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91-448: The Gallic Empire was established by Postumus in 260 in the wake of barbarian invasions and instability in Rome , and at its height included the territories of Germania , Gaul, Britannia , and (for a time) Hispania . After Postumus' assassination in 269 it lost much of its territory, but continued under a number of emperors and usurpers. It was retaken by Roman emperor Aurelian after

182-411: A Pretorian Guard , one of whose officers was the future Gallic emperor Victorinus . The chief members of Postumus's administration, such as Victorinus and Tetricus , appear to have been drawn from his power base in northern Gaul, and indeed the entire administration rapidly became Gallicized. Postumus represented himself as the restorer of Gaul ( Restitutor Galliarum ) and the bringer of security to

273-485: A different and more controversial account, Aureolus forges a document in which Gallienus appears to be plotting against his generals and makes sure it falls into the hands of the emperor's senior staff. In this plot, Aurelian is added as a possible conspirator. The tale of his involvement in the conspiracy might be seen as at least partial justification for the murder of Aurelian himself under circumstances that seem remarkably similar to those in this story. Whichever story

364-635: A family tomb on the Appian Way . The traitor Aureolus was not treated with the same reverence, as he was killed by his besiegers after a failed attempt to surrender. At the time of Claudius's accession, the Roman Empire was in serious danger from several incursions, both inside and outside its borders. The most pressing of these was an invasion of Illyricum and Pannonia by the Goths . Although Gallienus had already inflicted some damage on them at

455-741: A force. The victory earned Claudius his surname of "Gothicus" (conqueror of the Goths). The Goths were soon driven back across the Danube River by Aurelian, and nearly a century passed before they again posed a serious threat to the empire. Around the same time, the Alamanni had crossed the Alps and attacked the empire. Claudius responded quickly, routing the Alamanni at the Battle of Lake Benacus in

546-518: A golden opportunity to move against Gallienus in 268. Aureolus, the general who was in command of Mediolanum (Milan) in Gallienus's interest, rebelled and ultimately declared for Postumus. The city of Mediolanum and its north Italian and Raetian hinterland would have been critical to Postumus if he planned to march on Rome. For whatever reason, Postumus failed to support Aureolus, who was defeated by Gallienus and besieged inside Mediolanum. Before

637-473: A group allied to the Palmyrene empire, led by Timagenes , undermined Probus, defeated his army, and killed him in a battle near the modern city of Cairo in the late summer of 270. Generally, when a Roman commander is killed it is taken as a sign that a state of war is in existence, and if we can associate the death of Heraclianus in 270, as well as an inscription from Bostra recording the rebuilding of

728-571: A member of the prominent senatorial family, the Paterni, who had supplied consuls and urban prefects throughout Gallienus's reign, and thus were quite influential. In addition, Flavius Antiochianus , one of the consuls of 270, who was an urban prefect the year before, would continue to hold his office for the following year. A colleague of Antiochianus, Virius Orfitus, also the descendant of a powerful family, would continue to hold influence during his father's term as prefect. Aurelian's colleague as consul

819-471: A more reasoned contemporary view shows Claudius as less grand. Claudius's successes in the year 269 were not continued in his next year as emperor. As the Scythians starved in the mountains or surrendered, the legions pursuing them began to see an epidemic spreading throughout the men. Also, Claudius's unwillingness to do anything at the siege of Autun likely provoked a quarrel with Zenobia . Although it

910-441: A name given to those made citizens by the constitutio Antoniniana , these men did not come from the imperial élite . The third inscription reveals the career of Marcianus , another leading general by the time that Gallienus died. The fourth honours Julius Placidianus, the prefect of the vigiles . Heraclianus, Appollinaris, Placidianus , or Marcianus may not have been of Danubian origin themselves, but none of them were members of

1001-502: A naval expedition. Despite this, scholars assume Gallienus's efforts were focused on Aureolus, the officer who betrayed him, and the defeat of the Herulians was left to his successor, Claudius Gothicus. The death of Gallienus was surrounded by conspiracy and betrayal, as were many emperors' deaths. Different accounts of the incident have been recorded, but they agree that senior officials wanted Gallienus dead. According to two accounts,

