not acknowledge Gall's prior work until the controversy had largely run its course, late in Peters's life. While he likely devised

1682-633: The NCC aided in forming the "National Muslim-Christian Dialogue" with the Islamic Circle of North America , and the United States Council of Muslim Organizations. In addition to theological discussions, the dialogue has focused on social issues including Islamophobia in the United States . Since 2010, there has been an annual dialogue between the participants. In 2015 the interfaith dialogue participants came to 16 theological points of agreement between Christianity and Islam. The NCC

1740-753: The NCC together with the Synagogue Council of America and the National Catholic Welfare Conference , convened the National Conference on Religion and Race, which issued An Appeal to the Conscience of the American People for a moral end to racism. From 1966 until 1973 Olivia P. Stokes was associate director of urban education in the NCC's Department of Educational Development, developing

1798-645: The NCC, participants include the Guibord Center, Fo Guang Shan Hsi Lai Temple, Claremont School of Theology , and the University of the West . Presently the dialogue is focused on bilateral understanding of the two faiths. The "National Sikh-Christian Dialogue" was started by the NCC in 2019 and is in communication with the Sikh Council of Interfaith Relations. Recent discussions include understanding

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1856-614: The NCC. Concerning their dialogue with Hinduism, the NCC established the "National Hindu-Christian Dialogue" in 2018. Through this dialogue, they are in discussions with the Vedanta Society of Southern California which is under the spiritual leadership of the Ramakrishna Order . They also established the "National Buddhist-Christian Dialogue" in 2018 for discussions with those of the Buddhist faith. In addition to

1914-678: The Scriptures, confess Jesus Christ, the incarnate Word of God, as Savior and Lord. These communions covenant with one another to manifest ever more fully the unity of the Church. Relying upon the transforming power of the Holy Spirit, the communions come together as the Council in common mission, serving in all creation to the glory of God. Since its founding in 1950, one of the primary activities of NCC has been to effect positive change for

1972-667: The US into war. Its progressive social program along with support of conscientious objectors to World War II garnered stiff criticism from Christian fundamentalist circles. By 1950, numerous programs and efforts of social uplift had formed in addition to the FCC. Seeking greater unity, a dozen ecumenical bodies (including the FCC) gathered in Cleveland , Ohio, in 1950 to discuss how to more effectively organize their common work. Out of this meeting, via

2030-605: The World , Habitat for Humanity , and Children's Defense Fund , to press for broad policy initiatives that address poverty issues. The council helped launch the Let Justice Roll grassroots anti-poverty campaign that has been successful in raising the minimum wage in more than 20 states since 2005. In 2018, the council issued a statement opposing the nomination of Brett Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court . NCC

2088-586: The betterment of society. Adopted in December 1908, "The Social Creed of the Churches" was a statement by members of the Federal Council of Churches against what it described as "industrial problems". The document spelled out a list of principles, including: In 2007, the NCC updated its social creed to reflect a new era of globalization. The goal was to "offer a vision of a society that shares more and consumes less, seeks compassion over suspicion and equality over domination, and finds security in joined hands rather than massed arms." In addition to those areas mentioned in

2146-545: The cartographic community as reactionary and perhaps demonstrative of immaturity in the profession. Maps based on the projection are promoted by UNESCO , and they are also widely used by British schools. The U.S. state of Massachusetts and Boston Public Schools began phasing in these maps in March 2017, becoming the first public school district and state in the United States to adopt Gall–Peters maps as their standard. Until its dissolution in 2020, Amherst -based ODT Maps Inc.

2204-629: The civil rights movement throughout the 1950s and 1960s. NCC created a Race Relations Sunday to educate and call to action mainline Christians nationwide. In 1961, Andrew Young left his position with the National Council of Churches to join the Southern Christian Leadership Conference , eventually becoming that organization's executive director. When the Civil Rights Act was introduced in 1964, NCC lobbied heavily for its swift adoption. In January 1963,

2262-819: The equal-area cylindric have been described, promoted, or otherwise named. The Gall–Peters projection was first described in 1855 by the Scottish clergyman James Gall , who presented it along with two other projections at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (the BA). He gave it the name "orthographic" and formally published his work in 1885 in the Scottish Geographical Magazine . The projection

2320-461: The formulae may be written: where λ {\displaystyle \lambda } is the longitude from the central meridian (in radians), φ {\displaystyle \varphi } is the latitude, and R is the radius of the globe used as the model of the earth for projection. Hence the sphere is mapped onto the vertical cylinder, and the cylinder is stretched to double its length. The stretch factor, 2 in this case,

2378-540: The geography department at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he spent his career in academia and research. Robinson sought to establish cartography as a recognized discipline and ultimately the university granted both undergraduate and master's degrees in cartography. The Wisconsin cartography program has conferred more than 100 masters and 20 doctoral degrees, and many of the doctoral recipients created respected cartography programs at other universities. Today

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2436-643: The globe was given to Winston Churchill as a gift and a third globe was provided for the use of George Marshall and Henry Stimson. While serving with the OSS, Robinson oversaw the creation of 5,000 hand-drawn maps and attended the Allied conferences at Quebec and Cairo in 1943 and in 1944, he served as chief U.S. map officer. For his efforts Robinson received the Legion of Merit from the United States Army in 1946. In 1947 Robinson subsequently joined

2494-459: The late 20th century as the centerpiece of a controversy about the political implications of map design. The projection is conventionally defined as: where λ is the longitude from the central meridian in degrees, φ is the latitude, and R is the radius of the globe used as the model of the earth for projection. For longitude given in radians, remove the ⁠ π / 180° ⁠ factors. Stripping out unit conversion and uniform scaling,

