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116-531: Its facilities included seven large greenhouses , a kitchen, indoor and outdoor training gardens, aquaculture system and a food distribution facility. Fish, worms, bees, goats, chickens, turkeys, and ducks were also raised there. Growing Power conducted workshops and demonstrations in aquaculture , aquaponics , vermiculture , horticulture , small or large-scale composting , soil reclamation , food distribution , beekeeping , and marketing . It also ran numerous collaborative projects and training projects, including

232-504: A cold frame , typically used at home, whereas large commercial greenhouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables, flowers or fruits. The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations, heating, cooling, and lighting, and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth. Different techniques are then used to manage growing conditions, including air temperature, relative humidity and vapour-pressure deficit , in order to provide

348-477: A Roman client state and end the threat it posed on the Roman- Parthian border. Augustus was able to reach a compromise whereby the standards were returned, and Armenia remained a neutral territory between the two powers. Tiberius married Vipsania Agrippina , the daughter of Augustus's close friend and most famed general, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa . He was appointed to the position of praetor , and

464-422: A boar with a javelin to open soldiers' games, which severely limited his mobility in his final days. Since the 20th century, much scholarship has been dedicated to Tiberius's psychological profile. Modern assessments tend to agree that he likely suffered from lifelong major depressive disorder . Additionally, while wine consumption was a regular part of Roman life, contemporary sources note he consumed more than

580-510: A book-length psychological assessment of the Emperor, which further argued he suffered from some kind of anxiety disorder . Had he died before AD 23, he might have been hailed as an exemplary ruler. Despite the overwhelmingly negative characterisation left by Roman historians, Tiberius left the imperial treasury with nearly 3 billion sesterces upon his death. Rather than embark on costly campaigns of conquest, he chose to strengthen

696-493: A computer. In the UK and other Northern European countries a pane of horticultural glass referred to as "Dutch Light" was historically used as a standard unit of construction, having dimensions of 28¾″ x 56″ (approx. 730 mm x 1422 mm). This size gives a larger glazed area when compared with using smaller panes such as the 600 mm width typically used in modern domestic designs which then require more supporting framework for

812-504: A dark, reclusive and sombre ruler who never really wanted to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him "the gloomiest of men". Tiberius was born in Rome on 16 November 42 BC to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla . Both of his biological parents belonged to the gens Claudia , an ancient patrician family that came to prominence in the early years of the republic. His mother

928-628: A former professional basketball player, grew up on a farm in Maryland. In 2008, he was awarded a MacArthur Foundation " Genius Grant " for his work on urban farming, sustainable food production and with Growing Power. Despite the organization's successes in attracting attention to urban agriculture and community food systems causes, Growing Power was unable to attain financial self-sufficiency. Facing mounting debts and legal challenges, in November 2017 Growing Power's board of directors voted to dissolve

1044-413: A given overall greenhouse size. A style of greenhouse having sloped sides (resulting in a wider base than at eaves height) and using these panes uncut is also often referred to as "Dutch Light design", and a cold frame using a full- or half-pane as being of "Dutch" or "half-Dutch" size. Chinese solar greenhouses are designed to maximize solar energy, making them highly efficient in colder climates without

1160-434: A greenhouse has its unique management requirements, compared with outdoor production. Pests and diseases , and extremes of temperature and humidity, have to be controlled, and irrigation is necessary to provide water. Most greenhouses use sprinklers or drip lines. Significant inputs of heat and light may be required, particularly with winter production of warm-weather vegetables. Greenhouses also have applications outside of

1276-418: A greenhouse with screens of a high coefficient of reflection concluded that installation of such screens reduced heat demand by about 8%, and application of dyes to transparent surfaces was suggested. Composite less-reflective glass, or less effective but cheaper anti-reflective coated simple glass, also produced savings. Ventilation is one of the most important components in a successful greenhouse. If there

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1392-597: A part. Tacitus understood this to be Tiberius's innermost reason for moving to Rhodes, a reflection of his hatred of Julia and his longing for Vipsania. Tiberius, forbidden to see the woman he loved, found himself married to a woman he loathed, and publicly humiliated by her nighttime escapades in the Roman Forum . Whatever Tiberius's motives, his withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus's succession plans. Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens, and Augustus, now 57 years old, had no immediate successor. There

1508-519: A partnership with the Boys and Girls Club of Greater Milwaukee to train city youth in gardening, in addition to hosting interns year-round. The farm grew a wide variety of fruit and vegetables, and also farmed tilapia and perch through the use of aquaponics. Thousands of people toured the facilities every year. Growing Power was started by Will Allen , who bought the Milwaukee farm in 1993. Allen,

1624-545: A picture of how Tiberius was perceived by the Roman senatorial class, and what his impact on the Principate was during his 23 years of rule. The affair of Sejanus and the final years of treason trials permanently damaged Tiberius's image and reputation. After Sejanus's fall, Tiberius's withdrawal from Rome was complete; the empire continued to run under the inertia of the bureaucracy established by Augustus, rather than through

