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113-759: The Great Sphinx of Giza is a limestone statue of a reclining sphinx , a mythical creature with the head of a human and the body of a lion. Facing directly from west to east, it stands on the Giza Plateau on the west bank of the Nile in Giza , Egypt . The face of the Sphinx appears to represent the pharaoh Khafre . The original shape of the Sphinx was cut from bedrock , and has since been restored with layers of limestone blocks . It measures 73 m (240 ft) long from paw to tail, 20 m (66 ft) high from

226-455: A Mohs hardness of 2 to 4, dense limestone can have a crushing strength of up to 180 MPa . For comparison, concrete typically has a crushing strength of about 40 MPa. Although limestones show little variability in mineral composition, they show great diversity in texture. However, most limestone consists of sand-sized grains in a carbonate mud matrix. Because limestones are often of biological origin and are usually composed of sediment that

339-463: A bloom of cyanobacteria or microalgae . However, stable isotope ratios in modern carbonate mud appear to be inconsistent with either of these mechanisms, and abrasion of carbonate grains in high-energy environments has been put forward as a third possibility. Formation of limestone has likely been dominated by biological processes throughout the Phanerozoic , the last 540 million years of

452-434: A carbonate rock outcrop can be estimated in the field by etching the surface with dilute hydrochloric acid. This etches away the calcite and aragonite, leaving behind any silica or dolomite grains. The latter can be identified by their rhombohedral shape. Crystals of calcite, quartz , dolomite or barite may line small cavities ( vugs ) in the rock. Vugs are a form of secondary porosity, formed in existing limestone by

565-616: A central quartz grain or carbonate mineral fragment. These likely form by direct precipitation of calcium carbonate onto the ooid. Pisoliths are similar to ooids, but they are larger than 2 mm in diameter and tend to be more irregular in shape. Limestone composed mostly of ooids is called an oolite or sometimes an oolitic limestone . Ooids form in high-energy environments, such as the Bahama platform, and oolites typically show crossbedding and other features associated with deposition in strong currents. Oncoliths resemble ooids but show

678-449: A change in environment that increases the solubility of calcite. Dense, massive limestone is sometimes described as "marble". For example, the famous Portoro "marble" of Italy is actually a dense black limestone. True marble is produced by recrystallization of limestone during regional metamorphism that accompanies the mountain building process ( orogeny ). It is distinguished from dense limestone by its coarse crystalline texture and

791-949: A composition reflecting the organisms that produced them and the environment in which they were produced. Low-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of articulate brachiopods , planktonic (free-floating) foraminifera, and coccoliths . High-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of benthic (bottom-dwelling) foraminifera, echinoderms , and coralline algae . Aragonite skeletal grains are typical of molluscs , calcareous green algae , stromatoporoids , corals , and tube worms . The skeletal grains also reflect specific geological periods and environments. For example, coral grains are more common in high-energy environments (characterized by strong currents and turbulence) while bryozoan grains are more common in low-energy environments (characterized by quiet water). Ooids (sometimes called ooliths) are sand-sized grains (less than 2mm in diameter) consisting of one or more layers of calcite or aragonite around

904-412: A considerable fraction of the limestone bed. At depths greater than 1 km (0.62 miles), burial cementation completes the lithification process. Burial cementation does not produce stylolites. When overlying beds are eroded, bringing limestone closer to the surface, the final stage of diagenesis takes place. This produces secondary porosity as some of the cement is dissolved by rainwater infiltrating

1017-485: A deliberate act using rods or chisels. Contrary to a popular myth , it was not broken off by cannonfire from Napoleon 's troops during his 1798 Egyptian campaign . Its absence is in fact depicted in artwork predating Napoleon and referred to in descriptions by the 15th-century historian al-Maqrīzī . The original name the Old Kingdom creators gave the Sphinx is unknown, as the Sphinx temple, enclosure, and possibly

1130-483: A drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is dropped on it. Dolomite is also soft but reacts only feebly with dilute hydrochloric acid, and it usually weathers to a characteristic dull yellow-brown color due to the presence of ferrous iron. This is released and oxidized as the dolomite weathers. Impurities (such as clay , sand, organic remains, iron oxide , and other materials) will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces. The makeup of

1243-440: A father speaks to his son, saying: Look upon me, contemplate me, O my son Thothmos; I am thy father, Harmakhis- Khopri - Ra - Tum ; I bestow upon thee the sovereignty over my domain, the supremacy over the living ... Behold my actual condition that thou mayest protect all my perfect limbs. The sand of the desert whereon I am laid has covered me. Save me, causing all that is in my heart to be executed. The Dream Stele associates

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1356-637: A few million years, as this is the most stable form of calcium carbonate. Ancient carbonate formations of the Precambrian and Paleozoic contain abundant dolomite, but limestone dominates the carbonate beds of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic . Modern dolomite is quite rare. There is evidence that, while the modern ocean favors precipitation of aragonite, the oceans of the Paleozoic and middle to late Cenozoic favored precipitation of calcite. This may indicate

1469-455: A few thousand years. As rainwater mixes with groundwater, aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are converted to low-calcium calcite. Cementing of thick carbonate deposits by rainwater may commence even before the retreat of the sea, as rainwater can infiltrate over 100 km (60 miles) into sediments beneath the continental shelf. As carbonate sediments are increasingly deeply buried under younger sediments, chemical and mechanical compaction of

