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92-602: Georges Jean Painvin ( French: [ʒɔʁʒ pɛ̃vɛ̃] ; 28 January 1886 – 21 January 1980) was a French geologist and industrialist , best known as the cryptanalyst who broke the ADFGX/ADFGVX cipher used by the Germans during the First World War . Painvin was born into a family of graduates from the École polytechnique and mathematicians from Nantes . In addition to his remarkable scientific education,

184-623: A concubine , a socially accepted practice in the Dutch East Indies at the time. When Rudolf was posted to Medan , Margaretha and the children remained in Toempoeng with the family of Mr. van Rheede, the government comptroller. Friends of Margaretha's in the Netherlands recall her writing to them around this time to say that she had taken the name Mata Hari, the word for "sun" in the local Indonesian language (literally, "eye of

276-538: A Captain Paulier of the French army, who introduced Painvin to telegram and communication systems, Painvin would later perform cryptanalysis for the French war effort. Painvin had no training in cryptology but showed considerable passion for these " ciphers ". Painvin asked that he be given intercepted cryptograms transmitted by the invading Imperial Germany . It did not take long before Painvin made himself known in

368-416: A German diplomat and former lover as reimbursement for belongings taken from her by German authorities. Bouchardon claimed that this was, in fact, payment to her for spying for Germany. In the meantime, Ladoux had been preparing a case against his former agent by casting all of her activities in the worst possible light, going so far as to engage in evidence tampering. In 1917, France had been badly shaken by

460-477: A Knight of the Legion of Honour in a military capacity on 10 July 1918. He would, however, not be able to disclose or talk about his work accomplishments for a large part of his later lifetime, because the activities of a number of French government services were under cover of military secrecy from the general public until 1962. In December 1962, Painvin's contribution to the war effort in the field of code decryption

552-409: A carefree provocative style to the stage in her act, which garnered wide acclaim. The most celebrated segment of her act was her progressive shedding of clothing until she wore just a jeweled breastplate and some ornaments upon her arms and head. She was never seen bare-chested as she was self-conscious about having small breasts. Early in her career, she wore a bodystocking for her performances that

644-559: A dancer, nothing else .... Because I really did not spy, it is terrible that I cannot defend myself." The most terrible and heartbreaking moment for Mata Hari during the trial occurred when her lover Maslov—by now deeply embittered as a result of losing his eye in combat—declined to testify for her and told her that he did not care whether she was convicted. When Zelle learned that Maslov had abandoned her, she fainted. Her defense counsel, veteran international lawyer Édouard Clunet  [ Wikidata ] , faced impossible odds; he

736-528: A double column transposition as the second stage of his method. However, his proposal was rejected in discussions by his superiors and, for practical reasons, they decided in favor of a (cryptographically significantly weaker) simple column transposition. Two years later, in 1968, Nebel and Painvin met in person and Nebel expressed his feelings by saying that the enemies of yesterday meet as the friends of today. Painvin emphasized that if it had been done as Nebel suggested, he certainly would not have been able to break

828-470: A firing squad consisting of 12 French soldiers just before dawn on 15 October 1917. She was 41. According to an eyewitness account by British reporter Henry Wales, she was not bound and refused a blindfold. She defiantly blew a kiss to the firing squad. A 1934 New Yorker article reported that at her execution, she wore "a neat Amazonian tailored suit, especially made for the occasion, and a pair of new white gloves", though another account indicates she wore

920-532: A good father. Jeanne later died at the age of 21, possibly from complications related to syphilis. In 1903, Zelle moved to Paris, where she performed as a circus horse rider using the name Lady MacLeod, much to the disapproval of the Dutch MacLeods. Struggling to earn a living, she also posed as an artist's model. By 1904, Mata Hari rose to prominence as an exotic dancer . She was a contemporary of dancers Isadora Duncan and Ruth St. Denis , leaders in

1012-493: A hat shop, made investments in the oil industry, and became affluent enough to give Margaretha and her siblings a lavish early childhood that included exclusive schools until the age of 13. Soon after Margaretha's father went bankrupt in 1889, her parents divorced, and her mother died in 1891. Her father remarried in Amsterdam on 9 February 1893 to Susanna Catharina ten Hoove (1844–1913). The family fell apart, and Margaretha

