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111-443: The field of graphics communications encompasses all phases of the graphic communications processes from origination of the idea (design, layout, and typography) through reproduction, finishing and distribution of two- or three-dimensional products or electronic transmission. Graphic Communications focuses on the technical aspects of producing and distributing items of visual communication. This includes technical aspects associated with

222-525: A blackboard or whiteboard . Drawing has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating ideas. The wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities. In addition to its more artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration , animation , architecture , engineering , and technical drawing . A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as

333-681: A comparative advantage in the production of tradable goods. The Roman Empire used collaboration through ruling with visible control, which lasted from 31BC until (in the east ) 1453CE, across around fifty countries. The growth of trade was supported by the stable administration of the Romans. Evidence shows that the Roman Empire and Julius Caesar were influenced by the Greek writer Xenophon 's The Education of Cyrus on leadership. This says that 'social bonds, not command and control, were to be

444-433: A drawing board or table, pencil sharpener and eraser , and for ink drawing, blotting paper . Other tools used are circle compass , ruler , and set square . Fixative is used to prevent pencil and crayon marks from smudging. Drafting tape is used to secure paper to drawing surface, and also to mask an area to keep it free of accidental marks, such as sprayed or spattered materials and washes. An easel or slanted table

555-416: A frisket and applied to the drawing surface, protecting the surface from stray marks until the mask is removed. Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on fixative to the surface. This holds loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevents it from smearing. However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can harm the respiratory system, so it should be employed in

666-531: A graphics to aid in conveying a message , instruction , or an idea is involved in graphical communication. One of the most widely used forms of graphical communication is the drawing . In the prehistoric period, communication was done visually and aurally and involved touching, either delicately or forcefully, as well as movements and gestures. The earliest graphics known to anthropologists studying prehistoric periods are cave paintings and markings on boulders, bone, ivory, and antlers, which were created during

777-404: A close and symbiotic relationship among a nation's armed forces , its private industry , and associated political interests. In such a system, the military is dependent on industry to supply material and other support, while the defence industry depends on government for revenue. Skunk Works is a term used in engineering and technical fields to describe a group within an organization given

888-404: A common social , political or spiritual vision. They share responsibilities and resources. Intentional communities include cohousing , residential land trusts , ecovillages , communes , kibbutzim , ashrams , and housing cooperatives . Typically, new members of an intentional community are selected by the community's existing membership, rather than by real estate agents or land owners (if

999-607: A constant feature of electroacoustic music , due to the technology's complexity. Embedding technological tools into the process stimulated the emergence of new agents with new expertise: the musical assistant, the technician, the computer music designer, the music mediator (a profession that has been described and defined in different ways over the years) – aiding with writing, creating new instruments, recording and/or performance. The musical assistant explains developments in musical research and translates artistic ideas into programming languages. Finally, he or she transforms those ideas into

1110-568: A drawing are pencils , crayons , pens with inks , brushes with paints , or combinations of these, and in more modern times, computer styluses with graphics tablets or gamepads in VR drawing software. A drawing instrument releases a small amount of material onto a surface, leaving a visible mark. The most common support for drawing is paper , although other materials, such as cardboard , vellum , wood , plastic, leather , canvas , and board , have been used. Temporary drawings may be made on

1221-797: A few selected firms has been shown to positively impact firm performance and innovation outcomes. Technology has provided the internet, wireless connectivity and collaboration tools such as blogs and wikis, and has as such created the possibility of " mass collaboration ". People are able to rapidly communicate and share ideas, crossing longstanding geographical and cultural boundaries. Social networks permeate business culture where collaborative uses include file sharing and knowledge transfer . According to author Evan Rosen command-and-control organizational structures inhibit collaboration and replacing such structures allows collaboration to flourish. Studies have found that collaboration can increase achievement and productivity. However, Bill Huber, former chair of

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1332-492: A fingertip, or any combination of them. A piece of chamois is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone. Continuous tone can be achieved with graphite on a smooth surface without blending, but the technique is laborious, involving small circular or oval strokes with a somewhat blunt point. Shading techniques that also introduce texture to the drawing include hatching and stippling . A number of other methods produce texture. In addition to

1443-409: A finished work, is sometimes called a sketch . An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter , draftsman, or draughtsman. Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, where the accurate representation of the visual world is expressed upon

