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101-739: As international recognition of the importance of eliminating gender inequality was growing, the Gender Development Index (GDI) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) were introduced in the 1995 Human Development Report. The GDI and GEM became the primary indices for measuring global gender inequality for the United Nations Human Development Reports. The GDI and GEM faced criticism for their methodological and conceptual limitations. Beneria and Permanyer have explained that

202-618: A chief is merely a person of influence, and leadership is based on personal qualities. The family forms the main social unit , with most members being related by birth or marriage. The anthropologist Marshall Sahlins described hunter-gatherers as the " original affluent society " due to their extended leisure time: Sahlins estimated that adults in hunter gatherer societies work three to five hours per day. This perspective has been challenged by other researchers, who have pointed out high mortality rates and perennial warfare in hunter-gatherer societies. Proponents of Sahlins' view argue that

303-649: A classification comes from sociologist Gerhard Lenski who lists: (1) hunting and gathering; (2) horticultural; (3) agricultural; and (4) industrial; as well as specialized societies (e.g., fishing or herding). Some cultures have developed over time toward more complex forms of organization and control. This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes have, at times, settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages. Villages have grown to become towns and cities. Cities have turned into city-states and nation-states . However, these processes are not unidirectional. In

404-576: A country's development status. They conclude that 11%, 21% and 34% of all countries can be interpreted as currently misclassified in the development bins due to the three sources of data error, respectively. Wolff, Chong and Auffhammer suggest that the United Nations should discontinue the practice of classifying countries into development bins because the cut-off values seem arbitrary, and the classifications can provide incentives for strategic behavior in reporting official statistics, as well as having

505-425: A decreased need for agricultural labor leads to urbanization . Industrial societies are often capitalist , and have high degrees of inequality along with high social mobility , as businesspeople use the market to amass large amounts of wealth. Working conditions in factories are generally restrictive and harsh. Workers, who have common interests, may organize into labor unions to advance those interests. On

606-435: A distinctive culture and institutions ; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. Human social structures are complex and highly cooperative, featuring the specialization of labor via social roles . Societies construct roles and other patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or concepts acceptable or unacceptable—these expectations around behavior within

707-453: A diverse range of subgroups, and the makeup of these ethnic groups can change over time at both the collective and individual level. Ethnic groupings can play a powerful role in the social identity and solidarity of ethnopolitical units. Ethnic identity has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th centuries. Governments create laws and policies that affect

808-426: A division of labor where women take on reproductive labor and other domestic roles. Gender roles have varied historically, and challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies. All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents, children and other descendants ( consanguinity ), and relations through marriage ( affinity ). There

909-454: A few ways which furthers the complexity and poses other issues. The measurement combines well-being and empowerment which becomes problematic in that it increases the complexity, lacks transparency, and suffers from the problem of using an arithmetic means of ratios. Permanyer argues that it also combines two different, absolute and relative, indicators within the same formula. For example, if the MMR

1010-651: A given society are known as societal norms . So far as it is collaborative , a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis. Societies vary based on level of technology and type of economic activity. Larger societies with larger food surpluses often exhibit stratification or dominance patterns. Societies can have many different forms of government, various ways of understanding kinship, and different gender roles. Human behavior varies immensely between different societies; humans shape society, but society in turn shapes human beings. The term "society" often refers to

1111-503: A global average of only 16%. The labor market dimension is measured by women's participation in the workforce . This dimension accounts for paid work, unpaid work , and actively looking for work. The data for this dimension is obtained through the International Labour Organization databases. Due to data limitations women's income and unpaid work are not represented in the labor market dimension of GII. In

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1212-483: A large area. Lenski differentiates between horticultural and agrarian societies by the use of the plow . Larger food supplies due to improved technology mean agrarian communities are larger than horticultural communities. A greater food surplus results in towns that become centers of trade. Economic trade in turn leads to increased specialization, including a ruling class, as well as educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious figures, who do not directly participate in

1313-491: A large group of people in an ordered community, in a country or several similar countries, or the 'state of being with other people', e.g. "they lived in medieval society." The term dates back to at least 1513 and comes from the 12th-century French societe (modern French société ) meaning 'company'. Societe was in turn derived from the Latin word societas ('fellowship,' 'alliance', 'association'), which in turn