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1104-620: A large ocean whose level gradually dropped over time. The first geological map of the United States was produced in 1809 by William Maclure . In 1807, Maclure commenced the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. Almost every state in the Union was traversed and mapped by him; the Allegheny Mountains being crossed and recrossed some 50 times. The results of his unaided labors were submitted to

1196-511: A sound footing. She moved with her husband to Malang on the east side of the island of Java, travelling out on the SS ; Prinses Amalia in May 1897. They had two children, Norman-John MacLeod (1897–1899) and Louise Jeanne MacLeod (1898–1919). The marriage was overall a disappointment. Rudolf was an alcoholic, physically abused Margaretha, and blamed her for his lack of promotion. He openly kept

1288-428: A specialized area within their geological discipline and are employed by universities. In Canada, National Instrument 43-101 requires reports containing estimates of mineral resources and reserves to be prepared by, or under the supervision of, a Qualified Person (QP) who has at least five years of experience with the reported minerals and is a member of a professional association. The QP accepts personal liability for

1380-463: A spy made her name synonymous with the femme fatale . Her story has inspired books, films, and other works. It has been said that she was convicted and condemned because the French Army needed a scapegoat , and that the files used to secure her conviction contained falsifications. Some have even stated that Mata Hari could not have been a spy and was innocent. Margaretha Geertruida Zelle

1472-533: A total of 1,275 pages, were declassified by the French Army in 2017, one hundred years after her execution. The Frisian museum (Dutch: Fries Museum ) in Leeuwarden, Netherlands, contains a "Mata Hari Room". Included in the exhibit are two of her personal scrapbooks and an oriental rug embroidered with the footsteps of her fan dance. Located in Mata Hari's native town, the museum is well known for researching

1564-629: A total of 36 characters instead of the previous 25 letters. He also correctly suspected that the 26 letters of the alphabet plus the 10 digits (0 to 9) were used and based his cryptanalysis on this assumption. After some 26 hours of intensive work, until he was physically exhausted, he succeeded in reconstructing the grid and permutation used for the encryption and was able to decipher the intercepted message on 2 June 1918. The authentic plaintext message read in German: Translated into English: "Speed up supply of ammunition. If not seen also during

1656-491: A traitoress, never! Zelle's principal interrogator, who grilled her relentlessly, was Captain Pierre Bouchardon; he later prosecuted her at trial. Bouchardon established that much of the Mata Hari persona was invented. Far from being a Javanese princess, Zelle was Dutch, which he used as evidence of her dubious and dishonest character at her trial. Zelle admitted to Bouchardon that she had accepted 20,000 francs from

1748-410: Is common in the fields of geography , engineering , chemistry , urban planning , environmental studies , among others. Geologists, can be generally identified as a specialist in one or more of the various geoscience disciplines, such as a geophysicist or geochemist. Geologists may concentrate their studies or research in one or more of the following disciplines: Professional geologists may work in

1840-695: The American Philosophical Society in a memoir entitled Observations on the Geology of the United States explanatory of a Geological Map , and published in the Society's Transactions , together with the nation's first geological map. This antedates William Smith 's geological map of England by six years, although it was constructed using a different classification of rocks. Sir Charles Lyell first published his famous book, Principles of Geology , in 1830. This book, which influenced

1932-516: The Ecole des Mines de Saint-Étienne and from 1913 at the École des mines de Paris . On 1 September 1911, Painvin was promoted further in his military service to lieutenant and reassigned to the 53rd Artillery Regiment the following year. In October 1913, Painvin also completed a probationary period at the École supérieure de guerre (French Army War College), which resulted in Painvin being assigned to

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2024-502: The Eurovision Song Contest : In 1931 Mata Hari , an American thoroughbred racehorse, was foaled. She twice won championship honors as the top filly in the sport. In 1943, when in foal to fellow champion Balladier, she produced Spy Song . In 1977, Bally Manufacturing released an electromechanical pinball machine named after Mata Hari, and a solid-state version in 1978. In the 1982 release of Birds & Bees by

2116-642: The German Imperial Army was preparing for a final push on the Western Front to cover the 100 kilometres (62 miles) that separated it from Paris . The Allies needed to know where the German attack would come. But, at this worst stage of the War, the German cipher system had become more complex from 30 May, by adding the letter "V" (ADFGVX cipher) to the earlier ADFGX cipher method. On 1 June 1918,

