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90-620: The province of Gallia Transalpina ("Transalpine Gaul") was later renamed Gallia Narbonensis , after its newly established capital of Colonia Narbo Martius (colloquially known as Narbo, at the location of the modern Narbonne ), a Roman colony founded on the coast in 118 BC. The name Gallia Narbonensis most likely originates in the Augustan era. Its first recorded use was in a census conducted by Gnaeus Pullius Pollio . The Romans had called it Provincia Nostra ("our province") or simply Provincia ("the province"). The term has survived in

180-588: A Celtic harbor and marketplace at that time, and called its inhabitants the Ναρβαῖοι . In ancient inscriptions the name is sometimes rendered in Latin and sometimes translated into Iberian as Nedhena . Narbonne was established in Gaul by the Roman Republic in 118 BC, as Colonia Narbo Martius , colloquially Narbo , and made into the capital of the newly established province of Gallia Transalpina . It

270-531: A senatorial province governed by a proconsul . Emperor Diocletian 's administrative reorganization of the Empire in c.  AD 314 merged the provinces Gallia Narbonensis and Gallia Aquitania into a new administrative unit called Dioecesis Viennensis (Diocese of Vienne) with the capital more to the north in Vienne . The new diocese's name was later changed to Dioecesis Septem Provinciarum (Diocese of

360-701: A European final in 2001. They play at the Parc des Sports Et de l'Amitié (capacity 12,000). They wear orange and black. The Gare de Narbonne railway station offers direct connections to Paris, Barcelona, Toulouse, Marseille and many regional destinations. An extensive local system of buses and routes operated by Citibus.fr allow for easy public transport within Narbonne and surrounding communities. Travellers wishing to connect by plane arrive by airports in nearby Béziers , Carcassonne , Perpignan , Toulouse or Montpellier , as Narbonne does not have an airport. Narbonne

450-614: A bloody but indecisive battle near Messana . It took until summer for the triumvirs to move all their armies into Macedonia. Through early 42 BC, Brutus and Cassius were active in Asia sacking cities and forcing tribute from the provincials to pay their own soldiers. The liberatores , busy, delayed marching west (perhaps an error in retrospect); they moved to intercept Antony and Octavian only in mid-July. The triumvirs' advance forces reached Philippi first, but were outmanoeuvred and forced to retreat. Brutus and Cassius, hugely outnumbering

540-524: A militant rising against Octavian. Antony attempted to remain largely aloof to the goings-on, probably so he could exploit the outcome, but his supporters in Italy were largely uninformed of his intentions and readied for conflict. The consul Lucius, in the summer of 41 BC, occupied Rome with an army; however, he was beaten back by Octavian's forces and besieged in Perusia . Unsure of Antony's intentions,

630-515: A slow decline in the 14th century, for a variety of reasons. One was due to a change in the course of the river Aude , which caused increased silting of the navigational access. The river, known as the Atax in ancient times, had always had two main courses which split close to Salelles; one fork going south through Narbonne and then to the sea close to the Clappe Massif, the other heading east to

720-522: A son with Cleopatra and publicly acknowledged his paternity of two twins born in 40 BC. This may have been related to strengthening Antony and Cleopatra's positions in Egypt and building popular support there; even if so, the relationship was unpopular in Italy and Antony should have known this. Antony demanded the return of Crassus' eagles from Phraates; Phraates, needing to ensure his own position, refused. Antony struck north towards Armenia , where he

810-588: A third of his entire army. The failure of the Parthian campaign fatally damaged Antony's military prestige and power. If it had been successful, it would clearly placed him above Octavian; but after its failure, Antony's fortunes turned for the worse. Agrippa prepared exhaustively for Octavian's campaign against Sicily. Octavian also was able to secure support from Lepidus in Africa, who possibly had plans of his own. In July 36 BC, Octavian and Lepidus launched

900-489: A three-pronged attack on Sicily with Octavian's forces landing in the north and east while Lepidus landed in the south. Initially, Octavian's naval forces were beset by storms. Lepidus' forces, however, successfully effected a landing in his theatre and placed one of Sextus' lieutenants under siege in Lilybaeum . In the north and east, there were naval battles: Octavian was personally defeated off Tauromenium while Agrippa