1414-420: A more complex division of labor. Specialized roles in horticultural societies include craftspeople, shamans (religious leaders), and traders. This role specialization allows horticultural societies to create a variety of artifacts. Scarce, defensible resources can lead to wealth inequalities in horticultural political systems. Agrarian societies use agricultural technological advances to cultivate crops over

1515-530: A number of grounds, including focusing exclusively on national performance and ranking, lack of attention to development from a global perspective, measurement error of the underlying statistics, and on the UNDP's changes in formula which can lead to severe misclassification of "low", "medium", "high" or "very high" human development countries. There have also been various criticism towards the lack of consideration regarding sustainability (which later got addressed by

1616-401: A pre-industrial society, food production, which is carried out through the use of human and animal labor , is the main economic activity. These societies can be subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food. These subdivisions are hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, and agrarian. The main form of food production in hunter-gatherer societies is

1717-526: A rate comparable to other primates (although humans kill adults at a relatively high rate and have a relatively low rate of infanticide ). Another school of thought suggests that war is a relatively recent phenomenon and appeared due to changing social conditions. While not settled, the current evidence suggests warlike behavior only became common about 10,000 years ago, and in many regions even more recently. Phylogenetic analysis predicts 2% of human deaths to be caused by homicide, which approximately matches

1818-622: A shared need for defense. Sedentary life, in Khaldun's view, was marked by secularization, decreased social cohesion, and increased interest in luxury. Rizal was a Filipino nationalist living toward the end of the Spanish Colonial Period who theorized about colonial societies. Rizal argued that indolence , which the Spanish used to justify their colonial occupation, was instead caused by the colonial occupation. Rizal compared

1919-403: A social category that identify together as a group based on shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. These shared attributes can be a common set of traditions, ancestry , language , history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area. There is no generally accepted definition of what constitutes an ethnic group, and humans have evolved

2020-433: Is a clear sign of women's status in society . A high AFR, which measures early childbearing, results in health risks for mothers and infants as well as a lack of higher education attainment. According to the UNDP data, reproductive health accounts for the largest loss due to gender inequality, among all regions. The empowerment dimension is measured by two indicators: the share of parliamentary seats held by each sex, which

2121-524: Is a composite measure which, according to the UNDP, captures the loss of achievement due to gender inequality using three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market participation. The GII does not include income levels as a component, which was one of the most controversial components of the GDI and GEM. It also does not allow for high achievements in one dimension to compensate for low achievement in another. There are three critical dimensions to

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2222-457: Is a lack of measuring what is important when it comes to gender inequality. These authors state that a proposal for a subnational index including the domains of Paid Work, Money, Power & Participation, Education & Skills, and Unpaid Work will bring a more accurate measurement to gender disparities to Great Britain. Both Klasen and Schüler as well as Permanyer argue that the GII mixes indices in

2323-410: Is a relatively new index that has only been in use since 2010. Criticisms of the GII as a global measurement of gender inequality include that the GII may inadequately capture gender inequality, leave out important aspects, or include unnecessary dimensions, and the complexity of GII causes difficulty for some to interpret or calculate. Klasen and Schüler as well as Permanyer argue that the complexity of

2424-563: Is also a third type of familial relationship applied to godparents or adoptive children ( fictive ). These culturally defined relationships are referred to as kinship. In many societies, it is one of the most important social organizing principles and plays a role in transmitting status and inheritance .  All societies have rules of incest taboo , according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations are prohibited; and some societies also have rules of preferential marriage with certain other kin relations. Human ethnic groups are

2525-430: Is an accepted version of this page A society ( / s ə ˈ s aɪ ə t i / ) is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory , typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships ( social relations ) between individuals who share

2626-403: Is an accepted version of this page The Human Development Index ( HDI ) is a statistical composite index of life expectancy , education (mean years of schooling completed and expected years of schooling upon entering the education system ), and per capita income indicators, which is used to rank countries into four tiers of human development . A country scores a higher level of HDI when

2727-409: Is an association-sensitive, responsive to distributional changes across dimension, composite index used to rank the loss of development through gender inequality within a country. The GII measures inequalities by addressing the shortcomings of other measures through aggregate strategy using multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) in order to avoid aggregation problems . There are five steps to computing

2828-412: Is considered central — someone choosing to be hungry (e.g. when fasting for religious reasons ) is considered different from someone who is hungry because they cannot afford to buy food, or because the country is going through a famine . The index does not take into account several factors, such as the net wealth per capita or the relative quality of goods in a country. This situation tends to lower