2208-529: The Great Mutinies of the French Army in the spring of 1917 following the failure of the Nivelle Offensive and massive strikes. France might have collapsed from war exhaustion. Having one German spy on whom everything that went wrong with the war could be blamed was convenient for the French government. Mata Hari seemed the perfect scapegoat. The case against her received maximum publicity in

2300-616: The Allies and declared her passionate love of France, her adopted homeland. In October 2001, documents released from the archives of MI5 (British counter-intelligence) were used by a Dutch group, the Mata Hari Foundation, to ask the French government to exonerate Zelle as they argued that the MI5 files proved she was not guilty of the charges she was convicted of. A spokesperson from the Mata Hari Foundation argued that at most, Zelle

2392-653: The Belgian band Telex (band) , the tenth track on the album is dedicated to Mata Hari. In 1995, Israeli singer Ofra Haza released a single titled "Mata Hari". In February 2016, the Dutch National Ballet premiered a two-act ballet entitled Mata Hari , with Anna Tsygankova dancing the role of Mata Hari, choreography by Ted Brandsen and music by Tarik O'Regan . In 2017, the opera Mata Hari by librettist Peter Peers and composer Matt Marks premiered at New York's Prototype Festival. In August 2018, it

2484-710: The Casablanca Chamber of Commerce and Industry. Painvin retired in 1962, and returned to France at the age of 76, he died in 1980 at the age of 93. Geologist James Hutton is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he presented a paper entitled Theory of the Earth to the Royal Society of Edinburgh . In his paper, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for sediments to form new rocks at

2576-566: The Crown Prince as a great warrior, the worthy successor to the Hohenzollern monarchs who had made Prussia strong and powerful. They wanted to avoid publicizing that the man expected to be the next Kaiser was a playboy noted for womanizing, partying, and indulging in alcohol, who spent another portion of his time associating with far right-wing politicians, with the intent to have his father declared insane and deposed. Unaware that

2668-472: The Crown Prince did not have much to do with the running of Army Group Crown Prince or the 5th Army , the Deuxième Bureau offered Zelle 1 million francs if she could seduce him and provide France with good intelligence about German plans. The fact that the Crown Prince had, before 1914, never commanded a unit larger than a regiment, and was now supposedly commanding both an army and an army group at

2760-568: The French listening station on top of the Eiffel Tower intercepted a German radio message for the first time, which not only contained the letters A, D, F, G and X, but also the letter V. The radio message came from the German army outposts in the region of Remaugies , north of Compiègne , and read: Painvin recognized this and correctly concluded that the Germans had expanded the Polybius square from 5×5 to 6×6 and were now able to encode

2852-579: The French inventor and industrialist René Marie Victor Perrin (1893-1966), who developed the Ugine-Perrin process. The company would remain at the cutting edge of technology 40 years later with the inauguration of the giant Fos-sur-Mer steel plant near the Rhône . In addition to the steelworks company in Ugine, Painvin chaired Crédit Commercial de France from 1941 to 1944. From 1934, he also contributed to

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2944-456: The French press and led to her importance being greatly exaggerated. The Canadian historian Wesley Wark stated in a 2014 interview that Mata Hari was never an important spy but a scapegoat for French military failures that had nothing to do with her. Wark stated: "They needed a scapegoat, and she was a notable target for scapegoating." The British historian Julie Wheelwright stated: "She really did not pass on anything that you couldn't find in

3036-463: The French. General Walter Nicolai , the chief IC (intelligence officer) of the German Army, had grown very annoyed that Mata Hari had provided him with no intelligence worthy of the name, instead selling the Germans mere Paris gossip about the sex lives of French politicians and generals, and decided to terminate her employment by exposing her as a German spy to the French. In December 1916,

3128-509: The German Imperial Army as "Geheimschrift der Funker 1918", in short: GedeFu 18) being used by the Germans from 1 March 1918 and thus could not predict their attacks. On 5 April 1918, shortly after the Germans launched their Spring Offensive , Painvin discovered two cryptographic keys used for the new ADFGX cipher and was able to decipher the new German cipher system. He relied on it for messages dated from 1 April. In June 1918,

3220-413: The German military attaché Major Arnold Kalle and asked if he could arrange a meeting with the Crown Prince. During this period, Zelle apparently offered to share French secrets with Germany in exchange for money, though whether this was because of greed or an attempt to set up a meeting with Crown Prince Wilhelm remains unclear. In January 1917, Major Kalle transmitted radio messages to Berlin describing