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1092-535: A short while before being overthrown by Victorinus , Postumus's erstwhile colleague in the consulship and tribune of the praetorian guard. In the meantime, the Gallic Empire lost Hispania. Postumus's coinage has been of particular interest to numismatists, in light of the high quality and relative abundance of his coin issues. His ‘Labours of Hercules’ series is particularly renowned, as are several aurei which carry full-face portraits of Postumus instead of

1183-407: A show of reluctantly enforcing this command, thus inviting his troops to instead throw off their allegiance to Gallienus. The troops accordingly proclaimed Postumus emperor and besieged Colonia, trapping Saloninus and Silvanus. After breaching the walls of the city, Postumus had Silvanus and Saloninus killed, although his supporters later claimed that it was the native Gauls who were responsible for

1274-519: A siege, lasting many weeks, until it was finally captured and sacked by Victorinus. It is still unknown why Claudius did nothing to help the city of Autun, but sources tell us his relations with Palmyra were waning in the course of 269. An obscure passage in the Historia Augusta ' s life of Gallienus states that he had sent an army under Aurelius Heraclianus to the region that had been annihilated by Zenobia . But because Heraclianus

1365-421: A temple destroyed by the Palmyrene army, then these violent acts could be interpreted the same way. Yet they apparently were not. As David Potter writes, "The coins of Vaballathus avoid claims to imperial power: he remains vir consularis, rex, imperator, dux Romanorum, a range of titles that did not mimic those of the central government. The status vir consularis was, as we have seen, conferred upon Odaenathus ;

1456-464: Is clear, however, is that Postumus was not overtly separatist and did not revive the 1st-century dream of an independent Galliarum imperium . (See Julius Sabinus and revolt of the Batavi .) The forms, titles, and administrative structures of Postumus's principate remained conventionally Roman. For four years Gallienus was too distracted by Germanic invasions and other usurpers in the east to address

1547-460: Is not proven that the invasion of Gaul was the breaking point between Claudius and Zenobia, the sequence of events point to the siege as an important factor. The issue at hand was the position that Odaenathus held as corrector totius orientis (imparting overall command of the Roman armies and authority over the Roman provincial governors in the designated region). Vaballathus , the son of Zenobia,

1638-408: Is possible that the thin line between office and the status that accompanied it were dismissed in the Palmyrene court, especially when the circumstance worked against the interests of a regime that was able to defeat Persia , which a number of Roman emperors had failed to do. Vaballathus stressed the meanings of titles, because in the Palmyrene context, the titles of Odaenathus meant a great deal. When

1729-555: Is some evidence that the provinces of Hispania, which did not recognize Postumus's successors in Gaul, may have realigned with Rome then. Victorinus spent most of his reign dealing with insurgencies and attempting to recover the Gaulish territories taken by Claudius Gothicus. He was assassinated in 271, but his mother Victoria took control of his troops and used her power to influence the selection of his successor. With Victoria's support,

1820-480: Is strangely given as the "3rd" and "1st year", which most likely refers to the third year of Claudius and first of Aurelian (who dated his reign from Claudius' death). The last confirmed document is dated to 20 September 270, although another undated papyri could be tentatively dated to October. A short history of imperial Rome, entitled De Caesaribus , written by Aurelius Victor in AD 361 states that Claudius consulted

1911-402: Is true, Gallienus was killed in the summer of 268, probably between July and October, and Claudius was chosen by the army outside of Milan to succeed him. Accounts tell of people hearing the news of the new emperor, and reacting by murdering Gallienus's family members until Claudius declared he would respect the memory of his predecessor. Claudius had the deceased emperor deified and buried in

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2002-521: The Historia Augusta . However, his story, like the rest of the Historia Augusta , is riddled with fabrications and obsequious praises. In 4th century, Claudius was declared a relative of Constantine the Great 's father, Constantius Chlorus , and, consequently, of the ruling dynasty. The Historia Augusta should be used with extreme caution and supplemented with information from other sources:

2093-562: The Sibylline Books prior to his campaigns against the Goths . Hinting that Claudius "revived the tradition of the Decii", Victor illustrates the senatorial view, which saw Claudius's predecessor, Gallienus , as too relaxed when it came to religious policies. The unreliable Historia Augusta reports Claudius and Quintillus having another brother named Crispus and through him a niece, Claudia , who reportedly married Eutropius and