2929-419: Is higher than 10 per 100,000 it is considered inequality. Yet, parliamentary representation is only considered inequality if there is a deviation from 50 percent. Therefore, if women and men fare equally in all dimensions the GII would not equal a zero value as it should. Permanyer gives an example for this problem: According to both Mcdonald and Koblitz, the GII formula has some issues that could be improved,

3030-557: Is mostly focused on processing raw materials into finished products. Present-day societies vary in their degree of industrialization, with some using mostly newer energy sources (e.g. coal, oil , and nuclear energy ), and others continuing to rely on human and animal power. Industrialization is associated with population booms and the growth of cities. Increased productivity, as well as the stability caused by improved transportation, leads to decreased mortality and resulting population growth. Centralized production of goods in factories and

3131-464: Is much literature that finds women's access to education may reduce the AFR and child mortality rates within a country. Due to data limitations the parliament representation indicator is limited to national parliament and excludes local government or other community involvement. Although women's representation in parliament has been increasing women have been disadvantaged in representation of parliament with

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3232-592: Is obtained from the International Parliamentary Union , and higher education attainment levels, which is obtained through United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and Barro-Lee data sets. The GII index of higher education evaluates women's attainment to secondary education and above. Access to higher education expands women's freedom by increasing their ability to question and increases their access to information which expands their public involvement. There

3333-418: Is seen as a characteristic that differentiates humans from other animals. Trade has even been cited as a practice that gave Homo sapiens a major advantage over other hominids; evidence suggests early H. sapiens made use of long-distance trade routes to exchange goods and ideas, leading to cultural explosions and providing additional food sources when hunting was sparse. Such trade networks did not exist for

3434-510: Is similar to hunter-gatherers (about 50 individuals), but unlike hunter gatherers, pastoral societies usually consist of multiple communities—the average pastoral society contains thousands of people. This is because pastoral groups tend to live in open areas where movement is easy, which enables political integration. Pastoral societies tend to create a food surplus, and have specialized labor and high levels of inequality. Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots, that have been cleared from

3535-666: Is the year when the report was published. The HDI has extended its geographical coverage: David Hastings, of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific , published a report geographically extending the HDI to 230+ economies, whereas the UNDP HDI for 2009 enumerates 182 economies and coverage for the 2010 HDI dropped to 169 countries. The Human Development Index has been criticized on

3636-770: The Human Development Index (HDI), a composite measure of human development used by the UNDP. Thus, the differences between the HDI and GDI were small leading to the implication that gender disparities were irrelevant to human development. The UNDP also claims that both the GDI and GEM were criticized because income levels tended to dominate the earned income component, which resulted in countries with low income levels not being able to get high scores, even in cases where their levels of gender inequality may have been low. The GEM indicators proved to be more relevant to developed countries than less-developed countries . With international growing concern for gender equality,

3737-673: The Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR), the data for which come UNICEF's State of the World's Children , and the adolescent fertility rate (AFR), the data for which is obtained through the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs , respectively. With a low MMR, it is implied that pregnant women have access to adequate health needs, therefore the MMR is a good measure of women's access to health care. The UNDP expresses that women's health during pregnancy and childbearing

3838-462: The common good or in the name of the public interest , but as property they own. Caste systems , as historically found in South Asia, are associated with agrarian societies, where lifelong agricultural routines depend upon a rigid sense of duty and discipline. The scholar Donald Brown suggests that an emphasis in the modern West on personal liberties and freedoms was in large part a reaction to

3939-530: The lifespan is higher, the education level is higher, and the gross national income GNI (PPP) per capita is higher. It was developed by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul-Haq and was further used to measure a country's development by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)'s Human Development Report Office. The 2010 Human Development Report introduced an inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI). While

4040-481: The lowest and highest values the variable x {\displaystyle x} can attain, respectively. The Human Development Index (HDI) then represents the uniformly weighted sum with 1 ⁄ 3 contributed by each of the following factor indices: The Human Development Report 2023/24 by the United Nations Development Programme was released on 13 March 2024; the report calculates HDI values based on data collected in 2022. Ranked from 1 to 69 in

4141-424: The means of production . Symbolic interactionism is a microsociological theory that focuses on individuals and how the individual relates to society. Symbolic interactionists study humans' use of shared language to create common symbols and meanings, and use this frame of reference to understand how individuals interact to create symbolic worlds, and in turn, how these worlds shape individual behaviors . In