1740-410: A pillow. Seneca the Elder also reports Tiberius having died a natural death. According to Cassius Dio , Caligula, fearing that the emperor would recover, refused Tiberius's requests for food, insisting that he needed warmth, not food; then, assisted by Macro, he smothered the emperor in his bedclothes. Neither Josephus, Pliny, nor Philo relate the story of Tiberius's suffocation, stating simply

1856-551: A probability at least of running into errors. Shall I for this reason, ask the favor of you to give me a short description of the Green-house at Mrs. Carrolls? I am persuaded, now that I planned mine on too contracted a scale. My house is (of Brick) 40 feet by 24, in the outer dimensions … The French botanist Charles Lucien Bonaparte is often credited with building the first practical modern greenhouse in Leiden , Holland, during

1972-550: A replacement. In AD 26, Tiberius moved to an imperial villa-complex he had inherited from Augustus, on the island of Capri . It was just off the coast of Campania, which was a traditional holiday retreat for Rome's upper classes, particularly those who valued cultured leisure ( otium ) and a Hellenised lifestyle. Lucius Aelius Sejanus had served the imperial family for almost twenty years when he became Praetorian Prefect in AD ;15. As Tiberius became more embittered with

2088-406: A series of purge trials of Senators and wealthy equestrians in the city of Rome, removing those capable of opposing his power as well as extending the imperial (and his own) treasury. Germanicus's widow Agrippina the Elder and two of her sons, Nero Julius Caesar and Drusus Caesar were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances. In Sejanus's purge of Agrippina

2204-427: A sheltered environment for plants to grow even in cold weather. The terms greenhouse , glasshouse , and hothouse are often used interchangeably to refer to buildings used for cultivating plants. The specific term used depends on the material and heating system used in the building. Nowadays, greenhouses are more commonly constructed with a variety of materials, such as wood and polyethylene plastic. A glasshouse, on

2320-418: A significant fraction by mitigating the total air-flow needed to supply adequate carbon for plant growth and thereby reducing the quantity of water lost to evaporation. Commercial greenhouses are now frequently located near appropriate industrial facilities for mutual benefit. For example, Cornerways Nursery in the UK is strategically placed near a major sugar refinery, consuming both waste heat and CO 2 from

2436-469: A son, Drusus Julius Caesar . After Agrippa died, Augustus insisted that Tiberius divorce Vipsania and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus' own daughter (Tiberius's step-sister) Julia . Tiberius reluctantly gave in. This second marriage proved scandalous, deeply unhappy, and childless; ultimately, Julia was sent into exile by her father. Tiberius adopted his nephew, the able and popular Germanicus , as heir. On Augustus's death in 14, Tiberius became princeps at

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2552-465: A stable environment for crops. Despite their simplicity and cost-effectiveness, Chinese solar greenhouses have some limitations, such as the need for proper orientation to maximize sunlight and challenges with the durability of plastic film coverings. Nevertheless, they remain a practical solution for year-round farming in regions with significant temperature variations, and are widely used across northern China. Greenhouses allow for greater control over

2668-437: A symbol of British Imperial power. A prominent design from the 19th century were glasshouses with sufficient height for sizeable trees, called palm houses . These were normally in public gardens or parks and exemplified the 19th-century development of glass and iron architecture. This technology was widely used in railway stations, markets, exhibition halls, and other large buildings that needed large, open internal area. One of

2784-480: A young man, he was considered attractive by Roman beauty standards. Even in adulthood, he was prone to severe acne outbreaks. He wore his hair cut short at the front and sides but long in the back so it covered the nape of his neck in a style similar to the mullet , which Suetonius claims was a family tradition of the Claudian gens. This assertion is confirmed by busts of other Claudian men, who were depicted with

2900-482: Is during this time that the question of Augustus's heir became most acute, and while Augustus had seemed to indicate that Agrippa and Marcellus would carry on his position in the event of his death, the ambiguity of succession became Augustus's chief problem. In response, a series of potential heirs seem to have been selected, among them Tiberius and his brother Drusus. In 24 BC, at the age of seventeen, Tiberius entered politics under Augustus's direction, receiving

3016-475: Is no proper ventilation, greenhouses and their growing plants can become prone to problems. The main purposes of ventilation is to regulate the temperature and humidity to the optimal level, and to ensure movement of air and thus prevent the build-up of plant pathogens (such as Botrytis cinerea ) that prefer still air conditions. Ventilation also ensures a supply of fresh air for photosynthesis and plant respiration , and may enable important pollinators to access

3132-436: Is noted mainly for the production of flowers and potted plants. Since the 20th century, the area around Venlo and parts of Drenthe have also become important regions for greenhouse agriculture. Since 2000, technical innovations have included the "closed greenhouse", a completely closed system allowing the grower complete control over the growing process while using less energy. Floating greenhouses are used in watery areas of

3248-455: Is to mimic the conditions in which alpine plants grow; particularly to protect from wet conditions in winter. Alpine houses are often unheated since the plants grown there are hardy, or require at most protection from hard frost in the winter. They are designed to have excellent ventilation. Worldwide, there are an estimated nine million acres (about thirty-six and a half thousand square kilometers) of greenhouses. The Netherlands has some of