3312-514: The German services"; and, "in the minds of many people, Mr. Painvin was regarded as pro-regime". Under two demission directions before the court of justice of Seine and the Comité national interprofessionnel d'épuration (CNIE) (National Interprofessional Purification Committee) for acts of collaboration by French civilians during the German occupation of France, Painvin resigned as president and administrator of Ugine steelworks on 12 December 1945. In

3404-520: The Germans introduced the KRU field cipher. More complex with one cryptographic key per army unit, it would nevertheless be the subject of a meticulous analysis on the part of Painvin and a Captain Guitard. During the spring of 1918, Paris was constantly being bombarded by German Gotha G.IV bomber aircraft and heavy artillery. The French were unable to crack the newly introduced ADFGX cipher (designated by

3496-428: The Netherlands, the couple officially separated on 30 August 1902. The divorce became final in 1906, and Margaretha was awarded custody of Jeanne. Rudolf was legally required to pay child support but never did. Once when Jeanne visited Rudolf, he did not return her to her mother. Margaretha did not have the resources to fight the situation and accepted it, believing that while Rudolf had been an abusive husband, he had been

3588-565: The Second Bureau of the French War Ministry let Mata Hari obtain the names of six Belgian agents. Five were suspected of submitting fake material and working for the Germans, while the sixth was suspected of being a double agent for Germany and France. Two weeks after Mata Hari had left Paris for a trip to Madrid, the Germans executed the double agent while the five others continued their operations. This development proved to

3680-675: The Second Bureau that Mata Hari had communicated the names of the six spies to the Germans. On 13 February 1917, Mata Hari was arrested in her room at the Hotel Elysée Palace on the Champs Elysées in Paris. She was tried on 24 July, accused of spying for Germany and consequently causing the deaths of at least 50,000 soldiers. Although the French and British intelligence suspected her of spying for Germany, neither could produce definite evidence against her. A harlot? Yes, but

3772-486: The aftermath of World War II , Painvin decided to step back and give up most of his functions. In 1948, Painvin moved to Casablanca where he was entrusted in 1950 with the presidency of the industrial, financial and services conglomerate Omnium Nord-Africain , being also delegate president of the Société Chérifienne d'Exploitation d'Ouvrages Maritimes , of the Société Chérifienne du plâtre and member of

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3864-478: The bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become dry land. Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795 ( Vol. 1 , Vol. 2 ). Followers of Hutton were known as Plutonists because they believed that some rocks were formed by vulcanism , which is the deposition of lava from volcanoes, as opposed to the Neptunists , led by Abraham Werner , who believed that all rocks had settled out of

3956-466: The ciphers, allowing a more efficient hunt for German submarines ( U-boats ). On 21 January 1915, Painvin proposed a method, the ARC system, which made it possible to discover the cryptographic key used for the encryption and this with a single text. The German troops used several cipher systems, but this did not discourage Painvin, on the contrary. Accompanied by a Colonel Olivari, Painvin set upon attacking

4048-646: The country. This 'wellbeing' is often in the form of greater tax revenues from new or extended mining projects or through better infrastructure and/or natural disaster planning. An engineering geologist is employed to investigate geologic hazards and geologic constraints for the planning, design and construction of public and private engineering projects, forensic and post-mortem studies, and environmental impact analysis . Exploration geologists use all aspects of geology and geophysics to locate and study natural resources. In many countries or U.S. states without specialized environmental remediation licensure programs,

4140-456: The day" ). At Rudolf's urging, Margaretha returned to him, but his behavior did not change. In 1899, their children fell violently ill from complications relating to the treatment of syphilis contracted from their parents, though the family claimed an irate servant poisoned them. Jeanne survived, but Norman died. Some sources maintain that one of Rudolf's enemies may have poisoned their supper to kill both of their children. After moving back to

4232-534: The day". The message was immediately forwarded to Marshal Ferdinand Foch 's French headquarters and convinced him that the Germans were planning a massive attack in the section of the front at Compiègne . Foch concentrated his last reserve troops around this city, which meant that the German attack that took place here shortly afterwards could be repulsed. Breaking the German ADFGVX cipher took its toll on Painvin's physical and mental health and shortly after