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4242-488: The planetary pressures-adjusted HDI ), social inequality (which got addressed by the inequality-adjusted HDI ), unemployment or democracy . Economists Hendrik Wolff, Howard Chong and Maximilian Auffhammer discuss the HDI from the perspective of data error in the underlying health, education and income statistics used to construct the HDI. They have identified three sources of data error which are: (i) data updating, (ii) formula revisions and (iii) thresholds to classify

4343-1222: The 2010 Human Development Report calculated the HDI combining three dimensions: In its 2010 Human Development Report, the UNDP began using a new method of calculating the HDI. The following three indices are used: 1. Life Expectancy Index (LEI) = LE − 20 85 − 20 = LE − 20 65 {\displaystyle ={\frac {{\textrm {LE}}-20}{85-20}}={\frac {{\textrm {LE}}-20}{65}}} 2. Education Index (EI) = MYSI + EYSI 2 {\displaystyle ={\frac {{\textrm {MYSI}}+{\textrm {EYSI}}}{2}}} 3. Income Index (II) = ln ⁡ ( GNIpc ) − ln ⁡ ( 100 ) ln ⁡ ( 75 , 000 ) − ln ⁡ ( 100 ) = ln ⁡ ( GNIpc ) − ln ⁡ ( 100 ) ln ⁡ ( 750 ) {\displaystyle ={\frac {\ln({\textrm {GNIpc}})-\ln(100)}{\ln(75,000)-\ln(100)}}={\frac {\ln({\textrm {GNIpc}})-\ln(100)}{\ln(750)}}} Finally,

4444-502: The GDI and GEM are not measurements of gender inequality in and of themselves. The GDI is a composite index which measures development within a country and then negatively corrects for gender inequality; and the GEM measures the access women have to attaining means of power in economics, politics, and making decisions. Both of which Beneria and Permanyer claim are inaccurate in clearly capturing gender inequality. The GDI fails to include measuring

4545-557: The GGI for only capturing inequality in certain aspects of women's lives therefore making it an incomplete measure of gender inequality. Given the amount of criticism the GDI and GEM were facing, the UNDP felt that these indices did not fully capture the differences between gender. In an attempt to reform the GDI and GEM, the UNDP introduced the Gender Inequality Index (GII) in the 2010 Human Development Report. The new index

4646-431: The GII captures association across dimensions, making the index association-sensitive, and ensuring that high achievement in one dimension does not compensate for low achievement in another dimension. Permanyer notes that the GII is a pioneering index, in that it is the first index to include reproductive health indicators as a measurement for gender inequality. The GII's dimension of reproductive health have two indicators:

4747-446: The GII for 2008, 2011, and 2012. 2018 rank and value, source: http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-5-gender-inequality-index-gii . 2018: 9th is Iceland, 10th is Republic of Korea. (GII value) 2018 The ten lowest ranked countries in terms of gender equality according to the GII for 2008, 2011, and 2012. 2018 rank and value, source: http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-5-gender-inequality-index-gii . (GII value) 2018 The GII

4848-476: The GII for its failure to capture the informal work and unpaid domestic or care work where women are primarily over-represented. In many underdeveloped societies women and girls spend the majority of their time in domestic work whereas men and boys spend far less, if any. Therefore, the if the GII lacks the capturing of the time women spend in unpaid labor, it is insufficient in capturing the true global disparities of women. Human Development Index This

4949-474: The GII is too complex, Shmid, Cook and Jones counter that argument with the notion that the current GII is too broad. Shmid, Cook and Jones analyze the GII and how impactful it is for Great Britain and come to the conclusion that there is no measure of gender disparities at the subnational level, leaving the GII being too board overall. Shmid, Cook and Jones claim that there are difficulties when measuring gender disparities through quantitative data, and that there

5050-428: The GII will make it difficult to interpret or understand for the professionals who would likely want to make use of it because so many non-linear procedures are applied to the data. Permanyer believes that simplicity is required in order for analysts, policy-makers, or practitioners to convey a clear message to the general public. Klasen and Schüler claim that the GII is meant to represent a loss of human development, but

5151-507: The GII's formula has a bias towards richer countries and think that the formula should focus on other factors of gender disparity. Permanyer also criticizes the GII for whether or not its assessment of gender inequality, and uses of the same set of indicators, are equally relevant or meaningful across all regions of the Globe. For less-developed countries the use of the MMR and AFR in the dimension of reproductive health may be penalizing although