1582-490: A high percentage of the mineral dolomite , CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 . Magnesian limestone is an obsolete and poorly-defined term used variously for dolomite, for limestone containing significant dolomite ( dolomitic limestone ), or for any other limestone containing a significant percentage of magnesium . Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms , though smaller amounts were formed in many other environments. Much dolomite

1695-497: A large hall of the valley temple, 23 depressions have been made in the ground, in which originally life-size statues stood. One of these depressions is wider than the others, there may have been two statues here. It has been suggested that these 24 statues are related to the hours of the day. All of these statues were removed from their location at some point after the reign of Khafre. Auguste Mariette found nine of them during excavations in 1860 (Inv.No. CG 9 to CG 17)[21] and fragments of

1808-435: A limestone sample except in thin section and are less common in ancient limestones, possibly because compaction of carbonate sediments disrupts them. Limeclasts are fragments of existing limestone or partially lithified carbonate sediments. Intraclasts are limeclasts that originate close to where they are deposited in limestone, while extraclasts come from outside the depositional area. Intraclasts include grapestone , which

1921-471: A lower Mg/Ca ratio in the ocean water of those times. This magnesium depletion may be a consequence of more rapid sea floor spreading , which removes magnesium from ocean water. The modern ocean and the ocean of the Mesozoic have been described as "aragonite seas". Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms . Such environments form only about 5% of

2034-525: A lower diversity of organisms and a greater fraction of silica and clay minerals characteristic of marls . The Green River Formation is an example of a prominent freshwater sedimentary formation containing numerous limestone beds. Freshwater limestone is typically micritic. Fossils of charophyte (stonewort), a form of freshwater green algae, are characteristic of these environments, where the charophytes produce and trap carbonates. Limestones may also form in evaporite depositional environments . Calcite

2147-523: A mechanism for dolomitization, with one 2004 review paper describing it bluntly as "a myth". Ordinary seawater is capable of converting calcite to dolomite, if the seawater is regularly flushed through the rock, as by the ebb and flow of tides (tidal pumping). Once dolomitization begins, it proceeds rapidly, so that there is very little carbonate rock containing mixed calcite and dolomite. Carbonate rock tends to be either almost all calcite/aragonite or almost all dolomite. About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock

2260-551: A name of the Canaanite god Hauron with whom the Sphinx was identified. It is also rendered as Ablehon on a depiction of the Sphinx made by François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz . The modern Egyptian Arabic name is أبو الهول ( ʼabu alhōl / ʼabu alhawl IPA: [ʔabulhoːl] , "The Terrifying One"; literally "Father of Dread") which is a phono-semantic matching of the Coptic name. The archaeological evidence suggests that

2373-448: A plausible source of mud. Another possibility is direct precipitation from the water. A phenomenon known as whitings occurs in shallow waters, in which white streaks containing dispersed micrite appear on the surface of the water. It is uncertain whether this is freshly precipitated aragonite or simply material stirred up from the bottom, but there is some evidence that whitings are caused by biological precipitation of aragonite as part of

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2486-449: A radial rather than layered internal structure, indicating that they were formed by algae in a normal marine environment. Peloids are structureless grains of microcrystalline carbonate likely produced by a variety of processes. Many are thought to be fecal pellets produced by marine organisms. Others may be produced by endolithic (boring) algae or other microorganisms or through breakdown of mollusc shells. They are difficult to see in

2599-513: A repurposed door lintel from one of Khafre's temples). When the stele was discovered, its lines of text were already damaged and incomplete. An excerpt reads: ... the royal son, Thothmos, being arrived, while walking at midday and seating himself under the shadow of this mighty god, was overcome by slumber and slept at the very moment when Ra is at the summit [of heaven]. He found that the Majesty of this august god spoke to him with his own mouth, as

2712-432: A ridge of bedrock that had been sculpted by the wind. These can sometimes achieve shapes that resemble animals. El-Baz suggests that the "moat" or "ditch" around the Sphinx may have been quarried out later to allow for the creation of the full body of the sculpture. The stones cut from around the Sphinx's body were used to construct a temple in front of it; however, neither the enclosure nor the temple were ever completed, and

2825-443: A rulership of 66 years, but didn't make any further comments about him. Contrary to modern Egyptologists and archaeological findings, Greek historians Diodorus and Herodotus , writing more than 2,000 years after King Khafre, depicted him as a tyrant who had followed his father Khêops on the throne. Herodotus and Diodorus say that Khafre ruled for 56 years. They describe a king Menkaure (whom they call "Mykerînós") as

2938-530: A straight haired wig. George Sandys stated that the Sphinx was a harlot ; Balthasar de Monconys interpreted the headdress as a kind of hairnet, while François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz 's Sphinx had a rounded hairdo with bulky collar. Richard Pococke's Sphinx was an adoption of Cornelis de Bruijn's drawing of 1698, featuring only minor changes, but is closer to the actual appearance of the Sphinx than anything previous. The print versions of Norden's drawings for his Voyage d'Egypte et de Nubie , 1755 clearly show that

3051-417: A temple to the northeast of the Sphinx nearly 1,000 years after its construction and dedicated it to the cult of Hor-em-akhet . In Graeco-Roman times, Giza had become a tourist destination—the monuments were regarded as antiquities—and some Roman Emperors visited the Sphinx out of curiosity, and for political reasons. The Sphinx was cleared of sand again in the first century AD in honor of Emperor Nero and