4324-468: The early modern dance movement, which around the turn of the 20th century, looked to Asia and Egypt for artistic inspiration. Gabriel Astruc became her personal booking agent. Promiscuous, flirtatious, and openly flaunting her body, Mata Hari captivated her audiences and was an overnight success from the debut of her act at the Musée Guimet on 13 March 1905. She became the long-time mistress of

4416-545: The encryption. The American cryptologist Herbert Yardley in The American Black Chamber would say of Painvin: Captain Georges Painvin, the greatest coding expert that France had, a first-rate analytical genius, had a way of solving messages in code which resembled witchcraft ... After the War, Painvin resumed and continued his teaching activities part-time during the interwar period . He

4508-528: The environmental remediation field is often dominated by professional geologists, particularly hydrogeologists, with professional concentrations in this aspect of the field. Petroleum and mining companies use mudloggers , and large-scale land developers use the skills of geologists and engineering geologists to help them locate oil and minerals, adapt to local features such as karst topography or earthquake risk, and comply with environmental regulations. Geologists in academia usually hold an advanced degree in

4600-527: The father of Mata Hari, had a hat shop there. In 2016, an information centre ( belevingscentrum ) was created in the building displaying mementos of Mata Hari. The idea of an exotic dancer working as a lethal double agent using her powers of seduction to extract military secrets from her many lovers made Mata Hari an enduring archetype of the femme fatale . Her life inspired several films, including: Mata Hari's life also inspired at least five stage musicals: Two songs named after Mata Hari have appeared at

4692-631: The field of cryptanalysis . He was assigned to the " Cabinet noir ", the French black room which he would occupy until the end of the War. The encrypted telegram messages would consist of both military and diplomatic communications, some transmitted as far as between Berlin and Constantinople. There, he concentrated on the ciphers of the Imperial German Navy , then of the Austro-Hungarian Navy , which until his joining had remained entirely incomprehensible. He managed to break

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4784-445: The fraction of a second it seemed she tottered there, on her knees, gazing directly at those who had taken her life. Then she fell backward, bending at the waist, with her legs doubled up beneath her." A non-commissioned officer then walked up to her body, pulled out his revolver, and shot her in the head to make sure she was dead. Mata Hari's body was not claimed by any family members and was accordingly used for medical study. Her head

4876-448: The helpful activities of a German spy code-named H-21, whose biography so closely matched Zelle's that it was obvious that Agent H-21 could only be Mata Hari. The Deuxième Bureau intercepted the messages and, from the information they contained, identified H-21 as Mata Hari. The messages were in a code that German intelligence knew had already been broken by the French, suggesting that the messages were contrived to have Zelle arrested by

4968-458: The idea was not widely accepted at the time. For an aspiring geologist, training typically includes significant coursework in physics , mathematics , and chemistry , in addition to classes offered through the geology department; historical and physical geology, igneous and metamorphic petrology and petrography, hydrogeology , sedimentology , stratigraphy , mineralogy , palaeontology , physical geography and structural geology are among

5060-514: The life and career of Leeuwarden's world-famous citizen. The largest-ever Mata Hari exhibition was opened in the Museum of Friesland on 14 October 2017, one hundred years after her death. Mata Hari's birthplace is located in the building at Kelders 33. The building suffered smoke and water damage during a fire in 2013 but was later restored. Architect Silvester Adema studied old drawings of the storefront to reconstruct it as it appeared when Adam Zelle,

5152-579: The local newspapers in Spain." Wheelwright described Zelle as "an independent woman, a divorcée, a citizen of a neutral country, a courtesan, and a dancer, which made her a perfect scapegoat for the French, who were then losing the war. She was ... held up as an example of what might happen if your morals were too loose." Claiming her innocence, Zelle wrote letters to the Dutch Ambassador in Paris. "My international connections are due [to] my work as

5244-490: The many required areas of study. Most geologists also need skills in GIS and other mapping techniques. Geology students often spend portions of the year, especially the summer though sometimes during a January term, living and working under field conditions with faculty members (often referred to as "field camp"). Many non-geologists often take geology courses or have expertise in geology that they find valuable to their fields; this

5336-459: The message was delivered, he collapsed, exhausted by all his efforts. In the aftermath of the Armistice , exhausted by these years of physical and mental effort, Painvin was forced to go into a long convalescence. On the French side, the German radio message has since been referred to as "Le Radiogramme de la Victoire". For Painvin's painstaking efforts and determination, he was honoured and made