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5252-470: The GII. As there is no country with perfect gender equality, all countries suffer some loss of human development due to gender inequality. The difference in dimensions used in the GII and HDI means that the GII is not interpreted as a loss of HDI, but has its own rank and value separate from the HDI. The GII is interpreted as a percentage and indicates the percentage of potential human development lost due to gender inequality. The world average GII score in 2011

5353-531: The GII: reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market participation. The dimensions are captured in one synthetic index, as to account for joint significance. According to the UNDP, none of the measures in the dimensions pertain to the country's development and therefore a less-developed country can perform well if gender inequality is low. The UNDP considers the dimensions complementary in that inequality in one dimension tends to affect inequality in another. Therefore,

5454-522: The HDI is the geometric mean of the previous three normalized indices: LE: Life expectancy at birth MYS: Mean years of schooling (i.e. years that a person aged 25 or older has spent in formal education) EYS: Expected years of schooling (i.e. total expected years of schooling for children under 18 years of age, incl. young men and women aged 13–17) GNIpc: Gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita The HDI combined three dimensions last used in its 2009 report: This methodology

5555-502: The United States, the richest tenth of humans hold more than seven-tenths of those regions' total wealth. The willingness of humans to kill other members of their species en masse through organized conflict (i.e. war) has long been the subject of debate. One school of thought is that war evolved as a means to eliminate competitors, and that violence is an innate human characteristic. Humans commit violence against other humans at

5656-499: The Wolff et al. paper. The Human Development Report Office states that they undertook a systematic revision of the methods used for the calculation of the HDI, and that the new methodology directly addresses the critique by Wolff et al. in that it generates a system for continuously updating the human-development categories whenever formula or data revisions take place. In 2013, Salvatore Monni and Alessandro Spaventa emphasized that in

5757-437: The ability to change affiliation with social groups relatively easily, including leaving groups with previously strong alliances, if doing so is seen as providing personal advantages. Ethnicity is separate from the concept of race , which is based on physical characteristics, although both are socially constructed . Assigning ethnicity to a certain population is complicated, as even within common ethnic designations there can be

5858-539: The absence of reliable earned income data across countries, the UNDP considers labor market participation a suitable substitute for economic aspects of gender inequality. The metrics of the GII are similar in calculations to the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI), which was also introduced in the 2010 Human Development Report, and can be interpreted as a percentage loss of human development due to shortcomings in

5959-682: The access to electronic information resources increased at the beginning of the 21st century, special attention was extended from the information society to the knowledge society. A knowledge society generates, shares, and makes available to all members of the society knowledge that may be used to improve the human condition . A knowledge society differs from an information society in that it transforms information into resources that allow society to take effective action, rather than only creating and disseminating raw data . Social norms are shared standards of acceptable behavior by groups. Social norms, which can both be informal understandings that govern

6060-506: The arithmetic means for each indicator: Obtain the reference standard by aggregating female and male indices with equal weight, and then aggregating indices across dimensions. Reproductive health is not an average of female and male indices but half the distance from the norms established Step 5: Calculating the Gender Inequality Index: To compute the GII compare the equally distributed gender index from Step 3 to

6161-412: The assumption that women have some level of political influence and that the geometric mean can not have a 0 value. Step 2: Aggregating across dimensions within each gender group, using geometric means: Aggregating across dimensions for each gender group by the geometric mean makes the GII association-sensitive. The maternal mortality rate and the adolescent fertility rate are only relevant for females

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6262-453: The behavior of members of a society, as well as be codified into rules and laws, are powerful drivers of human behavior. Social roles are norms, duties , and patterns of behavior that relate to an individual's social status. In functionalist thought, individuals form the structure of society by occupying social roles. According to symbolic interactionism, individuals use symbols to navigate and communicate roles. Erving Goffman used

6363-410: The concept of information society has been discussed since the 1930s, in the present day, it is almost always applied to ways that information technologies impact society and culture. It therefore covers the effects of computers and telecommunications on the home, the workplace, schools, government, and various communities and organizations, as well as the emergence of new social forms in cyberspace. As

6464-586: The daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals. Hunter-gatherers move around constantly in search of food. As a result, they do not build permanent villages or create a wide variety of artifacts . The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies, and they usually only form small groups such as bands and tribes , usually with fewer than 50 people per community. Bands and tribes are relatively egalitarian , and decisions are reached through consensus . There are no formal political offices containing real power in band societies, rather