3164-605: Is a very great deal older than his reign and that it dates from the end of the archaic period [ c.  2686 BC ]." Selim Hassan reasoned that the Sphinx was erected after the completion of the Khafre pyramid complex. Rainer Stadelmann , former director of the German Archaeological Institute in Cairo, examined the distinct iconography of the nemes (headdress) and the now-detached beard of

3277-560: Is also favored on the seaward margin of shelves and platforms, where there is upwelling deep ocean water rich in nutrients that increase organic productivity. Reefs are common here, but when lacking, ooid shoals are found instead. Finer sediments are deposited close to shore. The lack of deep sea limestones is due in part to rapid subduction of oceanic crust, but is more a result of dissolution of calcium carbonate at depth. The solubility of calcium carbonate increases with pressure and even more with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide, which

3390-482: Is an uncommon mineral in limestone, and siderite or other carbonate minerals are rare. However, the calcite in limestone often contains a few percent of magnesium . Calcite in limestone is divided into low-magnesium and high-magnesium calcite, with the dividing line placed at a composition of 4% magnesium. High-magnesium calcite retains the calcite mineral structure, which is distinct from dolomite. Aragonite does not usually contain significant magnesium. Most limestone

3503-402: Is carbonate rock, and most of this is limestone. Limestone is found in sedimentary sequences as old as 2.7 billion years. However, the compositions of carbonate rocks show an uneven distribution in time in the geologic record. About 95% of modern carbonates are composed of high-magnesium calcite and aragonite. The aragonite needles in carbonate mud are converted to low-magnesium calcite within

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3616-474: Is clusters of peloids cemented together by organic material or mineral cement. Extraclasts are uncommon, are usually accompanied by other clastic sediments, and indicate deposition in a tectonically active area or as part of a turbidity current . The grains of most limestones are embedded in a matrix of carbonate mud. This is typically the largest fraction of an ancient carbonate rock. Mud consisting of individual crystals less than 5 μm (0.20 mils) in length

3729-416: Is commonly white to gray in color. Limestone that is unusually rich in organic matter can be almost black in color, while traces of iron or manganese can give limestone an off-white to yellow to red color. The density of limestone depends on its porosity, which varies from 0.1% for the densest limestone to 40% for chalk. The density correspondingly ranges from 1.5 to 2.7 g/cm . Although relatively soft, with

3842-420: Is controlled largely by the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) in the water. This is summarized in the reaction: Increases in temperature or decreases in pressure tend to reduce the amount of dissolved CO 2 and precipitate CaCO 3 . Reduction in salinity also reduces the solubility of CaCO 3 , by several orders of magnitude for fresh water versus seawater. Near-surface water of

3955-545: Is converted to low-magnesium calcite. Diagenesis is the likely origin of pisoliths , concentrically layered particles ranging from 1 to 10 mm (0.039 to 0.394 inches) in diameter found in some limestones. Pisoliths superficially resemble ooids but have no nucleus of foreign matter, fit together tightly, and show other signs that they formed after the original deposition of the sediments. Silicification occurs early in diagenesis, at low pH and temperature, and contributes to fossil preservation. Silicification takes place through

4068-503: Is deposited close to where it formed, classification of limestone is usually based on its grain type and mud content. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera . These organisms secrete structures made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these structures behind when they die. Other carbonate grains composing limestones are ooids , peloids , and limeclasts ( intraclasts and extraclasts  [ ca ] ). Skeletal grains have

4181-460: Is described as coquinite . Chalk is a soft, earthy, fine-textured limestone composed of the tests of planktonic microorganisms such as foraminifera, while marl is an earthy mixture of carbonates and silicate sediments. Limestone forms when calcite or aragonite precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium, which can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes. The solubility of calcium carbonate ( CaCO 3 )

4294-617: Is described as micrite . In fresh carbonate mud, micrite is mostly small aragonite needles, which may precipitate directly from seawater, be secreted by algae, or be produced by abrasion of carbonate grains in a high-energy environment. This is converted to calcite within a few million years of deposition. Further recrystallization of micrite produces microspar , with grains from 5 to 15 μm (0.20 to 0.59 mils) in diameter. Limestone often contains larger crystals of calcite, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.1 mm (0.79 to 3.94 mils), that are described as sparry calcite or sparite . Sparite

4407-462: Is distinguished from micrite by a grain size of over 20 μm (0.79 mils) and because sparite stands out under a hand lens or in thin section as white or transparent crystals. Sparite is distinguished from carbonate grains by its lack of internal structure and its characteristic crystal shapes. Geologists are careful to distinguish between sparite deposited as cement and sparite formed by recrystallization of micrite or carbonate grains. Sparite cement

4520-516: Is no agreement on the date of his reign. Some authors say it was between 2558 BC and 2532 BC. While the Turin King List length for his reign is blank, and Manetho exaggerates his reign as 66 years, most scholars believe it was between 24 and 26 years, based upon the date of the Will of Prince Nekure which was carved on the walls of this Prince's mastaba tomb. The will is dated anonymously to

4633-504: Is not one single contemporary inscription which connects the Sphinx with Khafre, so sound as it may appear, we must treat the evidence as circumstantial, until such time as a lucky turn of the spade of the excavator will reveal to the world a definite reference to the erection of the Sphinx. In order to construct the temple, the northern perimeter-wall of the Khafre Valley Temple had to be deconstructed, hence it follows that