990-550: A trading route. This has continued in more recent centuries. Narbonne is linked to the nearby Canal du Midi and the river Aude by the Canal de la Robine , which runs through the centre of town. It is very close to the A9 motorway, which connects Montpellier and Nîmes to Perpignan and, across the border, to Barcelona in Spain. There is also a recently renovated train station which serves

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1080-417: A worsening situation in Italy; when Octavian did not arrive promptly, he issued a public rebuke and sailed east for Syria, where he found Ventidius' victories uninterrupted. Ventidius was relieved of command by Antony and then returned to Rome to celebrate a triumph on 27 November 38 BC before dying shortly thereafter. The agreement between Sextus Pompey and Octavian, without Antony's presence to balance

1170-412: A year to attack Sextus and would receive 120 ships from Antony in exchange for 20,000 men and 1,000 elite troops. The triumvirate also had uncomfortably expired at the end of 38 BC. Normal republican practice had magistrates abdicate their offices at the close of their terms; the triumvirs' terms had ended, but they had not abdicated. Nor were any successors appointed. Regardless, the legal position of

1260-517: Is twinned with: Second Triumvirate People Events Places The Second Triumvirate was an extraordinary commission and magistracy created at the end of the Roman republic for Mark Antony , Lepidus , and Octavian to give them practically absolute power. It was formally constituted by law on 27 November 43 BC with a term of five years; it was renewed in 37 BC for another five years before expiring in 32 BC. Constituted by

1350-636: Is a commune in Southern France in the Occitanie region . It lies 849 km (528 mi) from Paris in the Aude department , of which it is a sub-prefecture . It is located about 15 km (9 mi) from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and was historically a prosperous port. From the 14th century it declined following a change in the course of the river Aude . While it

1440-608: Is the largest commune in Aude, the capital of the Aude department is the smaller commune of Carcassonne . The source of the town's original name of Narbo is lost in antiquity, and it may have referred to a hillfort from the Iron Age close to the location of the current settlement or its occupants. The earliest known record of the area comes from the Greek Hecataeus of Miletus in the fifth century BC, who identified it as

1530-458: The lex Titia , the triumvirs were given broad powers to make or repeal legislation, issue judicial punishments without due process or right of appeal, and appoint all other magistrates. The triumvirs also split the Roman world into three sets of provinces . The triumvirate, formed in the aftermath of a conflict between Antony and the senate , emerged as a force to reassert Caesarian control over

1620-483: The Gallic wars and fought against him during the civil war ). In the preparations for war, however, Antony found most of the east largely sucked dry by the previous armies of Dolabella , Cassius, and Brutus. Antony, however, was gentle with the areas that Brutus and Cassius had pillaged. He also displayed favour for great cultural centres and toured the eastern provinces seeking to buttress popular support. Moving down

1710-587: The Sertorian War (80–72 BCE) against the breakaway state of former Roman senator and general Sertorius , Gallia Narbonensis was an important base for military activities. This was an important event in the Romanization of Narbonese Gaul, as it resulted in the Romans organizing the province. Control of the province, which bordered directly on Italia , gave the Roman state several advantages: control of

1800-519: The 12th century, the court of Ermengarde of Narbonne (reigned 1134 to 1192) presided over one of the cultural centers where the spirit of courtly love was developed. The historian Arthur J. Zuckerman wrote in 1973 the book A Jewish Princedom in Feudal France , presenting the thesis that from the 8th to 10 centuries AD there was a Jewish vassal princedom based in Narbonne, given to the Jews by

1890-500: The 5th century, with a community that numbered about 2,000 people in the 12th century. At this time, Narbonne was frequently mentioned in Talmudic works in connection with its scholars. One source, Abraham ibn Daud of Toledo, gives them an importance similar to the exilarchs of Babylon. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the community went through a series of ups and downs before settling into extended decline. Narbonne itself fell into

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1980-586: The Canal de la Robine, which was finally linked with the Canal du Midi (then known as the Royal Canal) via the Canal de Jonction in 1776. In the 19th century, the canal system in the south of France had to compete with an expanding rail network, which could ship goods more quickly. The canals kept some importance as they were used to support the flourishing wine trade. Despite its decline from Roman times, Narbonne held on to its vital but limited importance as

2070-676: The Carolingian king Pepin as a gift of gratitude for their cooperation in the Frankish conquest of Narbonne from Al-Andalus in the year 759 . This is however controversial, the book having been criticized by other historians. In the 11th and 12th centuries, Narbonne was home to an important Jewish exegetical school, which played a pivotal role in the growth and development of the Zarphatic (Judæo-French) and Shuadit (Judæo-Provençal) languages. Jews had settled in Narbonne from about