2552-927: The map library at the University of Wisconsin–Madison is named in his honor. Robinson served as president of the International Cartographic Association (1972–76), and as vice president and president of the Association of American Geographers . He was awarded the Carl Mannerfelt Gold Medal by the International Cartographic Association in 1980. Robinson married Mary Elizabeth Coffin (1910–-1992), daughter of John R. Coffin and Bessie Morris Coffin, on December 23, 1938, in Franklin County, Ohio. They had two children,

2610-446: The map, as a whole, appears as an integrated unit and so that each item included is clear, legible, and neither more nor less prominent than it should be.” Like Richard Edes Harrison , another successful wartime cartographer, Robinson warned against the dangers of blindly accepting conventions in map design, such as always putting north at the top of the map. Robinson wrote that neither logic nor educational value required placing north at

2668-763: The merger of the Federal Council of Churches with several other ecumenical bodies, emerged the NCC. During the late 1950s and early 1960s (it is unclear from the reference how long this continued), the National Council of Churches received some funding from the "Foundation for Youth and Student Affairs", a front funded by the CIA to oppose communism . The council's 38 member communions include mainline Protestant , Eastern Orthodox , African-American , evangelical , and historic peace churches . Individual adherents of more than 50 Christian faith groups actively participate in NCC study groups, commissions, and ministries. Some of these participants belong to Christian faith groups such as

2726-619: The minimum wage and ecumenical efforts such as the Circle of Protection and the Faithful Budget Campaign. In 2013, during restructuring, NCC spun off its department dealing with poverty issues into a new organization, the Ecumenical Poverty Initiative. NCC continues its work on poverty through its support of EPI as well as partnerships with other likeminded organizations. During the oil crisis of

2784-559: The numerous denominational policy offices also located in the Methodist Building. Its work centered on areas mentioned in the creeds but also primarily focused around two programs, Eco-Justice and the Ecumenical Poverty Initiative. Both of these programs have been spun off into separate independent organizations since NCC restructuring in 2013. NCC partners with dozens of other faith-based groups in DC and elsewhere, such as Bread for

2842-406: The problem of a justice system based on retribution and the over-representation of communities of color in the prison population. More recently, NCC has worked for sentencing reform to reduce mandatory minimum sentences , advocated for clemency for individuals who were over sentenced, and prison conditions . In addition, NCC has also broadened this work to include police reform , especially in

2900-467: The program focused on federal environmental policy. In 2013, the Eco-Justice program was spun off into its own organization, Creation Justice Ministries. CJM continues to work with NCC and its 38 member communions to coordinate efforts to protect the environment. Over the past three years , NCC has taken a more active role in the struggle against mass incarceration . As early as 1979, NCC recognized

2958-401: The projection independently, his unscholarly conduct and refusal to engage the cartographic community undoubtedly contributed to the polarization and impasse. In the ensuing decades, J. Brian Harley credited the Peters phenomenon with demonstrating the social implications of map projections, while the geographer Jeremy Crampton considers all maps to be political, and sees the condemnation from

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3016-538: The top of the map. One of Robinson's most notable accomplishments is the Robinson projection . In 1961, Rand McNally asked Robinson to choose a projection for use as a world map that, among other criteria, was uninterrupted, had limited distortion , and was pleasing to the eye of general viewers. Robinson could not find a projection that satisfied the criteria, so Rand McNally commissioned him to design one. Robinson proceeded through an iterative process to create

3074-698: The wake of much publicized shootings in places such as Baton Rouge , Minneapolis , and Dallas . The NCC fostered the multi-denominational research effort that produced the Revised Standard Version and the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible , and holds the copyrights to both translations. The NCC sponsors the research program on which the Uniform Sunday School Lesson Series

3132-680: Was "totally distance-factual". Peters framed his criticisms of the Mercator projection with criticisms of the broader cartographic community. In particular, Peters wrote in The New Cartography , By the authority of their profession [cartographers] have hindered its development. Since Mercator produced his global map over four hundred years ago for the age of Europeans world domination, cartographers have clung to it despite its having been long outdated by events. They have sought to render it topical by cosmetic corrections.… The cartographic profession is, by its retention of old precepts based on

3190-495: Was an American geographer and cartographer , who was professor in the Geography Department at the University of Wisconsin–Madison from 1947 until he retired in 1980. He was a prolific writer and influential philosopher on cartography, and one of his most notable accomplishments is the Robinson projection of 1961. Arthur H. Robinson was born in Montreal , Quebec, Canada, to American parents, James Howard Robinson and Elizabeth (Peavey) Robinson. He lived in Great Britain while he

3248-579: Was closely aligned with leaders in the civil rights movement , including Martin Luther King Jr. and Andrew Young . The NCC was an important link to mainline churches for the civil rights movement and it consistently condemned segregation during the Montgomery bus boycott and other actions. In a speech to NCC in 1957, King thanked the NCC for its support: "This great body—the National Council of Churches—has condemned segregation over and over again, and has requested its constituent denominations to do likewise." The NCC continued to be closely intertwined with

3306-472: Was the exclusive North American publisher of Peters and Hobo–Dyer projection maps. On April 16, 2024, Nebraska Governor Jim Pillen signed a law that requires public schools to display maps based on the Gall–Peters projection, a similar cylindrical equal-area projection , or the AuthaGraph projection beginning in the 2024–2025 school year. Notes Further reading Arthur H. Robinson Arthur H. Robinson (January 5, 1915 – October 10, 2004)

3364-546: Was young, and received his post-secondary education in the United States. His undergraduate work was done at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio , obtaining a B.A. degree in 1936. During his undergraduate work he became especially interested in cartography, and received some practice drawing maps for faculty textbooks while earning a master's degree in geography from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1938, and he earned his Ph.D. degree from Ohio State University in 1947. While at Ohio State, Robinson worked to solve problems in

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