2184-656: The Battle of Châlons in 274. The Roman Crisis of the Third Century continued as the Emperor Valerian was defeated and captured by the Sasanian Empire of Persia in the Battle of Edessa , together with a large part of the Roman field army in the east. This left his son Gallienus in very shaky control. Shortly thereafter, the Palmyrene leader Odaenathus gained control of a wide swath of

2275-580: The Franks and Alemanni in 262 and 263; following his victory over them in 263, his coin-types celebrated peaceful themes such as Felicitas Augusti for some time. After having spent much of the last four years pushing the Franks out of Gaul, Postumus then recruited Frankish troops to fight against other Franks, probably dispersed within existing Roman army units. Scholars continue to debate whether Postumus originally intended to dislodge Gallienus from Rome or

2366-635: The Middle Ages . Contemporary records of his deeds were most probably destroyed during the Diocletianic Persecution in early 4th century and a tale of martyrdom was recorded in Passio Marii et Marthae , a work published in the 5th or 6th century. Twentieth-century historians agree that the accounts from this period cannot be verified. The legend refers to "Emperor Claudius", but Claudius I did not persecute Christians (minus

2457-516: The Palmyrene Empire , now in open revolt against Roman authority under Queen Zenobia . Tetricus established the imperial court at Trier , and in 273 he elevated his son, also named Tetricus , to the rank of Caesar . The following year the younger Tetricus was made co-consul with his father, but the area under their control grew weak from internal strife, including a mutiny led by the usurper Faustinus . By that time Aurelian had defeated

2548-452: The Rhine . Amid the chaos of an invasion by the Alamanni and Franks , and spurred on by news of the defeat and capture of Valerian, the army in Gaul revolted and proclaimed Postumus emperor. The trigger was their defeat in 260 of a Juthungian army which was returning from Italy laden with prisoners, even though they had been repulsed by Gallienus at Mediolanum ( Milan ). Under

2639-470: The Roman Senate to spare the lives of Gallienus's family and supporters. He was less magnanimous toward Rome's enemies and it was to this that he owed his popularity. It is possible Claudius gained his position and the respect of the soldiers by being physically strong and especially cruel. A legend tells of Claudius knocking out a horse's teeth with one punch. When Claudius performed as a wrestler in

2730-472: The Severan aristocracy, and all of them appear to owe their prominence to their military roles. Marcus Aurelius Probus (another emperor in waiting) was also of Balkan background, and from a family enfranchised in the time of Caracalla . Although their influence was weakened, there were still a number of men with influence from the older aristocracy . Claudius assumed the consulship in 269 with Paternus ,

2821-424: The house of Constantine , a fiction of Constantine 's time, and suggests that the original version from which these two accounts derive was current prior to the reign of Constantine. It was written that while sitting down at dinner, Gallienus was told that Aureolus and his men were approaching the camp. Gallienus rushed to the front lines, ready to give orders, when he was struck down by a commander of his cavalry. In

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2912-531: The 250s, he supposedly knocked out the teeth of his opponent when his genitalia had been grabbed in the match. Claudius, like Maximinus Thrax before him, was of barbarian birth. After a period of failed aristocratic Roman emperors following Maximinus's death, Claudius was the first in a series of tough " soldier emperors " who would eventually restore the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century . During

3003-681: The 260s, the breakup of the Roman Empire into three distinct governing entities (the core Roman Empire, the Gallic Empire and the Palmyrene Empire ) placed the whole Roman imperium in a precarious position. Gallienus was seriously weakened by his failure to defeat Postumus in the West, and his acceptance of Odaenathus ruling a de facto independent kingdom within the Roman Empire in the East. By 268, this situation had changed, as Odaenathus

3094-561: The Battle of Nestus, Claudius, not long after being named emperor, followed this up by winning his greatest victory, and one of the greatest in the history of Roman arms. At the Battle of Naissus , Claudius and his legions routed a huge Gothic army. Together with his cavalry commander, the future Emperor Aurelian , the Romans took thousands of prisoners and destroyed the Gothic cavalry as

3185-487: The Palmyrene Empire and had made plans to reconquer the west. He moved into Gaul and defeated Tetricus at the Battle of Châlons in 274. According to some sources, Tetricus offered to surrender in exchange for clemency for him and his son before the battle. This detail may be later propaganda, but either way, Aurelian was victorious, and the Gallic Empire was effectively ended. In contrast with his propaganda after