5428-567: The millionaire industrialist Émile Étienne Guimet , who had founded the Musée. Entertainers of her era commonly invented colourful stories about their origins, and she posed as a Javanese princess of priestly Hindu birth, pretending to have been immersed in the art of sacred Indian dance since childhood. She was photographed numerous times during this period, nude or nearly so. Some of these pictures were obtained by MacLeod and strengthened his case in keeping custody of their daughter. Mata Hari brought

5520-603: The mining industry or in the associated area of mineral exploration . They may also work in oil and gas industry. Some geologists also work for a wide range of government agencies, private firms, and non-profit and academic institutions. They are usually hired on a contract basis or hold permanent positions within private firms or official agencies (such as the Geological Survey and Mineral Exploration of Iran ). Local, state, and national governments hire geologists to work on geological projects that are of interest to

5612-571: The professional quality of the report and underlying work. The rules and guidelines codified in National Instrument 43-101 were introduced after a scandal in 1997 where Bre-X geologists salted drill core samples at a gold exploration property in Busang, Indonesia. The falsified drilling results misled Bre-X investors and upon discovery of the fraud, the company collapsed in the largest gold mining scam in history. In Europe exists

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5704-523: The professional title of EurGeol (European Geologist ) awarded by the European Federation of Geologists . Geologists may belong to a number of professional societies promoting research, networking, and professional development within the field. Mata-Hari Margaretha Geertruida MacLeod ( née   Zelle , Dutch: [mɑrɣaːˈreːtaː ɣeːrˈtrœydaː ˈzɛlə] ; 7 August 1876 – 15 October 1917), better known by

5796-427: The public community. The investigation of a country's natural resources is often a key role when working for government institutions; the work of the geologist in this field can be made publicly available to help the community make more informed decisions related to the exploitation of resources, management of the environment and the safety of critical infrastructure - all of which is expected to bring greater wellbeing to

5888-545: The reorganization of the Paris stock exchange, which he presided over from 1940. He was also chairman of the chemical industries organizing committee, as well as of the Paris Chamber of Commerce (from January 1944). Several articles have studied Painvin's activity during the German military Occupation of France (1940-1944). Painvin was considered "a large-scale industrialist, who works very sincerely and very honestly with

5980-450: The same suit, low-cut blouse, and tricorn hat ensemble which had been picked out by her accusers for her to wear at trial, and which was still the only full, clean outfit which she had in prison. Neither description matches photographic evidence. Wales recorded her death, saying that after the volley of shots rang out, "Slowly, inertly, she settled to her knees, her head up always, and without the slightest change of expression on her face. For

6072-529: The same time should have been a clue that his role in German decision-making was mostly nominal. Zelle's contact with the Deuxième Bureau was Captain Georges Ladoux , who later emerged as one of her principal accusers. In November 1916 she was traveling from Spain aboard the steamship Zeelandia . When the ship called at the British port of Falmouth she was arrested and taken to London, where she

6164-593: The staff service on 6 April 1914. Painvin's teaching career would unfortunately be interrupted by the onset of the First World War . When the conflict broke out, Painvin was naturally recalled into the French army. Painvin was assigned to the staff of General Maunoury's 6th Army, with whom he served as an orderly officer. Under General Maunoury, Painvin participated in the Battle of Ourcq in particular. However, Painvin's position gave him relative freedom to allow him to be interested in cryptology and ciphers. On befriending

6256-491: The stage name Mata Hari ( / ˈ m ɑː t ə ˈ h ɑːr i / MAH -tə HAR -ee , Dutch: [ˈmaːtaː ˈɦaːri] ; Indonesian for 'sun', lit.   ' eye of the day ' ), was a Dutch exotic dancer and courtesan who was convicted of being a spy for Germany during World War I . She was executed by firing squad in France . The idea of a beautiful exotic dancer using her powers of seduction as

6348-453: The thought of Charles Darwin , successfully promoted the doctrine of uniformitarianism . This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earth's history and are still occurring today. In contrast, catastrophism is the theory that Earth's features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism,

6440-480: The time were unfamiliar with the Dutch East Indies, Mata Hari was thought of as exotic, and her claims were accepted as genuine. One enthusiastic French journalist wrote in a Paris newspaper that Mata Hari was "so feline, extremely feminine, majestically tragic, the thousand curves and movements of her body trembling in a thousand rhythms." One journalist in Vienna wrote after seeing one of her performances that Mata Hari