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4746-560: Is one of the first minerals to precipitate in marine evaporites. Most limestone is formed by the activities of living organisms near reefs, but the organisms responsible for reef formation have changed over geologic time. For example, stromatolites are mound-shaped structures in ancient limestones, interpreted as colonies of cyanobacteria that accumulated carbonate sediments, but stromatolites are rare in younger limestones. Organisms precipitate limestone both directly as part of their skeletons, and indirectly by removing carbon dioxide from

4859-473: Is otherwise chemically fairly pure, with clastic sediments (mainly fine-grained quartz and clay minerals ) making up less than 5% to 10% of the composition. Organic matter typically makes up around 0.2% of a limestone and rarely exceeds 1%. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragments (such as sponge spicules, diatoms , or radiolarians ). Fossils are also common in limestone. Limestone

4972-472: Is produced by decaying organic matter settling into the deep ocean that is not removed by photosynthesis in the dark depths. As a result, there is a fairly sharp transition from water saturated with calcium carbonate to water unsaturated with calcium carbonate, the lysocline , which occurs at the calcite compensation depth of 4,000 to 7,000 m (13,000 to 23,000 feet). Below this depth, foraminifera tests and other skeletal particles rapidly dissolve, and

5085-537: Is said to date to the time of Khafre. This is supported by the proximity of the sphinx to Khafre's pyramid temple complex, and a certain resemblance (despite damage) to the facial structure seen in his statues. The Great Sphinx of Giza may have been carved out as a guardian of Khafre's pyramid, and as a symbol of royal power. It became deified during the time of the New Kingdom. The ancient Egyptian historian Manetho called Khafre " Sûphis II ". and credited him with

5198-521: Is said to honor her memory. Kings-wife, his beloved, devoted to Horus, Mertitytes. King's-wife, his beloved, Mertitytes; beloved of the Favorite of the Two Goddesses; she who says anything whatsoever and it is done for her. Great in the favor of Snefr[u]; great in the favor of Khuf[u], devoted to Horus, honored under Khafre. Merti[tyt]es. [Breasted; Ancient Records] Others argue that

5311-518: Is secondary dolomite, formed by chemical alteration of limestone. Limestone is exposed over large regions of the Earth's surface, and because limestone is slightly soluble in rainwater, these exposures often are eroded to become karst landscapes. Most cave systems are found in limestone bedrock. Limestone has numerous uses: as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime used for cement (an essential component of concrete ), as aggregate for

5424-494: The Mamluks in the 14th century. According to Ibn Qadi Shuhba, Muhammad ibn Sadiq ibn al-Muhammad al-Tibrizi al-Masri (d. 1384), desecrated the sphinxes of "Qanatir al-Siba", built by Sultan Baybars . The Arab historian al-Maqrīzī , writing in the early 15th century, attributes the loss of the nose to Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr, a Sufi Muslim from the khanqah of Sa'id al-Su'ada in 1378, who found local peasants making offerings to

5537-576: The Pyramid of Khafre , is surpassed only by his father's (the Great Pyramid ). The Great Sphinx of Giza was also built for him, according to most Egyptologists . Not much is known about Khafre aside from the reports of Herodotus , a Greek historian who wrote 2,000 years later. Khafre was a son of king Khufu and the brother and successor of Djedefre . Khafre is thought by some to be the son of Queen Meritites I due to an inscription where he

5650-496: The Earth's history. Limestone may have been deposited by microorganisms in the Precambrian , prior to 540 million years ago, but inorganic processes were probably more important and likely took place in an ocean more highly oversaturated in calcium carbonate than the modern ocean. Diagenesis is the process in which sediments are compacted and turned into solid rock . During diagenesis of carbonate sediments, significant chemical and textural changes take place. For example, aragonite

5763-608: The Egyptian Museum in Cairo, conducted a survey of the Sphinx in 1886. He concluded that because the Dream Stela showed the cartouche of Khafre in line 13, it was he who was responsible for the excavation and therefore the Sphinx must predate Khafre and his predecessors—possibly Fourth Dynasty , c.  2575–2467 BC . Maspero believed the Sphinx to be "the most ancient monument in Egypt". Ludwig Borchardt attributed

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5876-461: The Egyptian government gave incense offering to the monument. Over the centuries, writers and scholars have recorded their impressions and reactions upon seeing the Sphinx. The vast majority were concerned with a general description, often including a mixture of science, romance and mystique. A typical description of the Sphinx by tourists and leisure travelers throughout the 19th and 20th century

5989-453: The Elder describes the face of the Sphinx being colored red and gives measurements for the statue: A stela dated to 166 AD commemorates the restoration of the retaining walls surrounding the Sphinx. The last Emperor connected with the monument is Septimius Severus , around 200 AD. With the downfall of Roman power, the Sphinx was once more engulfed by the sands. Some ancient non-Egyptians saw

6102-545: The Giza Necropolis was abandoned, and drifting sand eventually buried the Sphinx up to its shoulders. The first documented attempt at an excavation dates to c.  1400 BC , when the young Thutmose IV (1401–1391 or 1397–1388 BC) gathered a team and, after much effort, managed to dig out the front paws, between which he erected a shrine that housed the Dream Stele , an inscribed granite slab (possibly

6215-483: The Governor of Egypt Tiberius Claudius Balbilus . A monumental stairway—more than 12 metres (39 ft) wide—was erected, leading to a pavement in front of the paws of the Sphinx. At the top of the stairs, a podium was positioned that allowed a view into the Sphinx sanctuary. Farther back, another podium neighbored several more steps. The stairway was dismantled during the 1931–32 excavations by Émile Baraize . Pliny

6328-460: The Great Sphinx may have been the work of the little-known pharaoh Djedefre (2528–2520 BC), Khafre's half brother and a son of Khufu. Dobrev suggests Djedefre built the Sphinx in the image of his father Khufu, identifying him with the sun god Ra in order to restore respect for their dynasty . Dobrev also says that the causeway connecting Khafre's pyramid to the temples was built around

6441-466: The Great Sphinx was created around 2500 BC for the pharaoh Khafre , the builder of the Second Pyramid at Giza. The Sphinx is a monolith carved from the bedrock of the plateau, which also served as the quarry for the pyramids and other monuments in the area. Egyptian geologist Farouk El-Baz has suggested that the head of the Sphinx may have been carved first, out of a natural yardang , i.e.