2160-461: The Egyptian queen, it is more likely in this period he was merely attempting to strengthen Cleopatra's position in Egypt as part of his policy of favouring strong allied monarchs. Regardless, he left her in the spring of 40 to embark on a campaign against Parthia. The Parthians, in the winter of 41 BC, knowing that Antony was preparing an offensive, struck first. Invading Asia Minor and Syria under

2250-468: The Italian countryside. Antony's brother, Lucius Antonius , serving as consul for 41 BC, and Antony's wife Fulvia fanned the flames of this unrest to undermine Octavian. They spread propaganda indicting Octavian's regime with stomping on citizen rights and favouring Octavian's veterans over Antony's. Although there was little truth behind these charges, they were largely able to build up support for

2340-635: The Mediterranean coast, Antony confirmed a number of rulers – in spite of their previous support for the liberatores or for Parthia – in Palestine and called Cleopatra to attend to him in Cilicia. Cleopatra quickly entered into an affair with Antony, which proved useful to her: Antony helped her secure her throne with the death of her sister Arsinoe and against other Ptolemaic claimants. While ancient writers speculated on Antony being manipulated by

2430-535: The Roman Catholic population of the city, and is a major tourist attraction. From the sixteenth century, eager to maintain a link to important trade, the people of Narbonne began costly work to the vestiges of the river Aude 's access to the sea so that it would remain navigable to a limited draft vessel and also serve as a link with the Royal Canal. This major undertaking resulted in the construction of

2520-414: The Romans, the Parthian threat disappeared amid a dynastic struggle when Orodes II abdicated in favour of his chosen successor Phraates IV , who promptly murdered his father, all of his brothers, and his own son, precipitating a revolt. Amid a general reorganisation of the east which again strengthened client kingdoms – among a number of changes, Cleopatra received Crete and Cyrene , – Antony fathered

2610-645: The Seven Provinces), indicating that Diocletian had demoted the word "province" to mean a smaller subdivision than in traditional usage. Galla Narbonensis and surrounding areas were incorporated into the Visigothic Kingdom between AD 462 and 477, permanently ending Roman political control. After the Gothic takeover, the Visigothic dominions were to be generally known as Septimania , while to

2700-634: The TGV to Spain, Paris and Calais, which in turn connects to the Eurostar. Narbonne is only 10 km from Narbonne Plage (beach), but it is only 2 km from the nearest open water, at La Nautique, although there is no sand, rather pebbles. Narbonne is home to the rugby union team RC Narbonne founded in 1907. It is an historic team in France, Narbonne have twice won the French first division title and reached

2790-573: The Triumvirs came from Sextus Pompey , a son of Pompey the Great , who controlled Sicily , Corsica and Sardinia . Octavian and Antony were pushed to cooperation, in part by their soldiers, and the triumvirs had their legal arrangement renewed for another five years in 37 BC. Eventually, after Antony's defeat in Parthia and Octavian's victory over Sextus Pompey, Octavian forced Lepidus from

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2880-633: The Visigoths by a local military leader in exchange for support; as a result Roman rule ended in the city. It was subsequently the capital of the Visigothic province of Septimania , the only territory from Gaul to fend off the Frankish thrust after the Battle of Vouille (507). In 531, Frankish king, Childebert I , invaded Septimania and defeated Visigothic king, Amalaric near Narbonne and occupied

2970-493: The addition of their enemies to the death lists. Persons on the proscription lists had their properties confiscated and sold; freelance assassins, bounty hunters, and informers received cash rewards for aiding in the killings. Preparations for war on the tyrannicides started promptly. In Rome, the new year saw Julius Caesar consecrated as a god . With the triumvirs having slaughtered their political enemies in Italy, they moved with some forty legions against Brutus and Cassius in

3060-621: The advance force, reached Philippi in early September, forcing the triumvirs' advance forces to retreat. Antony and Octavian arrived some days later. The liberatores first attempted to avoid battle in light of the triumvirs' weak supply situation. But Antony was successful in forcing battle with the construction of earthworks on Cassius' flank. The liberatores accepted battle, triggering the first battle: Brutus fought Octavian, Cassius fought Antony. Brutus' forces were successful and stormed Octavian's camp and destroying three of Octavian's legions. Cassius' forces, however, were less successful; Antony