6532-425: The triliteral ABC cipher. After two weeks of work, the two cryptanalysts managed to reconstruct the encrypted messages despite having false messages voluntarily sent by the Germans. One path of encrypted diplomatic communications in particular, led to the unravelling of the spy Mata-Hari ; during the first months of the war, Painvin's work made it possible to quickly follow the evolution of this enemy figure. In 1917,

6624-534: The war, Zelle had performed as Mata Hari several times before the Crown Prince Wilhelm , eldest son of Kaiser Wilhelm II and nominally a senior German general on the Western Front. The Deuxième Bureau believed she could obtain information by seducing the Crown Prince for military secrets. In fact, his involvement was minimal, and it was German government propaganda that promoted the image of

6716-462: The war, Zelle was involved in what was described as a very intense romantic-sexual relationship with Captain Vadim Maslov, a 23-year-old Russian Staff Captain of the 1st Special Infantry Regiment serving with the French, whom she called the love of her life. Maslov was part of the 50,000-strong Russian Expeditionary Force sent to the Western Front in the spring of 1916. In April 1916, Maslov

6808-475: The words of the American historians Norman Polmer and Thomas Allen she was "naïve and easily duped", a victim of men rather than a victimizer. Although news reports following her execution claimed she had admitted to spying for Germany, Mata Hari made no such admission. She maintained throughout her ordeal that she had never been a German spy. At her trial, Zelle vehemently insisted that her sympathies were with

6900-558: The young Painvin was also a keen cello player, where in 1902 he was awarded First prize for cello at the Nantes Conservatory of Music. In 1905, Painvin passed his matriculation exam into the École polytechnique . In his second year, he opted for admission to the Corps des mines where he would make his profession. However, French military service would briefly take him away from this fulfilment. On 7 September 1907, Painvin

6992-420: Was "slender and tall with the flexible grace of a wild animal, and with blue-black hair" and that her face "makes a strange foreign impression." By about 1910, myriad imitators had arisen. Critics began to opine that the success and dazzling features of the popular Mata Hari were due to cheap exhibitionism and lacked artistic merit. Although she continued to schedule important social events throughout Europe, she

7084-402: Was a low-level spy who provided no secrets to either side, stating: "We believe that there are sufficient doubts concerning the dossier of information that was used to convict her to warrant re-opening the case. Maybe she wasn't entirely innocent, but it seems clear she wasn't the master-spy whose information sent thousands of soldiers to their deaths, as has been claimed." Zelle was executed by

7176-443: Was also chairman of several companies, and participated in the strong growth for the company of Electrochemistry , Electrometallurgy and Electric arc furnace Steelworks of Ugine (abbr. SECEMAEU  [ fr ] ) during the 1920s, of which he was appointed director general in 1922. The company mobilised new methods of electrochemistry to produce on a large scale the first stainless steels at affordable prices, helped by

7268-501: Was also produced by West Edge Opera, with Tina Mitchell reprising her starring role. In 2018, French nu-disco band L'Impératrice released their album titled 'Matahari' containing a song of the same name. In 2019, English singer-songwriter Frank Turner released a song about Mata Hari entitled "Eye of the Day" on his album No Man's Land . In 2020, the Dutch singer Kovacs released

7360-513: Was appointed reserve second lieutenant and assigned to the 33rd Artillery Regiment to attend his third year on obligatory military service. In 1909 and again in 1911, he attended only short periods of military service lasting a few days. It was not until 1908 that Painvin entered the École Nationale Supérieure des Mines for three-years study, where he would be ranked 4th of the 6 students in his class. On completion Painvin graduated to engineer . In 1911, Painvin became professor of palaeontology at

7452-557: Was born 7 August 1876 in Leeuwarden, Netherlands to Antje van der Meulen (1842–1891) and her husband, Adam Zelle (1840–1910). She had three younger brothers; Johannes Hendriks, Arie Anne, and Cornelis Coenraad. She was affectionately called "M'greet" by her family. Despite traditional assertions that Mata Hari was partly of Jewish, Malaysian, or Javanese, i.e., Indonesian descent, scholars conclude she had no Jewish or Asian ancestry, and both of her parents were Dutch. Her father owned