1554-432: A gradation of tone. Stippling uses dots to produce tone , texture and shade . Different textures can be achieved depending on the method used to build tone. Drawings in dry media often use similar techniques, though pencils and drawing sticks can achieve continuous variations in tone. Typically a drawing is filled in based on which hand the artist favors. A right-handed artist draws from left to right to avoid smearing

1665-421: A great sophistication in drawing techniques, enabling artists to represent things more realistically than before, and revealing an interest in geometry and philosophy. The invention of the first widely available form of photography led to a shift in the hierarchy of the arts. Photography offered an alternative to drawing as a method for accurately representing visual phenomena, and traditional drawing practice

1776-463: A high degree of autonomy unhampered by bureaucracy, tasked with advanced or secret projects. One such group was created at Lockheed in 1943. The team developed highly innovative aircraft in short time frames, notably beating its first deadline by 37 days. As a discipline, project management developed from different fields including construction, engineering and defense. In the United States,

1887-526: A key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features. When drawing an object or figure,

1998-408: A liquid medium, applied with brushes or pens. Using a brush for drawing is very widespread and here it is more the process of using lines and hatching, that characterises something as a drawing. Similar supports likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared canvas or panels, but sometimes an underdrawing is drawn first on that same support. Drawing

2109-426: A market economy, leading to trading within the Roman Empire and taxes. In Hutterite communities housing units are built and assigned to individual families, but belong to the colony with little personal property. Meals are taken by the entire colony in a common long room. The Oneida Community practiced Communalism (in the sense of communal property and possessions) and Mutual Criticism , where every member of

2220-510: A master of the next generation, was also the son of a goldsmith. Old Master Drawings often reflect the history of the country in which they were produced, and the fundamental characteristics of a nation at that time. In 17th-century Holland, a Protestant country, there were almost no religious artworks, and, with no King or court, most art was bought privately. Drawings of landscapes or genre scenes were often viewed not as sketches but as highly finished works of art. Italian drawings, however, show

2331-421: A means of achieving financial savings and operational efficiency in the acquisition of common goods and services in the public sector, and producing mutually beneficial results in the private sector. Collaboration allows for better communication within organizations and along supply chains . It is a way of coordinating different ideas from numerous people to generate a wide variety of knowledge. Collaboration with

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2442-478: A one-time or long-term basis. It can be as simple as dual-authorship or as complex as commons-based peer production . Tools include Usenet , e-mail lists , blogs and Wikis while ' brick and mortar ' examples include monographs (books) and periodicals such as newspapers, journals and magazines. One approach is for an author to publish early drafts/chapters of a work on the Internet and solicit suggestions from

2553-409: A particular object at a particular time and in a particular space, rendered with little addition of visual detail that can not be seen in the object represented or with little deletion of visual detail." Investigative studies have aimed to explain the reasons why some individuals draw better than others. One study posited four key abilities in the drawing process: motor skills required for mark-making,

2664-434: A perception that the buyer was in a win-win situation, it soon became apparent that it was either close to a lose-win or at best a partial win-win situation favouring the supplier. A four-year study of interorganizational collaboration in a mental health setting found that successful collaboration can be rapidly derailed through external policy steering, particularly where it undermines relations built on trust. Collaboration

2775-432: A plane surface. Traditional drawings were monochrome , or at least had little colour, while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting . In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks. Dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with

2886-442: A product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece. Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements. The term representation, according to O'Shaughnessy and Stadler (2005), can carry a range of meanings and interpretations. In literary theory representation

2997-446: A relatively isolated rural location with little budget, Black Mountain fostered an informal and collaborative spirit. Innovations, relationships and unexpected connections formed at Black Mountain had a lasting influence on the postwar American art scene, high culture and eventually pop culture . Buckminster Fuller met student Kenneth Snelson at Black Mountain, and the result was the first geodesic dome (improvised out of slats in

3108-410: A role in drawing ability, though its effects are not significant. It has been suggested that an individual's ability to perceive an object they are drawing is the most important stage in the drawing process. This suggestion is supported by the discovery of a robust relationship between perception and drawing ability. This evidence acted as the basis of Betty Edwards ' how-to-draw book, Drawing on