3150-547: The city of Massalia sided with the Pompeians during the civil war . After the war ended, the city of Massalia lost all of its independence and was fully subject to Roman rule. In 40 BC, during the Second Triumvirate , Lepidus was given responsibility for Narbonese Gaul (along with Hispania and Africa), while Mark Antony was given the balance of Gaul. After becoming Emperor , Augustus made Gallia Narbonensis

3240-418: The city. However, after Childebert's continued invasion to Catalonia failed, Amalaric's successor Theudis was able to reclaim the rich province of Septimania, including Narbonne. Following the loss of Toledo and Barcelona in 711/712, the last two kings of the Visigoths, Agila II and Ardo retreated to Narbonne, where they were able to resist Muslim attacks until 716. For 40 years, from 719 to 759, Narbonne

3330-557: The command of Pacorus and Quintus Labienus in the early spring of 40 BC, the Parthian forces were largely unchallenged: Pacorus moved south for Palestine while Labienus moved west through Cilicia for Ionia. Antony at the time was wholly distracted from the Parthian invasion due to the Perusine War . The veterans' demands for lands in Italy – in the midst of a famine, which itself was exacerbated by Sextus Pompey's naval blockade of Italy, – caused protests and unrest throughout

3420-469: The declaration of Antony as a public enemy. Octavian then moved north to treat with Antony under Lepidus' protection. With the Caesarian soldiers' urging, Octavian and Antony reconciled; Octavian also would marry Antony's step-daughter Clodia . The three men then established themselves as the triumviri rei publicae constituendae (the latter words indicate a causa or commission for the reconstitution of

3510-629: The east of the lower Rhone the term Provence came into use. (This list is based on A.L.F. Rivet, Gallia Narbonensis (London: Batsford, 1988), pp. 79, 86f.) 44°00′00″N 4°00′00″E  /  44.0000°N 4.0000°E  / 44.0000; 4.0000 Colonia Narbo Martius Narbonne ( / n ɑːr ˈ b ɒ n / nar- BON , US also /- ˈ b ɔː n , - ˈ b ʌ n / -⁠ BAWN , -⁠ BUN , French: [naʁbɔn] ; Occitan : Narbona [naɾˈβunɔ] ; Latin : Narbo [ˈna(ː)rboː] ; Late Latin :   Narbona )

3600-619: The east: Lepidus remained in Italy – supervised by two pro-Antony governors – while Antony and Octavian moved to cross the Adriatic for Macedonia . While some eight legions had crossed the Adriatic early in the year, the naval forces of the liberatores and of Sextus Pompey were able to interdict the triumvir's transports. Octavian dispatched Quintus Salvius Salvidienus Rufus against Sextus Pompey's base of operations in Sicily, resulting in

3690-470: The etang at Vendres close to the current mouth of the river well to the east of the city. The Romans had improved the navigability of the river by building a dam near Salelles and also by canalising the river as it passed through its marshy delta to the sea (then as now the canal was known as the Robine.) A major flood in 1320 swept the dam away. The Aude river had a long history of overflowing its banks. When it

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3780-591: The first Roman road in Gaul, connecting Gaul to Hispania, and the Via Aquitania , which led toward the Atlantic through Tolosa (Toulouse) and Burdigala (Bordeaux). Thus, the Romans built a crossroads that made Narbonne an optimal trading center, and Narbonne became a major trading competitor to Massalia. From Narbonne, the Romans established the province of Transalpine Gaul, later called Gallia Narbonensis. During

3870-516: The further security of Gallia Narbonensis. The area became a Roman province in 121 BCE. The province had come into Roman control originally under the name Gallia Transalpina (Transalpine Gaul), which distinguished it from Cisalpine Gaul on the near side of the Alps to Rome. In this strip of land, the Romans founded the town of Narbonne in 118 BC. At the same time, they built the Via Domitia ,

3960-652: The land route between Italy and the Iberian Peninsula ; a territorial buffer against Gallic attacks on Italy; and control of the lucrative trade routes of the Rhône valley between Gaul and the markets of Massalia. It was from the capital of Narbonne that Julius Caesar began his Gallic Wars . Caesar rebuilt Narbo and built the cities of Forum Julium and Arles . Julius Caesar also granted many communities in Gallia Narbonensis citizenship. In 49 BC,