3276-511: The Rhine limes secure (though lands beyond the upper Rhine and Danube had to be abandoned to the barbarians within a couple of years). In so doing, Postumus positioned himself avowedly as not only the defender and restorer of Gaul, but also as the upholder of the Roman name. Similarly with the withdrawal of legions after 408, many Britons desired a localized Roman authority rather than nationalist revolt. The desire for Roman order and institutions

3367-489: The Rhine border. An exceptional administrator, Postumus had also ably protected Germania Inferior against an invasion led by the Franks in the summer of 260. In fact, Postumus defeated the Frankish forces at Empel so decisively that there would be no further Germanic raids for ten years. This all combined to make Postumus one of the most powerful men in the western reaches of the Roman Empire. Gallienus's son Saloninus and

3458-456: The Spanish provinces had deserted the Gallic Empire and declared their loyalty to Claudius, while in southern Gaul, Placidianus had captured Grenoble . Luckily, it was there that Placidianus stopped and Victorinus's position stabilized. In the next year, when Autun revolted, declaring itself for Claudius, the central government made no moves to support it. As a result, the city went through

3549-1009: The Younger are both now generally considered to be fictional while Victoria’s existence was proven by the discovery of her funerary stele in 2012. Postumus Year of the Six Emperors   (238) Reign of Gordian III   (238–244) Reign of Philip the Arab   (244–249) Reign of Decius   (249–251) Reign of Trebonianus Gallus   (251–253) Reign of Aemilianus   (253) Reign of Valerian and Gallienus   (253–260) Reign of Gallienus   (260–268) Reign of Claudius Gothicus   (268–270) Reign of Aurelian   (270–275) Reign of Tacitus   (275-276) Reign of Probus   (276-282) Reign of Carus   (282-283) Reign of Carinus   (283-285) Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus ( fl. 259–269)

3640-435: The advantage over Postumus, but while Gallienus was besieging a city in Gaul (perhaps Augusta Treverorum ), he was wounded and forced to withdraw. After this, Gallienus was occupied with crises in the rest of his empire and did not confront Postumus again. By the end of 265, Postumus's coin issues were triumphantly commemorating the victory over Gallienus, and the festivities celebrating his quinquennalia continued into

3731-521: The ancient authors, who declared that he restored the security that the provinces had enjoyed in the past. So successful was he in the task of stabilizing his domain that the coins issued by Postumus were of better workmanship and higher precious metal content than coins issued by Gallienus. His control of the Spanish and British mining regions was presumably crucial in this regard, as was his employment of master minters who would have come into Gaul with Gallienus. Postumus fought successful campaigns against

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3822-520: The command of Postumus and Marcus Simplicinius Genialis , the Roman army crushed the Juthungi, and Postumus proceeded to distribute the captured spoils to the legions he commanded. Saloninus, on the advice of his praetorian prefect Silvanus (who had coordinated Roman policy in Gaul alongside Postumus), demanded the transfer of the recovered booty to his residence at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium ( Cologne ). Postumus assembled his army and made

3913-545: The east, including Egypt , Syria , Judea , and Arabia Petraea ; while he was nominally loyal to the Roman government, his domain was de facto independent and has come to be referred to as the Palmyrene Empire . The governors in Pannonia staged unsuccessful local revolts. The Emperor left for the Danube to attend to their disruption. This left Postumus , who was governor of Germania Superior and Inferior , in charge at

4004-584: The emperor Valerian to the position of imperial legate of Germania Inferior . Postumus was evidently in favour at court, and, according to König, was granted an honorary consulship. By 259, Valerian was campaigning in the east against the Persians, while his son and co-emperor Gallienus was preoccupied with the situation on the Danubian frontier . Consequently, Gallienus left his son, Saloninus , and military commanders, including Postumus, to protect

4095-535: The emperor. Under Zabdas , a Palmyrene army invaded Arabia and moved into Egypt in the late summer. At this time, the prefect of Egypt was Tenagino Probus, described as an able soldier who not only defeated an invasion of Cyrenaica by the nomadic tribes to the south in 269, but also was successful in hunting down Scythian ships in the Mediterranean . However, he did not see the same success in Egypt, for

4186-663: The empire. Late in 269 he had travelled to Sirmium and was preparing to go to war against the Vandals , who were raiding in Pannonia . However, he fell victim to the Plague of Cyprian (possibly smallpox ), and died early in 270. Before his death, he is thought to have named Aurelian as his successor, though Claudius's brother Quintillus briefly seized power. The Senate immediately deified Claudius as "Divus Claudius Gothicus". Historians date Claudius's death in either January, April, August, or September. These discrepancies are