3219-543: A scientist to highlight essential features, or an artist, in which case the distinction with imaginary graphics may become blurred. Communication is the process whereby information is imparted by a sender to a receiver via a medium . It requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal , physical means, such as body language , sign language , paralanguage , touch , eye contact , by using writing . Communication

3330-403: A score or a computer program and often performs the musical piece during the concerts. Examples of collaboration include Pierre Boulez and Andrew Gerzso, Alvise Vidolin and Luigi Nono , Jonathan Harvey and Gilbert Nouno. Although relatively rare compared with collaboration in popular music, there have been some notable examples of music written collaboratively by classical composers. Perhaps

3441-464: A study of Mayan fathers and children with traditional Indigenous ways of learning worked together in collaboration more frequently when building a 3D model puzzle than Mayan fathers with western schooling. Also, Chillihuani people of the Andes value work and create work parties in which members of each household in the community participate. Children from indigenous-heritage communities want to help around

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3552-478: A variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sold as individual sheets. Papers vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more "toothy" paper holds the drawing material better. Thus a coarser material is useful for producing deeper contrast. Newsprint and typing paper may be useful for practice and rough sketches . Tracing paper

3663-508: A variety of ways to present information visually, like gestures , body languages, video and TV. Here, focus is on the presentation of text, pictures, diagrams, photos, et cetera, integrated on a computer display. The term visual presentation is used to refer to the actual presentation of information. Recent research in the field has focused on web design and graphically oriented usability. Graphic designers use methods of visual communication in their professional practice. Communication design

3774-528: A venue, lighting, etc. Hypothetically, one person could control all of this, but most often every work of ballet is the by-product of collaboration. From the earliest formal works of ballet, to the great 19th century masterpieces of Pyotr Tchaikovsky and Marius Petipa , to the 20th century masterworks of George Balanchine and Igor Stravinsky , to today's ballet companies, feature strong collaborative connections between choreographers, composers and costume designers are essential. Within dance as an art form, there

3885-410: A very realistic rendition of the image. Blending uses an implement to soften or spread the original drawing strokes. Blending is most easily done with a medium that does not immediately fix itself, such as graphite, chalk, or charcoal, although freshly applied ink can be smudged, wet or dry, for some effects. For shading and blending, the artist can use a blending stump , tissue , a kneaded eraser ,

3996-421: A visual representation of ideas and messages. A graphic designer may use typography , visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result. Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) by which the communication is created and the products (designs) which are generated. Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web design. For example,

4107-410: A well-ventilated area such as outdoors. Another technique is subtractive drawing in which the drawing surface is covered with graphite or charcoal and then erased to make the image. Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows and highlights can result in

4218-452: Is a form of communication with visual effect. It explores the idea that a visual message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or persuade a person. It is communication by presenting information through Visual form. The evaluation of a good visual design is based on measuring comprehension by the audience, not on aesthetic or artistic preference. There are no universally agreed-upon principles of beauty and ugliness. There exists

4329-435: Is a form of collaboration between two societies which produce and exchange different portfolios of goods. Trade began in prehistoric times and continues because it benefits all of its participants. Prehistoric peoples bartered goods and services with each other without a modern currency. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance commerce from circa 150,000 years ago. Trade exists because different communities have

4440-490: Is a mixed discipline between design and information-development which is concerned with how intermission such as printed , crafted , electronic media or presentations communicate with people. A communication design approach is not only concerned with developing the message aside from the aesthetics in media, but also with creating new media channels to ensure the message reaches the target audience. Communication design seeks to attract, inspire, create desires and motivate

4551-416: Is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait. Linear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance. Each set of parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, follows lines that eventually converge at a vanishing point. Typically this convergence point

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4662-538: Is also the collaboration between choreographer and dancer. The choreographer creates a movement in her/his head and then physically demonstrates the movement to the dancer, which the dancer sees and attempts to either mimic or interpret. Musical collaboration occurs when musicians in different places or groups work on the piece. Typically, multiple parties are involved (singers, songwriters, lyricists, composers, and producers) and come together to create one work. For example, one specific collaboration from recent times (2015)