6565-425: The debate of GDP versus HDI, it is often forgotten that these are both external indicators that prioritize different benchmarks upon which the quantification of societal welfare can be predicated. The larger question is whether it is possible to shift the focus of policy from a battle between competing paradigms to a mechanism for eliciting information on well-being directly from the population. Society This

6666-416: The focus of development economics from national income accounting to people-centered policies ". He believed that a simple composite measure of human development was needed to convince the public, academics and politicians that they can, and should, evaluate development not only by economic advances but also improvements in human well-being . Published on 4 November 2010 (and updated on 10 June 2011),

6767-572: The functionalist school of thought, individuals in society work together like organs in the body to create emergent behavior, sometimes referred to as collective consciousness . 19th century sociologists Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim , for example, believed that society constitutes a separate "level" of reality, distinct from both biological and inorganic matter. Explanations of social phenomena had therefore to be constructed within this level, individuals being merely transient occupants of comparatively stable social roles. Conflict theorists take

6868-473: The further development of governance within and between communities. As of 2022 , according to The Economist , 43% of national governments were democracies , 35% autocracies , and 22% containing elements of both. Many countries have formed international political organizations and alliances, the largest being the United Nations with 193 member states. Trade, the voluntary exchange of goods and services, has long been an aspect of human societies, and it

6969-537: The gender inequality Index. Step 1: Treating zeros and extreme values: The maternal mortality rate is truncated systematically at minimum of 10 and maximum of 1,000. The maximum and minimum is based on the normative assumption that all countries with maternal mortality ratios above 1,000 do not differ in their ability to support for maternal health as well as the assumption that all countries below 10 do not differ in their abilities. Countries with parliamentary representation reporting at 0 are counted as 0.1 because of

7070-430: The general well-being of humans in hunter gatherer societies challenges the purported relationship between technological advancement and human progress . Rather than searching for food on a daily basis, members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their food needs. Pastoralists typically live a nomadic life, moving their herds from one pasture to another. Community size in pastoral societies

7171-694: The implications of modernity , and that their analysis of non-Western cultures is therefore limited in scope. As examples of nonwestern thinkers who took a systematic approach to understanding society, al-Attas mentions Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) and José Rizal (1861–1896). Khaldun, an Arab living in the 14th century, understood society, along with the rest of the universe, as having "meaningful configuration", with its perceived randomness attributable to hidden causes. Khaldun conceptualized social structures as having two fundamental forms: nomadic and sedentary. Nomadic life has high social cohesion ( asabijja ), which Khaldun argued arose from kinship, shared customs, and

7272-447: The included dimensions. The value of GII range between 0 and 1, with 0 being 0% inequality, indicating women fare equally in comparison to men and 1 being 100% inequality, indicating women fare poorly in comparison to men. There is a correlation between GII ranks and human development distribution, according to the UNDP countries that exhibit high gender inequality also show inequality in distribution of development, and vice versa. The GII

7373-512: The jungle or forest, provide the main source of food in a horticultural society. These societies have a similar level of technology and complexity to pastoral societies. Along with pastoral societies, horticultural societies emerged about 10,000 years ago, after technological changes of the Agricultural Revolution made it possible to cultivate crops and raise animals. Horticulturists use human labor and simple tools to cultivate

7474-450: The land for one or more seasons. When the land becomes barren, horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state. They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again. By rotating their garden plots, horticulturists can stay in one area for a long period of time. This allows them to build permanent or semi-permanent villages. As with pastoral societies, surplus food leads to

7575-520: The latter half of the 20th century, theorists began to view society as socially constructed . In this vein, sociologist Peter L. Berger describes society as "dialectic": Society is created by humans, but this creation turns in turn creates or molds humans. The sociologic emphasis placed on functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism, has been criticized as Eurocentric . The Malaysian sociologist Syed Farid al-Attas , for example, argues that Western thinkers are particularly interested in

7676-599: The loss may not be entirely explained by gender inequality. Less-developed countries performance in the reproductive health dimension may differ regionally or locally. Access to or use of health services can be influenced by socio-economic levels, public health policies , or social and cultural practices . In developed countries, specifically European countries, gender inequality levels are not very "robust to alternative specifications of gender-related indicators" and analysts and policy makers may choose specific methods to yield desired results. Klasen and Schüler briefly criticize