7544-403: Was broadcast, with Mata Hari played by Eleanor Bron , on the independent station LBC in 1980. It is unclear if she lied on this occasion, believing the story made her sound more intriguing, or if French authorities were using her in such a way but would not acknowledge her due to the embarrassment and international backlash it could cause. In late 1916, Zelle traveled to Madrid, where she met

7636-463: Was denied permission to cross-examine the prosecution's witnesses or to examine his witnesses directly. Bouchardon used the fact that Zelle was a woman as evidence of her guilt, saying: "Without scruples, accustomed to making use of men, she is the type of woman who is born to be a spy." Zelle has often been portrayed as a femme fatale, the dangerous, seductive woman who uses her sexuality to manipulate men effortlessly, but others view her differently: in

7728-575: Was described by French General Desfemmes. On 19 December 1973, Painvin was elevated to the rank of Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. The inventor of the ADFGX/ADFGVX cipher, the German signal corps officer Lieutenant Fritz Nebel  [ de ] , did not learn of Painvin's achievement until 1967. In 1966, nearly fifty years later, Fritz Nebel learned that his system had been broken during World War I and said that he had originally proposed

7820-685: Was disdained by serious cultural institutions as a dancer who did not know how to dance. Mata Hari's career went into decline after 1912. On 13 March 1915, she performed in the last show of her career. She had begun her career relatively late as a dancer and had started putting on weight. However, by this time, she had become a successful courtesan , known more for her sensuality and eroticism than for her classical beauty. She had relationships with high-ranking military officers, politicians, and others in influential positions in many countries. Her relationships and liaisons with powerful men frequently took her across international borders. Before World War I , she

7912-421: Was embalmed and kept in the Museum of Anatomy in Paris. In 2000, archivists discovered that it had disappeared, possibly as early as 1954, according to curator Roger Saban, during the museum's relocation. Her head remains missing. Records dated 1918 show that the museum also received the rest of the body, but none of the remains could later be accounted for. Mata Hari's sealed trial and other related documents,

8004-474: Was generally viewed as an artist and a free-spirited bohemian , but as war approached, she began to be seen by some as a wanton and promiscuous woman, and perhaps a dangerous seductress. During World War I, the Netherlands remained neutral. As a Dutch subject, Zelle was thus able to cross national borders freely. To avoid the battlefields, she traveled between France and the Netherlands via Spain and Britain, and her movements inevitably attracted attention. During

8096-609: Was interrogated at length by Sir Basil Thomson , assistant commissioner at New Scotland Yard in charge of counter-espionage. He gave an account of this in his 1922 book Queer People , saying that she eventually admitted to working for the Deuxième Bureau. Initially detained in Canon Row police station, she was then released and stayed at the Savoy Hotel . A full transcript of the interview is in Britain's National Archives and

8188-668: Was living in what was then the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) and was looking for a wife. Margaretha married MacLeod in Amsterdam on 11 July 1895. He was the son of Captain John Brienen MacLeod (a descendant of the Gesto branch of the MacLeods of Skye , hence his Scottish surname) and Dina Louisa, Baroness Sweerts de Landas. The marriage enabled Zelle to move into the Dutch upper class and placed her finances on

8280-663: Was sent to live with her godfather, Mr. Visser, in Sneek. She studied to be a kindergarten teacher in Leiden, but when the headmaster began to flirt with her conspicuously, she was removed from the institution by her godfather. A few months later, she fled to her uncle's home in The Hague. At 18, Margaretha answered an advertisement in a Dutch newspaper placed by Dutch colonial army captain Rudolf MacLeod (1856–1928), who

8372-446: Was similar in color to her skin, but that was later omitted. Her act was successful because it elevated erotic dance to a more respectable status and broke new ground in a style of entertainment for which Paris was later world-famous. Her style and free-willed attitude made her popular, as did her eagerness to perform in exotic and revealing clothing. She posed for provocative photos and mingled in wealthy circles. Since most Europeans at

8464-574: Was wounded fighting in the ill-fated Nivelles Offensive to capture the German controlled fortified Brimont mountain range, losing his sight in his left eye, which led Zelle to ask for permission to visit her wounded lover at the hospital where he was staying near the front. As a citizen of a neutral country, Zelle would not normally be allowed near the front. Zelle was met by agents from the Deuxième Bureau who told her that she would be allowed to see Maslov if she agreed to spy for France. Before

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