4773-836: Is also threatened by opportunism from the business partners and the possibility of coordination failures that can derail the efforts of even well-intentioned parties. Margarita Leib, a professor at Tilburg University in the Netherlands, wrote about how individuals working together sometimes promote dishonest behavior that prioritizes profit, like what Volkswagen did to fake vehicle emission levels . This often begins with one person lying, which incentivizes or pressures everyone else to escalate in response. In recent years, co-teaching has become more common, found in US classrooms across all grade levels and content areas. Once regarded as connecting special education and general education teachers, it

4884-441: Is commonly defined in 3 ways. Representation, according to Mitchell (1995), began with early literary theory in the ideas of Plato and Aristotle , and has evolved into a significant component of language, Saussurian and communication studies. Aristotle discusses representation in 3 ways: The means of literary representation is language . The means of graphical representation are graphics . Graphical representation of data

4995-412: Is defined as a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. If you use these processes it is developmental and transfers to all areas of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It

5106-689: Is in a letter written by James Waldegrave, 1st Earl Waldegrave in 1713. Antoine Augustin Cournot 's Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth in 1838 provided the first general theory. In 1928 it became a recognized field when John von Neumann published a series of papers. Von Neumann's work in game theory culminated in the 1944 book The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern . The term military-industrial complex refers to

5217-502: Is now more generally defined as "…two professionals delivering substantive instruction to a diverse group of students in a single physical space." As American classrooms have become increasingly diverse, so have the challenges for educators. Due to the diverse needs of students with designated special needs, English language learners (ELL), and students of varied academic levels, teachers have developed new approaches that provide additional student support. In practice, students remain in

5328-451: Is often exploratory, with considerable emphasis on observation, problem-solving and composition. Drawing is also regularly used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called sketches. There are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing , cartooning , doodling , and freehand . There are also many drawing methods, such as line drawing , stippling, shading ,

5439-422: Is one of the most commonly used modes of presentation. The purpose of graphical communication is transfer message or information to the receiver in effective way. When professional organizations prepare reports, they usually use the mode of graphical presentations. Drawings Drawing is a visual art that uses an instrument to mark paper or another two-dimensional surface. The instruments used to make

5550-698: Is one of the oldest forms of human expression, with evidence for its existence preceding that of written communication. It is believed that drawing was used as a specialised form of communication before the invention of the written language, demonstrated by the production of cave and rock paintings around 30,000 years ago ( Art of the Upper Paleolithic ). These drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts. The sketches and paintings produced by Neolithic times were eventually stylised and simplified in to symbol systems ( proto-writing ) and eventually into early writing systems . Before

5661-422: Is somewhere along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures typically converge at a vanishing point. When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off

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5772-591: Is the means by which ink, pigment, or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media either are dry (e.g. graphite , charcoal , pastels , Conté , silverpoint ), or use a fluid solvent or carrier ( marker , pen and ink ). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencils, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink . Metalpoint drawing usually employs either silver or lead. More rarely used are gold, platinum, copper, brass, bronze, and tinpoint. Paper comes in

5883-512: Is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation . The form of leadership can be social within a decentralized and egalitarian group. Teams that work collaboratively often access greater resources, recognition and rewards when facing competition for finite resources. Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and communication. Such methods aim to increase

5994-440: Is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur. Visual communication as the name suggests is communication through visual aid. It is the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily associated with two dimensional images, it includes: signs , typography , drawing , graphic design , illustration , colour and electronic resources. It solely relies on vision. It

6105-689: Is used to experiment over a half-finished drawing, and to transfer a design from one sheet to another. Cartridge paper is the basic type of drawing paper sold in pads. Bristol board and even heavier acid-free boards, frequently with smooth finishes, are used for drawing fine detail and do not distort when wet media (ink, washes) are applied. Vellum is extremely smooth and suitable for very fine detail. Coldpressed watercolor paper may be favored for ink drawing due to its texture. Acid-free, archival quality paper keeps its color and texture far longer than wood pulp based paper such as newsprint , which turns yellow and becomes brittle much sooner. The basic tools are

6216-481: Is used to keep the drawing surface in a suitable position, which is generally more horizontal than the position used in painting. Almost all draftsmen use their hands and fingers to apply the media, with the exception of some disabled individuals who draw with their mouth or feet. Prior to working on an image, the artist typically explores how various media work. They may try different drawing implements on practice sheets to determine value and texture, and how to apply