6554-560: The Khafre funerary complex preceded the creation of the Sphinx and its temple. Furthermore, the angle and location of the south wall of the enclosure suggests the causeway connecting Khafre's Pyramid and Valley Temple already existed before the Sphinx was planned. The lower base level of the Sphinx temple also indicates that it does not pre-date the Valley Temple. Some time around the First Intermediate Period ,

6667-611: The Sphinx and concluded the style is more indicative of the pharaoh Khufu (2589–2566 BC), known to the Greeks as Cheops, builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza and Khafre's father. He supports this by suggesting Khafre's Causeway was built to conform to a pre-existing structure, which, he concludes, given its location, could only have been the Sphinx. In 2004, Vassil Dobrev of the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale in Cairo announced he had uncovered new evidence that

6780-400: The Sphinx as "the head of a colossus, caused to be made by Isis, daughter of Inachus, then so beloved of Jupiter". He, or his artist and engraver, pictured it as a curly-haired monster with a grassy dog collar. Athanasius Kircher (who never visited Egypt) depicted the Sphinx as a Roman statue ( Turris Babel , 1679). Johannes Helferich's (1579) Sphinx is a pinched-face, round-breasted woman with

6893-515: The Sphinx as a likeness of the god Hauron . The cult of the Sphinx continued into medieval times. The Sabians of Harran saw it as the burial place of Hermes Trismegistus . Arab authors described the Sphinx as a talisman that guarded the area from the desert. Al-Maqrizi describes it as the "talisman of the Nile" that the locals believed the flood cycle depended upon. Muhammad al-Idrisi stated that those wishing to obtain bureaucratic positions in

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7006-532: The Sphinx having the face, neck and breast of a woman. Examples included Johannes Helferich (1579), George Sandys (1615), Johann Michael Vansleb (1677), Benoît de Maillet (1735) and Elliot Warburton (1844). Most early Western images were book illustrations in print form, elaborated by a professional engraver from either previous images available or some original drawing or sketch supplied by an author, and usually now lost. Seven years after visiting Giza, André Thévet ( Cosmographie de Levant , 1556) described

7119-494: The Sphinx in the hope of increasing their harvest and therefore defaced the Sphinx in an act of iconoclasm . According to al-Maqrīzī, many people living in the area believed that the increased sand covering the Giza Plateau was retribution for al-Dahr's act of defacement. Al-Minufi (1443–1527) meanwhile mentioned that the Alexandrian Crusade in 1365 was divine retribution for Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr's breaking off

7232-574: The Sphinx itself was not completed at the time, and thus cultural material was limited. In the New Kingdom , the Sphinx was revered as the solar deity Hor -em- akhet (English: "Horus of the Horizon" ; Hellenized : Harmachis ), and the pharaoh Thutmose IV (1401–1391 or 1397–1388 BC) specifically referred to it as such in his Dream Stele . The commonly used name " Sphinx " was given to it in classical antiquity , about 2,000 years after

7345-644: The Sphinx to the Middle Kingdom, arguing that the particular features seen on the Sphinx are unique to the 12th dynasty and that the Sphinx resembles Amenemhat III . E. A. Wallis Budge agreed that the Sphinx predated Khafre's reign, writing in The Gods of the Egyptians (1904): "This marvelous object [the Great Sphinx] was in existence in the days of Khafre, or Khephren, and it is probable that it

7458-589: The Sphinx wearing a crown. If it in fact existed, the hole could have been the anchoring point for it. Limestone Limestone ( calcium carbonate CaCO 3 ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime . It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of CaCO 3 . Limestone forms when these minerals precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium. This can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes, though biological processes, such as

7571-471: The Sphinx with Khafre. However, this part of the text is not entirely intact: which we bring for him: oxen ... and all the young vegetables; and we shall give praise to Wenofer ... Khaf ... the statue made for Atum -Hor-em- Akhet . Egyptologist Thomas Young , finding the Khaf hieroglyphs in a damaged cartouche used to surround a royal name, inserted the glyph ra to complete Khafre's name. When

7684-426: The Sphinx's body. The lowest part of the body, including the legs, is solid rock. The body of the animal up to its neck is fashioned from softer layers that have suffered considerable disintegration. The layer in which the head was sculpted is much harder. A number of "dead-end" shafts are known to exist within and below the body of the Great Sphinx, most likely dug by treasure hunters and tomb robbers. Examination of

7797-429: The Sphinx's face and traces of yellow and blue pigment have also been found elsewhere on the Sphinx, leading Mark Lehner to suggest that the monument "was once decked out in gaudy comic book colours". Johann Helffrich visited the Sphinx during his travels in 1565–1566. He describes that a priest went into the head of the Sphinx, and when he spoke it was as if the Sphinx itself was speaking. Many New Kingdom stelae depict