4050-581: The legal powers may have been retained (after their later renewal in 38 BC) all the way until 27 BC when Octavian abdicated his magistracy. In desperate need of money, the three men issued a declaration which – according to Appian – declared Caesar's clementia to have been a failure; it was appended with a death list. Some three hundred senators and 2,000 equites were then killed; some victims escaped to Macedonia or Sicily (held by Brutus and Sextus Pompey , respectively) or were able to plead successfully for clemency. Still without sufficient funds,

4140-502: The modern name of Provence for the eastern part of the area (French Provence , Occitan Provença ), now a region of France. By the mid-2nd century BC, Rome was trading heavily with the Greek colony of Massalia (modern Marseille ) on the southern coast of Gaul. Massalia, founded by colonists from Phocaea , was by this point centuries old and quite prosperous. Rome entered into an alliance with Massalia, by which it agreed to protect

4230-399: The most important is that the completed cathedral would have required demolishing the city wall. The 14th century also brought the plague and a host of reasons for retaining the 5th-century (pre-Visigothic) walls. Yet the choir, side chapels, sacristy, and courtyard remain intact, and the cathedral, although no longer the seat of a bishop or archbishop, remains the primary place of worship for

4320-413: The navigability from the sea into the étang and then into the river had been a perennial problem) The changes to the long seashore which resulted from the silting up of the series of graus or openings which were interspersed between the islands which made up the shoreline (St. Martin; St. Lucie) had a more serious impact than the change in course of the river. Other causes of decline were the plague and

4410-412: The power balance between both Octavian and Sextus for his own advantage. Octavian now requested some support after these defeats. To preserve the balance of power, Antony prepared to move west and provide support. There also was a rebellion in Gaul, which Agrippa put down by the end of 38 BC. Agrippa, loyal to Octavian and in light of Octavian's inglorious defeat, tactfully went without a triumph. In

4500-779: The powerful Gallic tribes to the north, especially the tribes known as the Arverni and the Allobroges . In the First Transalpine War (125–121 BCE), the Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus (later additionally named Allobrogicus) campaigned in the area and defeated the Allobroges and the Arverni under king Bituitus in the Battle of the Isère River . This defeat substantially weakened the Arverni and ensured

4590-423: The pro-Antony governors in the two Gauls and in southern Italy stood by. Eventually, Perusia was captured: Octavian let Lucius Antonius and Fulvia go and spared Lucius' soldiers when Octavian's own soldiers interceded; Octavian, however, sacked the town, massacred its councillors, and had it burnt to the ground. After the death of one of the pro-Antony governors in Gaul in the summer of 40 BC, Octavian occupied

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4680-413: The province. He also gained the support of the legions in southern Italy. Antony, concerned, hurried back to Italy from the east that same summer with substantial forces. As relations deteriorated between Antony and Octavian, Octavian moved to woo Sextus Pompey over to his side. As part of this, he married Scribonia , Sextus' sister-in-law, in the summer of 40 BC. At the same time, however, Sextus

4770-573: The raid of Edward, the Black Prince , which caused much devastation. The growth of other ports was also a factor. Narbonne Cathedral , dedicated to Saints Justus and Pastor , provides stark evidence of Narbonne's sudden and dramatic change of fortunes when one sees at the rear of the structure the enormously ambitious building programme frozen in time, for the cathedral—still one of the tallest in France—was never finished. The reasons are many, but

4860-515: The republic ) for five years. This was confirmed by the lex Titia , proposed by a friendly tribune at their request. The law was modelled on the lex Valeria in 82 BC which established Sulla's dictatorship. They received power to issue legally binding edicts, were granted imperium maius which permitted them to overrule the ordinary provincial governors and to take credit for their victories, and to act sine provocatione (without right of appeal). They also received powers to call

4950-423: The river Aude . Surviving members of Julius Caesar 's Legio X Equestris were given lands in the area that today is called Narbonne. Politically, Narbonne gained importance as a competitor to Massilia ( Marseille ). Julius Caesar settled veterans from his 10th Legion there and attempted to develop its port while Marseille was supporting Pompey . Among the products of Narbonne, its rosemary -flower honey

5040-418: The same retirement benefits as those of the triumvirs and his runaway slaves were granted freedom. The last concessions to Sextus' soldiers and slave forces were especially important for the triumvirs: with the soldiers and slaves' main grievances resolved, Sextus' military power was permanently neutered. After celebrations for this agreement, Antony departed for the east on 2 October 39 BC. While Antony