4277-489: The end of summer in 268, Gallienus was assassinated, and his successor, Claudius II , captured and killed Aureolus. At the same time, a sequence of events began which would end Postumus's rule in Gaul. Postumus assumed his fifth consulship on 1 January 269, but the army in Germania Superior raised a usurper in early 269. Laelianus , one of Postumus's top military leaders and the governor of Germania Superior,

4368-462: The following year. Very little troubled the reign of Postumus from 265 to 268; archaeological evidence, such as it is, points to a general return to peace and normalcy. In 266, Postumus became consul for the fourth time, taking as his colleague Marcus Piavonius Victorinus , a Gallic noble who was also a senior military officer; his selection to such a high-profile position may be seen as an attempt to broaden Postumus's base of support. The year 268 saw

4459-416: The future emperor Flavius Valerius Constantius . Before coming to power, Claudius served with the Roman army, where he had a successful career and secured appointments to the highest military posts. The Historia Augusta says that he was a military tribune in the reign of Decius (249–251). The same source describes his being sent to defend Thermopylae , in connection with which the governor of Achaea

4550-469: The governor of Gallia Aquitania , Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus was made Emperor, and was recognized in Britannia and the parts of Gaul that had recognized Victorinus. Tetricus fought off Germanic barbarians who had begun ravaging Gaul after the death of Victorinus, and was able to re-take Gallia Aquitania and western Gallia Narbonensis while Claudius Gothicus's successor Aurelian was in the east fighting

4641-426: The issuing of the 'Labours of Hercules' series of gold coins in honour of Postumus's favourite god. A sudden debasement of the coinage later that year shows that Postumus was facing increasing financial difficulties, due perhaps to a disruption of silver production in the Spanish mines or the need to buy off an increasingly discontented army. Such discontent was probably due to Postumus's failure to take advantage of

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4732-519: The late fall of 268, a few months after the Battle of Naissus. For this he was awarded the title of "Germanicus Maximus." He then turned on the Gallic Empire , ruled by a pretender for the past eight years and encompassing Britain , Gaul , and the Iberian Peninsula . He won several victories and soon regained control of Hispania and the Rhone river valley of Gaul. This set the stage for

4823-492: The later destruction of the Gallic Empire under Aurelian. Claudius was not the only man to reap the benefits of holding high office after the death of Gallienus . Before the rule of Claudius Gothicus, there had only been two emperors from the Balkans , but afterwards there would only be one emperor who did not hail from the provinces of Pannonia , Moesia or Illyricum until 378, when Theodosius I from Hispania would take

4914-560: The murders. Later he erected a triumphal arch to celebrate his victory. Postumus was immediately recognized as emperor in Gaul (except perhaps for the province of Gallia Narbonensis ), Germania Superior and Inferior , and Raetia . By 261, Britannia, Narbonensis and Hispania also acknowledged him as emperor, possibly after an expedition to Britain in the winter of 260–261. He established his capital in northern Gaul, probably at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ), and furnished his government with many of

5005-563: The next three years, Gallienus's troubles only got worse. The Scythians successfully invaded the Balkans in the early months of 268, and Aureolus , a commander of the Roman cavalry based in Milan , declared himself an ally of Postumus and went so far as to claim the imperial throne for himself. At this time, another invasion was taking place. In 268, a tribe or grouping called the Herulians moved through Asia Minor and then into Greece on

5096-438: The numismatic evidence, Postumus held the office of consul five times. Postumus successfully fended off a military incursion by Gallienus in 263, and was never challenged by him again. However, in early 269 he was challenged by Laelianus , who was probably one of his own commanders. Laelianus was declared emperor at Mogontiacum ( Mainz ) by his Legio XXII Primigenia . In response, Postumus quickly retook Mogontiacum and Laelianus

5187-586: The numismatic record, that he reigned for a few months. Subsequently, the tribune of the praetorians, Marcus Piavonius Victorinus came to power, being recognized as Emperor in northern Gaul and Britannia, but not in Hispania. Meanwhile, Roman Emperor Gallienus had been killed in a coup in 268, and his successor in the central Roman provinces, Claudius Gothicus , re-established Roman authority in Gallia Narbonensis and parts of Gallia Aquitania ; there