7910-447: The Sphinx's face shows that long rods or chisels were hammered into the nose area, one down from the bridge and another beneath the nostril, then used to pry the nose off towards the south, resulting in the one-metre wide nose still being lost to date. Many folk tales exist regarding the destruction of its nose, aiming to provide an answer as to where it went or what happened to it. One tale erroneously attributes it to cannonballs fired by

8023-624: The Sphinx, already buried in sand. Although certain tracts on the Stela are likely accurate, this passage is contradicted by archaeological evidence, thus considered to be Late Period historical revisionism , a purposeful fake, created by the local priests as an attempt to imbue the contemporary Isis temple with an ancient history it never had. Such acts became common when religious institutions such as temples, shrines and priests' domains were fighting for political attention and for financial and economic donations. Flinders Petrie wrote in 1883 regarding

8136-411: The Sphinx, suggesting it was already in existence at the time. Egyptologist Nigel Strudwick responded to Dobrev saying that: "It is not implausible. But I would need more explanation, such as why he thinks the pyramid at Abu Roash is a sun temple, something I'm sceptical about. I have never heard anyone suggest that the name in the graffiti at Zawiyet el-Aryan mentions Djedefre. I remain more convinced by

8249-521: The Stele was re-excavated in 1925, the lines of text referring to Khaf flaked off and were destroyed. Later, Ramesses II the Great (1279–1213 BC) may have undertaken a second excavation. In the New Kingdom , the Sphinx became more specifically associated with the sun god Hor-em-akhet ( Hellenized : Harmachis ) or "Horus-at-the-Horizon". The Pharaoh Amenhotep II (1427–1401 or 1397 BC) built

8362-543: The Year of the 12th Count and is assumed to belong to Khafre since Nekure was his son. Khafre's highest year date is the "Year of the 13th occurrence" which is a painted date on the back of a casing stone belonging to mastaba G 7650. This would imply a reign of 24–25 years for this king if the cattle count was biannual during the Fourth Dynasty. Khafre built the second-largest pyramid at Giza . The Egyptian name of

8475-430: The accumulation of corals and shells in the sea, have likely been more important for the last 540 million years. Limestone often contains fossils which provide scientists with information on ancient environments and on the evolution of life. About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock, and most of this is limestone. The remaining carbonate rock is mostly dolomite , a closely related rock, which contains

8588-399: The army of Napoleon Bonaparte . This is considered false since drawings of the Sphinx by Frederic Louis Norden in 1737 already show the nose missing, predating Napoleon's arrival by sixty years. The damaged nose has also been attributed by some 10th century Arab authors stating that it was a result of iconoclastic attacks. Besides this, there was also mention of the damage being the work of

8701-434: The base of roads, as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paint, as a soil conditioner , and as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens . Limestone formations contain about 30% of the world's petroleum reservoirs . Limestone is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate ( CaCO 3 ). Dolomite , CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ,

8814-474: The base to the top of the head and 19 m (62 ft) wide at its rear haunches. The Sphinx is the oldest known monumental sculpture in Egypt and one of the most recognizable statues in the world. The archaeological evidence suggests that it was created by ancient Egyptians of the Old Kingdom during the reign of Khafre ( c.  2558–2532 BC ). The circumstances surrounding the Sphinx's nose being broken off are uncertain, but close inspection suggests

8927-657: The beds. This may include the formation of vugs , which are crystal-lined cavities within the limestone. Diagenesis may include conversion of limestone to dolomite by magnesium-rich fluids. There is considerable evidence of replacement of limestone by dolomite, including sharp replacement boundaries that cut across bedding. The process of dolomitization remains an area of active research, but possible mechanisms include exposure to concentrated brines in hot environments ( evaporative reflux ) or exposure to diluted seawater in delta or estuary environments ( Dorag dolomitization ). However, Dorag dolomitization has fallen into disfavor as

9040-486: The bottom with the concave face downwards. This traps a void space that can later be filled by sparite. Geologists use geopetal structures to determine which direction was up at the time of deposition, which is not always obvious with highly deformed limestone formations. The cyanobacterium Hyella balani can bore through limestone; as can the green alga Eugamantia sacculata and the fungus Ostracolaba implexa . Khafre Khafre's enormous pyramid at Giza ,

9153-401: The commonly accepted date of its construction by reference to a Greek mythological beast with the head of a woman, a falcon, a cat, or a sheep and the body of a lion with the wings of an eagle (although, like most Egyptian sphinxes , the Great Sphinx has a man's head and no wings). The English word sphinx comes from the ancient Greek Σφίγξ ( transliterated : sphinx ) apparently from

9266-466: The depositional fabric of carbonate rocks. Dunham divides the rocks into four main groups based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles, based on criteria such as whether the grains were originally in mutual contact, and therefore self-supporting, or whether the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats. Unlike the Folk scheme, Dunham deals with the original porosity of

9379-469: The deposits are highly porous, so that they have a spongelike texture, they are typically described as tufa . Secondary calcite deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters ( groundwater ) in caves is also sometimes described as travertine. This produces speleothems , such as stalagmites and stalactites . Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of abraded pieces of coral , shells , or other fossil debris. When better consolidated, it

9492-406: The earth's oceans are oversaturated with CaCO 3 by a factor of more than six. The failure of CaCO 3 to rapidly precipitate out of these waters is likely due to interference by dissolved magnesium ions with nucleation of calcite crystals, the necessary first step in precipitation. Precipitation of aragonite may be suppressed by the presence of naturally occurring organic phosphates in