5130-508: The senate and directly appoint magistrates and provincial governors. The legal powers given, exceeding those of the ordinary consuls, were noted on the Capitoline Fasti , which list the triumvirs above the consuls. Octavian and Antony then prepared to wage war on the liberatores with forty total legions. They also divided the western Roman world: The triumvirs' powers were initially set to lapse on 31 December 38 BC, though

5220-421: The senate to honour Octavian's efforts and to support the existing governors of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul in retaining their provinces against Antony. The senate's forces, led by the two consuls and Octavian, put Antony to flight at the Battle of Mutina on 21 April 43 BC. After news of the victory, Cicero had the senate declare Antony a public enemy . But with both consuls dead, Octavian moved against

5310-537: The senate – both sides knew they were only using the other – and marched south to secure for himself the consulships opened by their deaths. After Octavian and his forces reached Rome on 19 August 43 BC, he secured for himself election to the consulship with his cousin Quintus Pedius . They moved quickly to enact legislation confirming Octavian's adoption as Caesar's heir and establishing courts to condemn Caesar's assassins in absentia . They also repealed

5400-444: The spring of 37 BC, Antony sailed for Italy with 300 ships. Denied entrance at Brundisium (the townsfolk suspected an invasion), he docked at Tarentum instead. Octavian travelled there to meet him. Negotiations dragged on until late July or early August. Antony apparently had to be persuaded by his wife Octavia to support Octavian against Sextus. They agreed to strip Sextus of his augurate and future consulship. Octavian would wait

5490-443: The spring of 38 BC. With the defence of the provinces largely complete, he prioritised reorganisations in the eastern provinces and client states. Among other boundary adjustments, he gave Cleopatra portions of eastern Cilicia and Cyprus with which to harvest timber to build a fleet. He also started to publicly identify with the god Dionysus . But before he moved further east he was drawn back to Brundisium by Octavian to discuss

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5580-542: The summer of 39 BC: they confirmed him in Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and the Peloponnese for five years. They promised him the consulship in 33 BC on expiration of his commands and had him elected augur . In exchange, Sextus would guarantee free passage of Italian grain ships and suppress Mediterranean piracy; his supporters also would receive amnesty and compensation for seized properties; his soldiers received

5670-428: The surrender of Sextus Pompey's legions, he attempted to negotiate with Octavian to exchange Sicily and Africa for his old provinces of Narbonensis and Spain. Octavian, walking into Lepidus' camp almost unaccompanied, secured the loyalty of the soldiers; defeated, Lepidus was then stripped of membership in the triumvirate and his provincial commands. Kept in his property, life, and the title of pontifex maximus , Lepidus

5760-412: The town from local Gauls , nearby Aquitani , sea-borne Carthaginians and other rivals, in exchange for a small strip of land that it wanted in order to build a road to Hispania , to assist in troop transport. The Massalians, for their part, cared more for their economic prosperity than they did for territorial integrity. During this period, the Mediterranean settlements on the coast were threatened by

5850-410: The triumvirate in 36 BC. Relations between the two remaining triumvirs broke down in the late 30s BC before they fought a final war , from which Octavian emerged the victor. The name "Second Triumvirate" is a modern misnomer derived from the branding of the political alliance between Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar (created c.  59 BC ) as the "First" Triumvirate . This nomenclature

5940-477: The triumvirs seized eighteen rich Italian towns and redistributed them to their soldiers. The proscriptions claimed enemies and friends of the triumvirs. Cicero, whom Octavian had held in high esteem, was placed on the death lists along with his brother, nephew, and son; Cicero's activism against Antony in the Philippicae marked him for retribution. The triumvirs themselves traded friends and family to secure

6030-445: The triumvirs was of little practical relevance. Making a show of constitutionalism, the triumvirate was then renewed by law for another five years, to expire on the last day of 33 BC. Preparations for war continued apace. Agrippa, serving as consul in 37 BC, built a large harbour (the portus Julius ) to train and supply troops against Sextus in Sicily. In the east, Roman client Herod retook most of Judaea; even better for