5278-517: The one mention by Suetonius of Jewish followers of "Chrestus" being expelled from Rome; see Suetonius on Christians ), so people believe he was Claudius II even though this emperor spent most of his time warring outside his territory. The legend was retold in later texts, and in the Nuremberg Chronicle of 1493 AD, involved the Roman priest being martyred during a general persecution of Christians. The text states that St. Valentine

5369-417: The praetorian prefect Silvanus remained at Colonia Agrippina ( Cologne ), to keep the young heir out of danger and perhaps also as a check on Postumus' ambitions. Before long, however, Postumus besieged Colonia Agrippina and put the young heir and his guardian to death, making his revolt official. Postumus is thought to have established his capital there or at Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ). Lugdunum ( Lyon )

5460-475: The prime conspirator was Aurelius Heraclianus , the Praetorian Prefect . One version of the story tells of Heraclianus bringing Claudius into the plot while the account given by the Historia Augusta exculpates the soon-to-be emperor and adds the prominent general Lucius Aurelius Marcianus into the plot. The removal of Claudius from the conspiracy may be due to his later role as the progenitor of

5551-466: The provinces ( Salus Provinciarum ) on some of his coins; prior to 10 December 261, he also took the title of Germanicus maximus , a title he earned after successfully defending Gaul against the Germans. His principal objective in assuming the purple appeared to be the restoration and defence of the Rhine frontier and the surrounding area, a task that he approached with vigour, earning the admiration of

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5642-513: The recent defeat of Zenobia, Aurelian did not present his recapture of Gaul as a victory over a foreign enemy, and indeed many officials who had served in the army and administration of the Gallic Empire continued their careers, including Tetricus, who was appointed to an administrative post in Italy. The Gallic Empire was symptomatic of the fragmentation of power during the third-century crisis . It has also been taken to represent autonomous trends in

5733-628: The result of the various conflicting sources. The Chronograph of 354 gives Claudius a reign of "1 year and 4 months", Jerome and Aurelius Victor both give "1 year and 9 months". Some Alexandrian coins have been dated to his third year, suggesting that he died in September 270 (the Coptic calendar began on 29 August). Arthur Stein dated Claudius' death to April, citing a document of Aurelian that he dated to 25 May 270. However, modern scholars believe this document to be dated to 271. The date

5824-473: The sack of Mainz , which had served as Laelianus's headquarters. This proved to be his downfall, for out of anger, Postumus's army mutinied and murdered him. Selected by the troops, Marcus Aurelius Marius was to replace Postumus as ruler. Marius's rule did not last long though, as Victorinus , Postumus's praetorian prefect, defeated him. Now emperor of the Gauls , Victorinus was soon in a precarious position, for

5915-411: The situation to his north and west, but in 265 he launched a campaign to defeat Postumus. His first attempt failed when Postumus managed to escape from a precarious situation due to the carelessness of Gallienus's cavalry commander Aureolus . Aureolus was punished with demotion, eventually leading him to turn against Gallienus in 267. A second campaign, led by Gallienus himself, also seemed to have

6006-535: The sources is correct, it might also be correct to see the expedition of Heraclianus to the east as an event of Claudius's time. The victories of Claudius over the Goths would not only make him a hero in Latin tradition, but an admirable choice as an ancestor for Constantine I , who was born at Naissus , the site of Claudius's victory in 269. Claudius is also held in high esteem by Zonaras , whose Greek tradition seems to have been influenced by Latin. For Zosimus ,

6097-548: The successful pagan commander Claudius with the unlucky Christian generals who allowed the ruin of Greece by the Gothic leader Alaric I in 396. In addition, Trebellius Pollio reveals that Decius rewarded Claudius after he demonstrated his strength while fighting another soldier at the Games of Mars. His troops then proclaimed him emperor amid charges, never proven, that he murdered his predecessor Gallienus . However, he soon showed himself to be less than bloodthirsty, as he asked

6188-420: The summer of 270 ended, things were looking very different in the empire than they did a year before. After its success, Gaul was in a state of inactivity and the empire was failing in the east. Insufficient resources plagued the state, as a great deal of silver was used for the antoninianus , which was again diluted. Claudius did not live long enough to fulfil his goal of reuniting all the lost territories of