9605-399: The first refers to the grains and the second to the cement. For example, a limestone consisting mainly of ooids, with a crystalline matrix, would be termed an oosparite. It is helpful to have a petrographic microscope when using the Folk scheme, because it is easier to determine the components present in each sample. Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962. It focuses on

9718-473: The follower of Khafre and that this king was the counterpart of his two predecessors: Herodotus describes Menkaure as bringing peace and piety back to Egypt. Of all the rulers of the Old Kingdom, Khafre is evidenced by the greatest number of statues. Almost all of them come from Giza, partly from the official necropolis there, but mainly from the area around the temple complexes of the Khafre pyramid. In

9831-572: The formation of distinctive minerals from the silica and clay present in the original limestone. Two major classification schemes, the Folk and Dunham, are used for identifying the types of carbonate rocks collectively known as limestone. Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and interstitial material in carbonate rocks . Based on composition, there are three main components: allochems (grains), matrix (mostly micrite), and cement (sparite). The Folk system uses two-part names;

9944-429: The geologic record are called bioherms . Many are rich in fossils, but most lack any connected organic framework like that seen in modern reefs. The fossil remains are present as separate fragments embedded in ample mud matrix. Much of the sedimentation shows indications of occurring in the intertidal or supratidal zones, suggesting sediments rapidly fill available accommodation space in the shelf or platform. Deposition

10057-426: The inscription just suggests that this queen died during the reign of Khafre. Khafre may be a son of Queen Henutsen instead. Khafre had several wives and he had at least 12 sons and 3 or 4 daughters. Other children of Khafre are known, but no mothers have been identified. Further sons include Ankhmare , Akhre , Iunmin , and Iunre . Two more daughters named Rekhetre and Hemetre are known as well. There

10170-445: The mystery of unnamed ages, – the relic of Egyptian antiquity stands solemn and silent in the presence of the awful desert – symbol of eternity. Here it disputes with Time the empire of the past; forever gazing on and on into a future which will still be distant when we, like all who have preceded us and looked upon its face, have lived our little lives and disappeared. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, European observers described

10283-408: The nose of a sphinx. In addition to the lost nose, a ceremonial pharaonic beard is thought to have been attached, although this may have been added in later periods after the original construction. Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev has suggested that had the beard been an original part of the Sphinx, it would have damaged the chin of the statue upon falling. Residues of red pigment are visible on areas of

10396-495: The nose was missing. In 1817, the first modern archaeological dig, supervised by the Italian Giovanni Battista Caviglia , uncovered the Sphinx's chest completely. In the beginning of the year 1887, the chest, the paws, the altar, and plateau were all made visible. Flights of steps were unearthed, and finally accurate measurements were taken of the great figures. The height from the lowest of

10509-410: The ocean basins, but limestone is rarely preserved in continental slope and deep sea environments. The best environments for deposition are warm waters, which have both a high organic productivity and increased saturation of calcium carbonate due to lower concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide. Modern limestone deposits are almost always in areas with very little silica-rich sedimentation, reflected in

10622-476: The partial remains of an inscription with the Horus name of Khafre (Weser-ib). Mariette discovered statues of Khafre in 1860. Several were found in a well in the floor and were headless. But other complete statues were found as well. The mortuary temple was located very close to the pyramid. From the mortuary temple come fragments of maceheads inscribed with Khafre's name as well as some stone vessels. The sphinx

10735-486: The pyramid was Wer(en)-Khafre which means "Khafre is Great". The pyramid has a subsidiary pyramid, labeled G2-a . It is not clear who was buried there. Sealings have been found of a King's eldest son of his body etc. and the Horus name of Khafre. The valley temple of Khafre was located closer to the Nile and would have stood right next to the Sphinx temple. Inscriptions from the entrance way have been found which mention Hathor and Bubastis. Blocks have been found showing

10848-558: The quarries (and thus, the pyramids). He points towards the larger cyclopean stones in part of the Sphinx Temple, as well as the causeway alignment with the pyramids and the break in the quarries, as evidence that the pyramids took the alignment with some pre-existing structure, such as the sphinx, into consideration when they were constructed, and that the sphinx temple was built in two distinct phases. He contends that such erosion could have occurred relatively rapidly and suggests that

10961-426: The reaction: Fossils are often preserved in exquisite detail as chert. Cementing takes place rapidly in carbonate sediments, typically within less than a million years of deposition. Some cementing occurs while the sediments are still under water, forming hardgrounds . Cementing accelerates after the retreat of the sea from the depositional environment, as rainwater infiltrates the sediment beds, often within just

11074-482: The relative purity of most limestones. Reef organisms are destroyed by muddy, brackish river water, and carbonate grains are ground down by much harder silicate grains. Unlike clastic sedimentary rock, limestone is produced almost entirely from sediments originating at or near the place of deposition. Limestone formations tend to show abrupt changes in thickness. Large moundlike features in a limestone formation are interpreted as ancient reefs , which when they appear in

11187-413: The relative scarcity of Old Kingdom cultural material suggests that a Sphinx cult was not established at the time. Selim Hassan , writing in 1949 on recent excavations of the Sphinx enclosure, made note of this circumstance: Taking all things into consideration, it seems that we must give the credit of erecting this, the world's most wonderful statue, to Khafre, but always with this reservation: that there