6120-566: The two, started to break down in autumn 39 BC. That winter, the famine in Italy and pirate raids on grain ships continued. One of Sextus' admirals also defected to Octavian, giving Octavian back the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, along with three legions and sixty ships. Sextus, outraged, declared war. Two large naval battles were fought in the spring of 38 BC near Cumae and near Messana . Both resulted in victories for Sextus, but he did not exploit his advantage and allowed Octavian to retire to Campania . Antony likely sought to maintain

6210-598: The west as Sulla had. His position in Gaul gave him easy access to Italy, just as Caesar had before his civil war . Moreover, while Antony would be in the east, his trusted lieutenants controlled the Gallic provinces. This strategic position placed him firmly at the head of the triumvirate. Antony moved first against Parthia , which had aided the liberatores and was harbouring the Pompeian commander Quintus Labienus , (son of Titus Labienus who had served with Caesar during

6300-401: The western provinces and wage war on the liberatores led by the men who assassinated Julius Caesar . After proscriptions, purging the senatorial and equestrian orders, and a brutal civil war , the liberatores were defeated at the Battle of Philippi . After Philippi, Antony and Octavian took the east and west, respectively, with Lepidus confined to Africa . The last remaining opposition to

6390-419: Was a bustling port, the distance from the coast was approximately 5 to 10 km (3 to 6 mi), but at that time the access to the sea was deep enough only when the river was in full spate which made communication between port and city unreliable. However, goods could easily be transported by land and in shallow barges from the ports (there were several: a main port and forward ports for larger vessels; indeed

6480-417: Was able to storm Cassius' camp around the same time. Believing the battle was lost, Cassius committed suicide. In the aftermath, Cassius' forces were amalgamated into Brutus' army. Three weeks later, on 23 October 42 BC, Brutus offered battle again, fearing desertions and possible cutting of his supply lines. In this second battle, the combined forces of Antony and Octavian defeated Brutus' army. Antony

6570-515: Was attempting to broker an agreement with Antony; receiving a positive response from Antony, he raided the Italian coast and took Sardinia from Octavian. Another ex-republican naval commander, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus , was also induced to join Antony's side. When Antony sailed to Brundisium, Octavian's garrison of five legions refused to admit him. It was then besieged. Octavian's lieutenant Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa arrived with reinforcements but

6660-411: Was caught and executed, though Antony erected some cover of plausible deniability for the actions. Octavian's troops, believing Octavian's propaganda about having brought to an end the civil wars and restoring peace, started to demand demobilisation. While some of the longest-serving were released, Octavian was keenly aware of his need to keep his men mobilised. To that end, he offered some donatives and

6750-410: Was famous among Romans. Later, the province of Gallia Transalpina was renamed Gallia Narbonensis after the city, which became its capital. Seat of a powerful administration, the city enjoyed economic and architectural expansion. At that point, the city is thought to have had 30,000–50,000 inhabitants, and may have had as many as 100,000. According to Hydatius , in 462 the city was handed over to

6840-470: Was forced into exile and retirement. With the three reduced to two, Octavian started to prepare for a showdown against Antony. He furthered his attempts to link Antony with Cleopatra and drilled his troops in Illyricum near the dividing line of the provinces. Antony, however, was slow to respond and was focused on the far east against Armenia. In the interim, Sextus arrived in Antony's provinces, where he

6930-655: Was greatly celebrated by the people of Italy. Both dynasts celebrated ovations when entering Rome in October. But public opinion soured when they also announced new higher taxes amid further disruption of grain ships from Sextus' fleet. While in Rome, they also secured the senate's rubber stamp for a required dispensation for Octavia's marriage (she was not yet out of mourning for her previous husband) and for triumviral political and territorial settlements generally. The dynasts also negotiated peace with Sextus Pompey at Misenum in

7020-634: Was in Italy, his lieutenant Publius Ventidius scored major victories against the Parthian invasion of Asia Minor: he defeated Labienus' forces and presumably had him killed. He also won the Battle of Amanus Pass against Phranipates, the Parthian satrap of Syria, killing the satrap and forcing the Parthians to retreat beyond the Euphrates . All of these victories were won before the autumn of 39 BC. Antony wintered in Athens and returned eastward in

7110-418: Was initially a settlement reached between the perpetrators, who styled themselves liberatores , and remaining Caesarian supporters. This settlement included an amnesty for the tyrannicides, confirmation of Caesar's official actions, and abolition of the dictatorship . By late spring 44 BC, the provinces assigned by Caesar before his death – many to his later killers – were largely confirmed. Mark Antony