6279-489: The threats created by the invading Scythians . After four years of delay, Postumus had established some control over the Empire. In 265, when Gallienus and his men crossed the Alps, they defeated and besieged Postumus in an (unnamed) Gallic city. When victory appeared to be near, Gallienus made the mistake of approaching the city walls too closely and was gravely injured, compelling him to cease his campaign against Postumus. Over

6370-427: The throne. Four inscriptions provide an insight into the government at the time. The first is a dedication to Aurelius Heraclianus , the prefect involved in the conspiracy against Gallienus, from Traianus Mucianus, who also gave a dedication to Heraclianus's brother, Aurelius Appollinaris, who was the equestrian governor of the province of Thracia in 267–68 AD. Because these men shared the family name, Marcus Aurelius,

6461-483: The time of his death Claudius was 56 years old. The birthplace of Claudius is unknown. He might have been born somewhere near the Danube river . According to the fourth-century Epitome de Caesaribus , he was thought to be a bastard son of Gordian II , although this is doubted by some historians. The Historia Augusta refers to him as a member of the gens Flavia , likely an attempt to further connect him with

6552-406: The title rex, or king, is simply a Latin translation of mlk , or king; imperator in this context simply means "victorious general"; and dux Romanorum looks like yet another version of corrector totius orientis" (Potter, 263). These titles suggest that Odaenathus's position was inheritable. In Roman culture, the status gained in procuring a position could be passed on, but not the position itself. It

6643-553: The town of Deuso, located in or near Batavian territory and likely to be identified with modern-day Diessen ; it has been hypothesized that Postumus himself was born in Deuso. From these relatively obscure provincial origins, Postumus would have risen through the ranks of the army until he held command of the Roman forces "... among the Celts". What his precise title was is not definitely known, though he may plausibly have been promoted by

6734-556: The traditional Roman legislative and executive structures. Apart from the position of emperor , he immediately assumed the office of consul alongside a colleague, Honoratianus . Like his imperial predecessors, he became the pontifex maximus of the state and assumed tribunician power each year. He is thought to have established a senate , perhaps on the basis of the Council of the Three Gauls or provincial councils, and

6825-654: The usual profile view. Most of the ancient literary references to Postumus come from the works thought to be based on the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte ( Aurelius Victor , Epitome de Caesaribus , Eutropius , and the Historia Augusta , in the last of which Postumus is listed among the Thirty Tyrants ). He also figures in the works of Zosimus and Zonaras . Claudius Gothicus Marcus Aurelius Claudius " Gothicus " (10 May 214 – August/September 270), also known as Claudius II ,

6916-532: The western provinces, including proto- feudalistic tendencies among the Gaulish land-owning class whose support has sometimes been thought to have underpinned the strength of the Gallic Empire, and an interplay between the strength of Roman institutions and the growing importance of provincial concerns. One of Postumus' primary objectives as emperor was evidently the defense of the Germanic frontier . In 261, he repelled mixed groups of Franks and Alamanni to hold

7007-408: The works of Aurelius Victor , Pseudo-Aurelius Victor, Eutropius , Orosius , Joannes Zonaras , and Zosimus , as well as coins and inscriptions. The future emperor Marcus Aurelius Claudius was born on 10 May 214. Some researchers suggest a later date – 219 or 220. Nevertheless, most historians adhere to the first version. Moreover, as the 6th century Byzantine historian John Malalas reports, at

7098-480: Was Roman emperor from 268 to 270. During his reign he fought successfully against the Alemanni and decisively defeated the Goths at the Battle of Naissus . He died after succumbing to a "pestilence", possibly the Plague of Cyprian that had ravaged the provinces of the Empire. The most significant source for Claudius II (and the only one regarding his early life) is the collection of imperial biographies called

7189-419: Was a Roman commander of Batavian origin, who ruled as emperor of the splinter state of the Roman Empire known to modern historians as the Gallic Empire . The Roman army in Gaul threw off its allegiance to Gallienus around the year 260, and Postumus assumed the title and powers of Emperor in the provinces of Gaul , Germania , Britannia , and Hispania . He ruled for the better part of ten years before he

7280-461: Was another such man, Pomponius Bassus, a member of one of the oldest senatorial families, as was one of the consuls in 272, Junius Veldumnianus. In his first full year of power, Claudius was greatly assisted by the sudden destruction of the imperium Galliarum. When Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus , a high official under Postumus , declared himself emperor in Germania Superior , in the spring of 269, Postumus defeated him, but in doing so, refused to allow