7777-486: The major issue being that it is composed of two indicators, maternal mortalities and teen pregnancies. Mcdonald and Koblitz also claim the product of the formula mainly clusters the values towards zero, which for lower-income countries, can make these countries seem to have more issues with gender inequality than reality. The authors claim the formula weighs too heavily on reproductive health causing disproportionate data towards poorer countries. Both Mcdonald and Koblitz believe

7878-410: The males are only aggregated with the other two dimensions. Step 3: Aggregating across gender groups, using a harmonic mean: To compute the equally distributed gender index the female and male indices are aggregated by the harmonic mean of the geometric means to capture the inequality between females and males and adjust for association between dimensions. Step 4: Calculating the geometric mean of

7979-430: The metaphor of a theater to develop the dramaturgical lens , which argues that roles provide scripts that govern social interactions. The division of humans into male and female gender roles has been marked culturally by a corresponding division of norms, practices , dress , behavior , rights, duties, privileges , status , and power . Some argue that gender roles arise naturally from sex differences , which lead to

8080-446: The now-extinct Neanderthals . Early trade involved materials for creating tools, like obsidian , exchanged over short distances. In contrast, throughout antiquity and the medieval period, some of the most influential long-distance routes carried food and luxury goods, such as the spice trade . Early human economies were more likely to be based around gift giving than a bartering system. Early money consisted of commodities ;

8181-466: The oldest being in the form of cattle and the most widely used being cowrie shells . Money has since evolved into governmental issued coins , paper and electronic money . Human study of economics is a social science that looks at how societies distribute scarce resources among different people. There are massive inequalities in the division of wealth among humans; as of 2018 in China, Europe, and

8282-514: The opposite view, and posit that individuals and social groups or social classes within society interact on the basis of conflict rather than agreement. One prominent conflict theorist is Karl Marx who conceived of society as operating on an economic "base" with a "superstructure" of government, family, religion and culture. Marx argues that the economic base determines the superstructure, and that throughout history, societal change has been driven by conflict between laborers and those who own

8383-731: The parental role of males, the use of language to communicate, the specialization of labor, and the tendency to build "nests" (multigenerational camps, town, or cities). Some biologists, including entomologist E.O. Wilson , categorize humans as eusocial , placing humans with ants in the highest level of sociability on the spectrum of animal ethology , although others disagree. Social group living may have evolved in humans due to group selection in physical environments that made survival difficult. In Western sociology, there are three dominant paradigms for understanding society: functionalism (also known as structural functionalism), conflict theory , and symbolic interactionism . According to

8484-636: The participants of the World Economic Forum in 2007, among others, recognized that the advancement of women was a significant issue that impacted the growth of nations. As of 2006, the World Economic Forum has been using the Gender Gap Index (GGI) in its Global Gender Gap Reports , which ranks countries according to their gender gaps, in an attempt to better capture gender disparities. Beneria and Permanyer criticize

8585-499: The people that they govern. There have been many forms of government throughout human history, with various ways of allocating power, and with different levels and means of control over the population. In early history, distribution of political power was determined by the availability of fresh water , fertile soil , and temperate climate of different locations. As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between different groups increased, leading to

8686-471: The position of women as compared to men in society, even if it shows the human development costs of gender inequalities in basic human development. Schlür also notes that both the GEM and GDI failed to create any recognition for gender inequality, and the continuance of gender disparities kept going internationally. According to the UNDP, the GDI was criticized for its inability to accurately measure gender inequality for its components being too closely related to

8787-523: The potential to misguide politicians, investors, charity donors and the public who use the HDI at large. In 2010, the UNDP reacted to the criticism by updating the thresholds to classify nations as low, medium, and high human development countries. In a comment to The Economist in early January 2011, the Human Development Report Office responded to an article published in the magazine on 6 January 2011 which discusses

8888-650: The pre-colonial era, when the Filipinos controlled trade routes and had higher economic activity, to the period of colonial rule, and argued that exploitation, economic disorder, and colonial policies that discouraged farming led to a decreased interest in work. Sociologists tend to classify societies based on their level of technology, and place societies in three broad categories: pre-industrial , industrial , and postindustrial . Subdivisions of these categories vary, and classifications are often based on level of technology, communication, and economy. One example of such

8989-484: The production of food. Agrarian societies are especially noted for their extremes of social classes and rigid social mobility. As land is the major source of wealth, social hierarchy develops based on landownership and not labor. The system of stratification is characterized by three coinciding contrasts: governing class versus the masses , urban minority versus peasant majority, and literate minority versus illiterate majority. This results in two distinct subcultures;