6327-990: The Internet . Screenwriter organizations bring together professional and amateur writers and filmmakers. Collaboration in business can be found both within and across organizations, and examples range from formalised partnerships , use of coworking spaces where freelancers can work with others in a collaborative environment and crowd funding , to the complexity of a multinational corporation . Inter-organizational collaboration brings participating parties to invest resources, mutually achieve goals, share information, resources, rewards and responsibilities, as well as make joint decisions and solve problems. Collaboration between public, private and voluntary sectors can be effective in tackling complex policy problems, but may be handled more effectively by boundary-spanning teams and networks than by formal organizational structures. In turn, business and management scholars have paid much attention to

6438-557: The Lockheed Corporation ) Polaris missile submarine program; and (2) the " Critical Path Method " (CPM) developed in a joint venture by both DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises. In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed to serve the interest of

6549-568: The University of Victoria assert that until the early 1990s the individual was the 'unit of instruction' and the focus of research. The two observed that researchers and practitioners switched to the idea that "knowing" is better thought of as a cultural practice. Roth and Lee also claim that this led to changes in learning and teaching design in which students were encouraged to share their ways of doing mathematics, history, science, with each other. In other words, that children take part in

6660-862: The Upper Paleolithic period from 40,000 to 10,000 B.C. or earlier. Many of these played a major role in geometry . They used graphics to represent their mathematical theories such as the Circle Theorem and the Pythagorean theorem . Graphics are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas , computer screen, paper, or stone to brand , inform, illustrate, or entertain. Examples are photographs , drawings , line art , graphs , diagrams , typography , numbers , symbols , geometric designs, maps , engineering drawings , or other images . Graphics often combine text , illustration , and color . Graphic design may consist of

6771-539: The International Association for Contract and Commercial Management (IACCM, now World Commerce & Contracting ), notes that not all companies have what he calls "collaborative DNA". Huber argues that often when companies fail to implement or sustain successful collaborative relationships, the causes can be traced to insufficient leadership support or to underdeveloped collaboration skills. Andrew Cox, formerly of Birmingham Business School and

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6882-655: The Right Side of the Brain . Edwards aimed to teach her readers how to draw, based on the development of the reader's perceptual abilities. Furthermore, the influential artist and art critic John Ruskin emphasised the importance of perception in the drawing process in his book The Elements of Drawing . He stated, "For I am nearly convinced, that once we see keenly enough, there is very little difficult in drawing what we see." Collaboration Collaboration (from Latin com- "with" + laborare "to labor", "to work")

6993-461: The US demonstrates that these advances have not been able to overcome the challenges of such projects. Founded in 1933 by John Andrew Rice , Theodore Dreier and other former faculty of Rollins College , Black Mountain College was experimental by nature and committed to an interdisciplinary approach, attracting a faculty which included leading visual artists, poets and designers. Operating in

7104-422: The appearances of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study. Individuals display differences in their ability to produce visually accurate drawings. A visually accurate drawing is described as being "recognized as

7215-478: The beginning of the modern project management era. Again, in the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt charts , and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project scheduling models were developed: (1) the " Program Evaluation and Review Technique " or PERT, developed as part of the United States Navy 's (in conjunction with

7326-489: The best-known examples are: Collaboration in entertainment dates from the origin of theatrical productions, millennia ago. It takes the form of writers, directors, actors, producers and other individuals or groups working on the same production. In the twenty-first century, new technology has enhanced collaboration. A system developed by Will Wright for the TV series title Bar Karma on CurrentTV facilitates plot collaboration over

7437-407: The changing phases of Venus and also the sunspots through his observational telescopic drawings. In 1924, geophysicist Alfred Wegener used illustrations to visually demonstrate the origin of the continents. Drawing is one of the easiest ways to visualise ideas and to express one's creativity; therefore it has been prominent in the world of art. Throughout much of history, drawing was regarded as

7548-410: The choice of paper, drawing material and technique affect texture. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is drawn next to a contrasting texture; a coarse texture is more obvious when placed next to a smoothly blended area. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones close together. A light edge next to a dark background stands out to the eye, and almost appears to float above

7659-609: The classroom and receive instruction by both their general teacher and special education teachers. In the 1996 report "What Matters Most: Teaching for America's Future" economic success could be enhanced if students developed the capacity to learn how to "manage teams… and…work together successfully in teams". Teachers increasingly use collaborative software to establish virtual learning environments (VLEs). This allows them to share learning materials and feedback with both students and in some cases, parents. Approaches include: Writers, both in fiction and non-fiction, may cooperate on