7371-507: Was assassinated, most likely due to court intrigue, and Gallienus fell victim to a mutiny in his own ranks. Upon the death of Odaenathus, power fell to his younger son, who was dominated by his mother, Zenobia . Under threat of invasion in the Balkans by multiple Germanic tribes, Gallienus's troubles primarily lay with Postumus , whom he could not attack because his attention was required in dealing with an insurrection led by Macrianus and

7462-596: Was content to rule only the western provinces. From the beginning of his usurpation, Postumus had made it clear that his priority was for Gaul, and that he had no immediate intentions to make a bid for Rome. Postumus's power base was Gaul and his main responsibility was the defense of the Rhine provinces. If he marched against Gallienus, then he would be exposing his heartland not only to the Germanic tribes but also potentially to any number of usurpers. Perhaps he hoped to achieve some official recognition from Gallienus; what

7553-477: Was declared emperor in Mogontiacum (Mainz) by the local garrison and surrounding troops ( Legio XXII Primigenia ). Within a few months, Postumus was able to capture Mogontiacum and kill Laelianus. His army wanted to sack the defeated city, and when Postumus tried to restrain them, the soldiers turned on him and killed him. The mutineers set up Marius , a common soldier, as emperor. Marius held sway for

7644-506: Was entirely compatible with a degree of national or regional separatism. The Gallic Emperors are known primarily from the coins they minted. The political and military history of the Gallic Empire can be sketched through the careers of these emperors. Their names are as follows: Postumus the Younger , Empress Victoria and Victorinus Junior  are included as leaders in the list of the  Thirty Tyrants , but there are no coins or inscriptions about them. Victorinus Junior and Postumus

7735-427: Was given this title when Zenobia claimed it for him. From then on, tension between the two empires would only get worse. Aurelius Heraclianus 's fabled arrival might have been an effort to reassert central control after the death of Odaenathus, but, if so, it failed. Although coins were never minted with the face of Odaenathus, soon after his death coins were made with image of his son – outstripping his authority under

7826-463: Was killed. In the aftermath of the battle, however, Postumus was overthrown and killed by his own troops, reportedly because he did not allow them to sack the city. An officer in Postumus' army, Marcus Aurelius Marius , was installed as Emperor upon Postumus's death, but died very shortly after; ancient sources writing much later state that he reigned only two days, though it is more likely, based on

7917-457: Was mother to Constantius Chlorus . The same source also gives Claudius the nomina " Flavius Valerius " to strengthen his connection to Constantius. Zonaras and Eutropius on the other hand claim Chlorus was Claudia's daughter's son. Historians suspect these accounts to be a genealogical fabrication intended to link the family of Constantine I to that of a well-respected emperor. Claudius Gothicus has been linked to Saint Valentine since

8008-459: Was murdered by his own troops. Little is known about the early life of Postumus. He has been claimed as being of Batavian origin; certainly his coinage honors deities— Hercules Magusanus and Hercules Deusoniensis—who would have been popular among the Batavians. Hercules Magusanus was probably an interpretatio romana translation of the Germanic deity Þunraz . Deusoniensis may refer to

8099-503: Was not actually in the east in 268 (instead, at this time, he was involved in the conspiracy of Gallienus's death), this cannot be correct. But the confusion evident in this passage, which also places the bulk of Scythian activity during 269 a year earlier, under Gallienus, may stem from a later effort to pile all possible disasters in this year into the reign of the former emperor. This would keep Claudius's record of being an ancestor of Constantine from being tainted. If this understanding of

8190-408: Was one of the most important cities in the area under his control. Postumus did not make any effort to extend his control into Italy or to depose Gallienus. Instead, he established parallel institutions modelled on the Roman Empire's central government: his regime had its own praetorian guard, two annually elected consuls (not all of the names have survived), and probably its own senate. According to

8281-474: Was ordered to supply him with soldiers. However, there is no evidence that the Goths who invaded at that time threatened the region, since their activities did not extend beyond the middle Balkans. Most likely the account in the Historia Augusta is an anachronism, since it is known that the garrison at Thermopylae appeared in 254. Historian François Pashau suggests that this passage was invented in order to contrast

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