9090-613: The production of goods. Advanced industrial societies see a shift toward an increase in service sectors, over manufacturing. Service industries include education, health and finance. An information society is a society where the usage, creation , distribution , manipulation and integration of information is a significant activity. Proponents of the idea that modern-day global society is an information society posit that information technologies are impacting most important forms of social organization, including education, economy, health, government, warfare , and levels of democracy. Although

9191-450: The ranking of some of the most developed countries , such as the G7 members and others. The origins of the HDI are found in the annual Human Development Reports produced by the Human Development Report Office of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). These annual reports were devised and launched by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul-Haq in 1990, and had the explicit purpose "to shift

9292-406: The reference standard from Step 4. According to the UNDP there was a minor calculation change to the 2011 Gender Inequality Index from the 2010 index used. The maternal mortality ratio was calculated in the Gender Inequality Index at 10 even though the range of GII values should be between 0 and 1. To correct this the maternal mortality ratio is normalized by 10, which generally reduced the values of

9393-781: The simple HDI remains useful, it stated that "the IHDI is the actual level of human development (accounting for this inequality ), while the HDI can be viewed as an index of 'potential' human development (or the maximum level of HDI) that could be achieved if there was no inequality." The index is based on the human development approach, developed by Mahbub ul-Haq, anchored in Amartya Sen 's work on human capabilities, and often framed in terms of whether people are able to "be" and "do" desirable things in life. Examples include — being: well-fed, sheltered, and healthy; doing: work, education, voting, participating in community life. The freedom of choice

9494-470: The standard against which the losses are measured is not stated anywhere, unlike the GDI where the losses were measured against the HDI, making the HDI represent perfect equality. The UNDP explains that the complexity of the calculations are needed in order to maintain an association-sensitive measure, but Permanyer argues that alternative indices that are much less complex have also shown to be association sensitive. While Klasen Schuler and Permanyer argue that

9595-502: The steep and rigid stratification of agrarian societies. Industrial societies, which emerged in the 18th century in the Industrial Revolution , rely heavily on machines powered by external sources for the mass production of goods. Whereas in pre-industrial societies the majority of labor takes place in primary industries focused on extracting raw materials (farming, fishing, mining, etc.), in industrial societies, labor

9696-478: The urban elite versus the peasant masses. Moreover, this means cultural differences within agrarian societies are greater than differences between them. The landowning strata typically combine government, religious, and military institutions to justify and enforce their ownership, and support elaborate patterns of consumption, slavery , serfdom , or peonage is commonly the lot of the primary producer. Rulers of agrarian societies often do not manage their empire for

9797-434: The whole, industrial societies are marked by the increased power of human beings. Technological advancements mean that industrial societies have increased potential for deadly warfare. Governments use information technologies to exert greater control over the populace. Industrial societies also have an increased environmental impact. Post-industrial societies are societies dominated by information and services, rather than

9898-503: The year 2022, the following countries are considered to be of "very high human development": The list below displays the top-ranked country from each year of the Human Development Index. Norway has been ranked the highest sixteen times, Canada eight times, and Switzerland, Japan, and Iceland have each ranked twice. The year represents the time period from which the statistics for the index were derived. In parentheses

9999-511: Was 0.492, which indicates a 49.2% loss in potential human development due to gender inequality. Due to the limitations of data and data quality, the 2010 Human Development Report calculated GII rankings of 138 countries for the year 2008. The 2011 Human Development Report was able to calculate the GII rankings of 146 countries for the reporting year 2011. The 2019 rankings for all scored countries based on UNDP GII data are: The ten highest-ranked countries in terms of gender equality according to

10100-438: Was derived from the noun socius (" comrade , friend , ally"). Humans , along with their closest relatives bonobos and chimpanzees , are highly social animals. This biological context suggests that the underlying sociability required for the formation of societies is hardwired into human nature. Human society features high degrees of cooperation, and differs in important ways from groups of chimps and bonobos, including

10201-570: Was used by the UNDP until their 2011 report. The formula defining the HDI is promulgated by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ). In general, to transform a raw variable , say x {\displaystyle x} , into a unit-free index between 0 and 1 (which allows different indices to be added together), the following formula is used: where a {\displaystyle a} and b {\displaystyle b} are

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