7770-556: The college established The Washington Center for Improving the Quality of Undergraduate Education, which focuses on collaborative education approaches, including learning communities as one of its centerpieces. The school later became notorious for less-successful collaborations. The romanticized notion of a lone, genius artist has existed since the time of Giorgio Vasari 's Lives of the Artists , published in 1568. Vasari promulgated

7881-568: The community was subject to criticism by committee or the community as a whole, during a general meeting. The goal was to remove bad character traits. A kibbutz is an Israeli collective community. The movement combines socialism and Zionism seeking a form of practical Labor Zionism . Choosing communal life, and inspired by their own ideology, kibbutz members developed a communal mode of living. The kibbutzim lasted for several generations as utopian communities, although most became capitalist enterprises and regular towns. The Manhattan Project

7992-405: The companies they work for, resulting in technical documents that are more comprehensive and accurate than documents produced by individuals. Technical communication collaboration typically occurs on shared document work-spaces (such as Google Docs), through social media sites, videoconferencing, SMS and IM, and on cloud-based authoring platforms. Scientific collaboration rapidly advanced throughout

8103-455: The construction of consensual domains, and 'participate in the negotiation and institutionalization of ... meaning'. In effect, they are participating in learning communities . This analysis does not consider the appearance of Learning communities in the United States in the early 1980s. For example, The Evergreen State College , which is widely considered a pioneer in this area, established an intercollegiate learning community in 1984. In 1985,

8214-465: The cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic volumes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive volumes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. Drawing the underlying construction is a fundamental skill for representational art, and is taught in many books and schools. Its correct application resolves most uncertainties about smaller details, and makes

8325-436: The deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web site, or book without any other element. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective, association with other cultural elements may be sought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style. Graphics can be functional or artistic. The latter can be a recorded version, such as a photograph, or an interpretation by

8436-439: The drawer's own perception of their drawing, perception of objects being drawn, and the ability to make good representational decisions. Following this hypothesis, several studies have sought to conclude which of these processes are most significant in affecting the accuracy of drawings. Motor control is an important physical component in the 'Production Phase' of the drawing process. It has been suggested that motor control plays

8547-418: The drawing paper.) This is a two-point perspective. Converging the vertical lines to a third point above or below the horizon then produces a three-point perspective. Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similar size should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart appears slightly smaller than

8658-437: The final image look consistent. A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist

8769-439: The forefather of project management is Henry Gantt , who is known for his use of the "bar" chart as a project management tool, for being an associate of Frederick Winslow Taylor 's theories of scientific management , and for his study of the management of Navy ship building. His work is the forerunner to many modern project management tools including the work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation. The 1950s marked

8880-401: The foreground. The composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic merit . The artist plans element placement in the art to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating. The illumination of the subject is also

8991-440: The foundation for artistic practice. Initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings. Following the widespread availability of paper in the 14th century, the use of drawing in the arts increased. At this point, drawing was commonly used as a tool for thought and investigation, acting as a study medium whilst artists were preparing for their final pieces of work. The Renaissance brought about

9102-707: The founder of the International Institute for Advanced Purchasing and Supply (IIAPS), has highlighted the dangers in thinking that collaborative relationships always produce mutually advantageous " win-win " outcomes for both buyers and sellers in commercial relationships. Cox uses case studies which show where competent buyers have used collaboration successful to secure value for money , and other examples where "incompetent buyers" utilizing "what initially appear to be win-win outcomes" subsequently lose out to "more commercially competent suppliers". In relation to one of his examples, Cox concludes that From

9213-444: The front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use of texture . As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the contrast in more distant objects, and by making their colors less saturated. This reproduces the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in

9324-480: The house voluntarily. In the Mazahua Indigenous community of Mexico, school children show initiative and autonomy by contributing in their classroom, completing activities as a whole, assisting and correcting their teacher during lectures when a mistake is made. Fifth and sixth graders in the community work with the teacher installing a classroom window; the installation becomes a class project in which