7200-472: Was joined by detachments from allied kings and a Roman governor. With sixteen legions and many auxiliaries, he drove south into Persia. Moving quickly without his siege engines, he arrived to Phraata, the Parthian capital, but then discovered that his slow-moving siege engines had been intercepted and destroyed. He was then abandoned by Artavasdes , the Armenian king; Antony, while successful in some defences,

7290-465: Was largely the victor – Octavian apparently spent most of the first battle hiding in a marsh – and had forced the liberatores to battle and defeat twice. In the aftermath, Brutus committed suicide. In the aftermath of Philippi, Antony moved to reorganise the wealthy eastern provinces. His provinces and legions were also adduced: retaining Transalpine Gaul, he took Narbonensis from Lepidus, though he gave up Cisalpine Gaul to Italy. Octavian's assignment

7380-406: Was less easy: he would have the privilege of settling the veterans of Philippi in Italy and carrying on the war against Sextus Pompey in Sicily. Lepidus, however, not sharing in the glory, gave Spain to Octavian in return for Africa only. This new strategic position placed Antony at the head of an enormous advantage. His position in the east allowed him enormous resources with which he could overwhelm

7470-521: Was located on the Via Domitia , the first Roman road in Gaul, built at the time of the foundation of the colony, and connecting Italy to Spain . Geographically, Narbonne was therefore located at a very important crossroads because it was situated where the Via Domitia connected to the Via Aquitania , which led toward the Atlantic through Tolosa and Burdigala . In addition, it was crossed by

7560-739: Was one of the consuls for 44 BC and on 2 June 44 BC, was able to push through illegal legislation assigning to himself the provinces of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul , displacing their existing governors. These governorships secured for Antony a political future where he would be able to intimidate the senate and Italy from across the river Rubicon . Antony also persuaded the senate to disarm Marcus Brutus and Cassius (the two leading tyrannicides) giving them grain supply assignments; both men viewed these assignments as insults, later compounded by their assignment to minor provinces after their praetorships. Relations between Antony and Caesar's legal heir, Octavian, also started to break down: Octavian

7650-789: Was part of the Umayyad Caliphate . The Umayyad governor Al-Samh captured Narbonne from the Kingdom of Visigoths in 719. The Carolingian Pepin the Short conquered Narbonne from the Arabs in 759 after which it became part of the Carolingian Viscounty of Narbonne . He invited prominent Jews from the Caliphate of Baghdad to settle in Narbonne and establish a major Jewish learning center for Western Europe . In

7740-441: Was successful in attracting some of Caesar's veterans from Antony's camp, undercutting Antony's military support. Antony also sought later in the year to isolate Cicero politically, as the eloquent ex-consul was prestigious and on friendly terms with large portions of the aristocracy. Octavian, starting a bidding war for extreme Caesarians, broke with Antony and formed for himself a private army. In December 44 BC, Cicero induced

7830-498: Was turned back after some skirmishing. The troops on both sides, however, urged their leaders to come to terms. Octavian and Antony conducted negotiations through intermediaries (the envoys were Gaius Maecenas and Gaius Asinius Pollio , respectively). Negotiations for the treaty completed in September 40 BC: The treaty would be sealed by another marriage: Antony would wed Octavian's sister Octavia . The announcement of peace

7920-412: Was unable to effectively counter the swift Parthian cavalry. Abandoning the siege, he was forced into a difficult retreat with few supplies and harried by Parthian archers. Over 27 days, the army returned after a famous display of resilience and valour, to Armenia. Reaching an agreement with Artavasdes, Antony continued to retreat through the winter until he reached Cappadocia . In total, he lost around

8010-521: Was unknown during and before the Renaissance and was first attested in the late 17th century, coming into widespread use only in the following century. Recent books have started to avoid the traditional nomenclature of "First" and "Second" Triumvirates. The Oxford Classical Dictionary , for example, warns "'First' and 'Second Triumvirate' are modern and misleading terms". Following the assassination of Julius Caesar on 15 March 44 BC, there

8100-414: Was victorious off Mylae . Even so, Sextus' forces were stretched thin and Octavian was able to effect landings of 21 legions onto the island. A decisive naval battle ended the campaign, with Agrippa defeating Sextus near Naulochus on 3 September 36 BC. Sextus, able to muster only 17 ships, fled for Antony in the east. Lepidus, buoyed by victory, attempted to suborn Octavian's troops. After accepting

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