11300-460: The rock. The Dunham scheme is more useful for hand samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the sample. A revised classification was proposed by Wright (1992). It adds some diagenetic patterns to the classification scheme. Travertine is a term applied to calcium carbonate deposits formed in freshwater environments, particularly waterfalls , cascades and hot springs . Such deposits are typically massive, dense, and banded. When

11413-479: The sediments increases. Chemical compaction takes place by pressure solution of the sediments. This process dissolves minerals from points of contact between grains and redeposits it in pore space, reducing the porosity of the limestone from an initial high value of 40% to 80% to less than 10%. Pressure solution produces distinctive stylolites , irregular surfaces within the limestone at which silica-rich sediments accumulate. These may reflect dissolution and loss of

11526-662: The sediments of the ocean floor abruptly transition from carbonate ooze rich in foraminifera and coccolith remains ( Globigerina ooze) to silicic mud lacking carbonates. In rare cases, turbidites or other silica-rich sediments bury and preserve benthic (deep ocean) carbonate deposits. Ancient benthic limestones are microcrystalline and are identified by their tectonic setting. Fossils typically are foraminifera and coccoliths. No pre-Jurassic benthic limestones are known, probably because carbonate-shelled plankton had not yet evolved. Limestones also form in freshwater environments. These limestones are not unlike marine limestone, but have

11639-440: The sphinx was no more than a few centuries older than present archaeology would suggest, suggesting a late Predynastic or Early Dynastic origin, when Ancient Egyptians already were known to be capable of sophisticated masonry. In 1931, engineers of the Egyptian government repaired the head of the Sphinx. Part of its headdress had fallen off in 1926 due to erosion, which had also cut deeply into its neck. This questionable repair

11752-615: The state of opinion of the age of the Khafre Valley Temple, and by extension the Sphinx: "The date of the Granite Temple has been so positively asserted to be earlier than the fourth dynasty, that it may seem rash to dispute the point. Recent discoveries, however, strongly show that it was really not built before the reign of Khafre, in the fourth dynasty." Gaston Maspero , the French Egyptologist and second director of

11865-413: The steps was found to be one hundred feet, and the space between the paws was found to be thirty-five feet long and ten feet wide. Here there was formerly an altar; and a stele of Thûtmosis IV was discovered, recording a dream in which he was ordered to clear away the sand that even then was gathering round the site of the Sphinx. One of the people working on clearing the sands from around the Great Sphinx

11978-504: The traditional argument of it being Khafre or the more recent theory of it being Khufu." Geologist Colin Reader suggests that water runoff from the Giza plateau is responsible for the differential erosion on the walls of the sphinx enclosure. Because the hydrological characteristics of the area were significantly changed by the quarries, he contends this suggests that the sphinx likely predated

12091-520: The verb σφίγγω ( transliterated : sphingo / English: to squeeze ), after the Greek sphinx who strangled anyone who failed to answer her riddle . Medieval Arab writers, including al-Maqrīzī , call the Sphinx by an Arabized Coptic name Belhib ( Arabic : بلهيب ), Balhubah ( Arabic : بلهوبه ) Belhawiyya ( Arabic : بلهويه ), which in turn comes from Pehor ( Ancient Egyptian : pꜣ-Ḥwr ) or Pehor(o)n ( Ancient Egyptian : pꜣ-Ḥwr(w)n ),

12204-533: The water by photosynthesis and thereby decreasing the solubility of calcium carbonate. Limestone shows the same range of sedimentary structures found in other sedimentary rocks. However, finer structures, such as lamination , are often destroyed by the burrowing activities of organisms ( bioturbation ). Fine lamination is characteristic of limestone formed in playa lakes , which lack the burrowing organisms. Limestones also show distinctive features such as geopetal structures , which form when curved shells settle to

12317-553: The water. Although ooids likely form through purely inorganic processes, the bulk of CaCO 3 precipitation in the oceans is the result of biological activity. Much of this takes place on carbonate platforms . The origin of carbonate mud, and the processes by which it is converted to micrite, continue to be a subject of research. Modern carbonate mud is composed mostly of aragonite needles around 5 μm (0.20 mils) in length. Needles of this shape and composition are produced by calcareous algae such as Penicillus , making this

12430-622: Was Eugène Grébaut , a French Director of the Antiquities Service . Early Egyptologists and excavators were of divided opinion regarding the age of the Sphinx and the associated temples. In 1857, Auguste Mariette , founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, unearthed the much later Inventory Stela (estimated to be from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty , c. 664–525 BC), which tells how Khufu came upon

12543-409: Was by the addition of a concrete collar between the headdress and the neck, creating an altered profile. Many renovations to the stone base and raw rock body were done in the 1980s, and then redone in the 1990s. The nummulitic limestone of the area consists of layers which offer differing resistance to erosion (mostly caused by wind and windblown sand), leading to the uneven degradation apparent in

12656-416: Was likely deposited in pore space between grains, suggesting a high-energy depositional environment that removed carbonate mud. Recrystallized sparite is not diagnostic of depositional environment. Limestone outcrops are recognized in the field by their softness (calcite and aragonite both have a Mohs hardness of less than 4, well below common silicate minerals) and because limestone bubbles vigorously when

12769-415: Was made by John Lawson Stoddard : It is the antiquity of the Sphinx which thrills us as we look upon it, for in itself it has no charms. The desert's waves have risen to its breast, as if to wrap the monster in a winding-sheet of gold. The face and head have been mutilated by Moslem fanatics. The mouth, the beauty of whose lips was once admired, is now expressionless. Yet grand in its loneliness, – veiled in

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