9435-446: The idea that artistic skill was endowed upon chosen individuals by gods, which created an enduring and largely false popular misunderstanding of many artistic processes. Artists have used collaboration to complete large scale works for centuries, but the myth of the lone artist was not widely questioned until the 1960s and 1970s. Collaborative art groups include: Ballet is a collaborative art form. It entails music, dancers, costumes,

9546-435: The image. Erasers can remove unwanted lines, lighten tones, and clean up stray marks. In a sketch or outline drawing, lines drawn often follow the contour of the subject, creating depth by looking like shadows cast from a light in the artist's position. Sometimes the artist leaves a section of the image untouched while filling in the remainder. The shape of the area to preserve can be painted with masking fluid or cut out of

9657-404: The implement to produce various effects. The artist's choice of drawing strokes affects the appearance of the image. Pen and ink drawings often use hatching – groups of parallel lines. Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, form lighter tones – and controlling the density of the breaks achieves

9768-464: The importance of both formal and informal mechanisms to support inter-organizational collaboration. They especially point to the role of contractual and relational mechanisms and the inherent tensions between the two. Global manufacturer Unilever offers to collaborate with innovating start-up businesses, and its "Unilever Foundry" refers to over 400 examples of "strategic collaboration" in this field. Collaborative procurement has been commended as

9879-627: The influence of Catholicism and the Church, which played a major role in artistic patronage. The same is often true of French drawings, although in the 17th century the disciplines of French Classicism meant drawings were less Baroque than the more free Italian counterparts, which conveyed a greater sense of movement. In the 20th century Modernism encouraged "imaginative originality" and some artists' approach to drawing became less literal, more abstract. World-renowned artists such as Pablo Picasso , Andy Warhol and Jean-Michel Basquiat helped challenge

9990-574: The land is not owned by the community). Collaboration in indigenous communities, particularly in the Americas, often involves the entire community working toward a common goal in a horizontal structure with flexible leadership . Children in some indigenous American communities collaborate with the adults. Children can be contributors in the process of meeting objectives by taking on tasks that suit their skills. Indigenous learning techniques comprise Learning by Observing and Pitching In . For example,

10101-403: The other watches intently and all are allowed to attempt tasks with the more experienced stepping in to complete more complex parts, while others pay close attention. Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics, computer science, and economics that looks at situations where multiple players make decisions in an attempt to maximize their returns. The first documented discussion of game theory

10212-551: The people to respond to messages, with a view to making a favorable impact to the bottom line of the commissioning body, which can be either to build a brand, move sales, or for humanitarian purposes. Its process involves strategic business thinking, utilizing market research , creativity , and problem-solving . The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation. Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create

10323-413: The primary mechanisms of governance'. Classics professor Emma Dench notes that the Roman Empire extended its citizenship "to enemies, former enemies of state, to people who'd helped them. The Romans were incredibly good at co-opting people and ideas." The Romans created a stable empire that benefitted both ruled and allied countries. Gold and silver were currencies created by the Romans which supported

10434-679: The production of tangible items such as books, magazines and packaging, as well as digital items such as e-newsletters, interactive apps, websites, video and virtual reality applications. Graphic communication involves the use of visual material to relate ideas such as drawings , photographs , slides , and sketches . The drawings of plans and refinements and a rough map sketched to show the way could be considered graphical communication. Graphic Design focuses on development of concepts and creation of visuals. This includes instruction regarding elements and principles of design, typography, image editing, web and video production, etc. Any medium that uses

10545-549: The profession. The International Project Management Association (IPMA), founded in Europe in 1967, has undergone a similar development and instituted the IPMA Project Baseline. Both organizations are now participating in the development of a global project management standard. However, the exorbitant cost overruns and missed deadlines of large-scale infrastructure, military R&D/procurement and utility projects in

10656-575: The project management industry. The premise of PMI is that the tools and techniques of project management are common even among the widespread application of projects from the software industry to the construction industry. In 1981, the PMI Board of Directors authorized the development of what has become A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), standards and guidelines of practice that are widely used throughout

10767-506: The school's back yard); Merce Cunningham formed his dance company; and John Cage staged his first happening . Black Mountain College was a consciously directed liberal arts school that grew out of the progressive education movement . In its day it was a unique educational experiment for the artists and writers who conducted it, and as such an important incubator for the American avant garde . Dr. Wolff-Michael Roth and Stuart Lee of

10878-551: The scientific power of the United States for greater success. The project succeeded in developing and detonating three nuclear weapons in 1945: a test detonation of a plutonium implosion bomb on July 16 (the Trinity test ) near Alamogordo, New Mexico ; an enriched uranium bomb code-named " Little Boy " on August 6 over Hiroshima , Japan; and a second plutonium bomb, code-named " Fat Man " on August 9 over Nagasaki, Japan. The members of an intentional community typically hold

10989-426: The skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed the negative space , and can be as important in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed. A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used to determine

11100-514: The status quo, with drawing being very much at the centre of their practice, and often re-interpreting traditional technique. Basquiat's drawings were produced in many different mediums, most commonly ink, pencil, felt-tip or marker, and oil-stick, and he drew on any surface that came to hand, such as doors, clothing, refrigerators, walls and baseball helmets. The centuries have produced a canon of notable artists and draftsmen, each with their own distinct language of drawing, including: The medium

11211-452: The students participate in the process alongside the teacher. They all work together without needing leadership, and their movements are all in sync and flowing. It is not a process of instruction, but rather a hands-on experience in which students work together as a synchronous group with the teacher, switching roles and sharing tasks. In these communities, collaboration is emphasized, and learners are trusted to take initiative. While one works,

11322-442: The subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler can be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions. When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive volumes. Almost any form can be represented by some combination of

11433-403: The success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem-solving . Collaboration is present in opposing goals exhibiting the notion of adversarial collaboration , though this is not a common use of the term. In its applied sense, "[a] collaboration is a purposeful relationship in which all parties strategically choose to cooperate in order to accomplish a shared outcome". Trade between nations

11544-422: The surface. Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the subject. Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of

11655-580: The surrealist method of entopic graphomania (in which dots are made at the sites of impurities in a blank sheet of paper, and lines are then made between the dots), and tracing (drawing on a translucent paper, such as tracing paper , around the outline of preexisting shapes that show through the paper). A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a sketch . In fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called "drawings" even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing. Drawing

11766-497: The twentieth century as measured by the increasing numbers of coauthors on published papers. Wagner and Leydesdorff found international collaborations to have doubled from 1990 to 2005. While collaborative authorships within nations has also risen, this has done so at a slower rate and is not cited as frequently. Notable examples of scientific collaboration include CERN , the International Space Station ,

11877-501: The widespread availability of paper in Europe, monks in European monasteries used drawings, either as underdrawings for illuminated manuscripts on vellum or parchment, or as the final image. Drawing has also been used extensively in the field of science, as a method of discovery, understanding and explanation. Drawing diagrams of observations is an important part of scientific study. In 1609, astronomer Galileo Galilei explained

11988-765: The world at large. This approach helped ensure that the technical aspects of the novel The Martian were as accurate as possible. The science fiction author Frederik Pohl was noted for his longtime collaborations with Cyril Kornbluth and Jack Williamson . Collaboration in technical communication (also commonly referred to as technical writing) has become increasingly important in the creation and dissemination of technical documents in multiple technical and occupational fields, including: computer hardware and software, medicine, engineering, robotics, aeronautics, biotechnology, information technology, and finance. Collaboration in technical communication allows for greater flexibility, productivity and innovation for technical writers and

12099-831: Was a collaborative project during World War II among the Allies that developed the first atomic bomb . It was a collaborative effort by the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada . The value of this project as an influence on organized collaboration is attributed to Vannevar Bush . In early 1940, Bush lobbied for the creation of the National Defense Research Committee . Frustrated by previous bureaucratic failures in implementing technology in World War I, Bush sought to organize

12210-524: Was given less emphasis as an essential skill for artists, particularly so in Western society. Drawing became significant as an art form around the late 15th century, with artists and master engravers such as Albrecht Dürer and Martin Schongauer ( c.  1448 –1491), the first Northern engraver known by name. Schongauer came from Alsace, and was born into a family of goldsmiths. Albrecht Dürer,

12321-449: Was the song " FourFiveSeconds ". This single represents a type of collaboration because it was developed by pop idol Rihanna , Paul McCartney (former bassist, composer and vocalist for The Beatles ), and rapper/composer Kanye West . Websites and software facilitate musical collaboration over the Internet , resulting in the emergence of online bands . Several awards exist specifically for collaboration in music: Collaboration has been

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