3364-798: The Climatron at the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, Missouri, and Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky . The pyramid is another popular shape for large, high greenhouses; there are several pyramidal greenhouses at the Muttart Conservatory in Alberta ( c.  1976 ). Greenhouse structures adapted in the 1960s when wider sheets of polyethylene (polythene) film became widely available. Hoop houses were made by several companies and were also frequently made by

3480-573: The Princeps to the death of Germanicus is unknown; rather than continuing to stand trial when it became evident that the Senate was against him, Piso committed suicide. In AD 22, Tiberius shared his tribunician authority with his son Drusus, and began making yearly excursions to Campania that reportedly became longer and longer every year. In AD 23, Drusus died in mysterious circumstances, and Tiberius seems to have made no effort to elevate

3596-532: The agriculture industry. GlassPoint Solar , located in Fremont, California , encloses solar fields in greenhouses to produce steam for solar-enhanced oil recovery . For example, in November 2017 GlassPoint announced that it is developing a solar enhanced oil recovery facility near Bakersfield, CA that uses greenhouses to enclose its parabolic troughs . An "alpine house" is a specialized greenhouse used for growing alpine plants . The purpose of an alpine house

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3712-504: The consulship . He was cremated with all due ceremony and, as had been arranged beforehand, deified , his will read, and Tiberius, now a middle-aged man at 55, was confirmed as his sole surviving heir. Tiberius peacefully took power, unchallenged by any rivals. On 17 September Tiberius called the Senate in order to validate his position as Princeps , and, as had Augustus before him, grant himself its powers. Tiberius already had

3828-466: The standards of the legions under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus (53 BC) (at the Battle of Carrhae ), Decidius Saxa (40 BC), and Mark Antony (36 BC) and, after negotiations with Parthia's King Phraates IV , either Augustus or Tiberius, or perhaps both together, were able to reclaim them for Rome. Tiberius then led a sizeable force into Armenia , presumably to establish it as

3944-500: The 1800s to grow medicinal tropical plants. Originally only on the estates of the rich, the growth of the science of botany caused greenhouses to spread to the universities. The French called their first greenhouses orangeries , since they were used to protect orange trees from freezing. As pineapples became popular, pineries , or pineapple pits , were built. The largest glasshouses yet conceived were constructed in England during

4060-776: The 19th century included the New York Crystal Palace , Munich 's Glaspalast and the Royal Greenhouses of Laeken (1874–1895) for King Leopold II of Belgium . In Japan, the first greenhouse was built in 1880 by Samuel Cocking , a British merchant who exported herbs . In the 20th century, the geodesic dome was added to the many types of greenhouses. Notable examples are the Eden Project in Cornwall , The Rodale Institute in Pennsylvania,

4176-536: The Elder and her family, Caligula , Agrippina the Younger , Julia Drusilla , and Julia Livilla were the only survivors. In 31, Sejanus held the consulship with Tiberius in absentia , and began his play for power in earnest. Precisely what happened is difficult to determine, but Sejanus seems to have covertly attempted to court those families who were tied to the Julians and attempted to ingratiate himself with

4292-521: The Julian family line to place himself, as an adopted Julian, in the position of Princeps , or as a possible regent . Livilla was later implicated in this plot and was revealed to have been Sejanus's lover for several years. The plot seems to have involved the two of them overthrowing Tiberius, with the support of the Julians, and either assuming the Principate themselves, or serving as regent to

4408-586: The UK was completed at Chelsea Physic Garden by 1681. Today, the Netherlands has many of the largest greenhouses in the world, some of them so vast that they are able to produce millions of vegetables every year. Experimentation with greenhouse design continued during the 17th century in Europe, as technology produced better glass and construction techniques improved. The greenhouse at the Palace of Versailles

4524-587: The Victorian era. As a direct result of colonial expansion, the purpose of glasshouses changed from agriculture to horticulture. The accelerated transfer of plants and horticultural knowledge between colonies contributed to the Victorian fascination with 'exotic' plants and environments. Glasshouses became spectacles to entertain the general public. The curated environments in glasshouses aimed to capture "the Western imagination of an idealised landscape" and support

4640-601: The administrative and political powers of the Princeps , but he lacked the titles of Augustus and Pater Patriae ("Father of the country"), and refused the Civic Crown . Like Augustus before him, Tiberius may have sought to represent himself as a reluctant yet devoted public servant, no more than an ordinary citizen who wanted to serve the state and people to the best of his ability, but his refusal of these titular, quasi-religious honours, and his reluctance to accept

4756-423: The age of 55. He seems to have taken on the responsibilities of head of state with great reluctance and perhaps a genuine sense of inadequacy in the role, compared to the capable, self-confident and charismatic Augustus. From the outset, Tiberius had a difficult, resentful relationship with the Senate and suspected many plots against him. Nevertheless, he proved to be an effective and efficient administrator. After

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4872-417: The age of nine, delivered the eulogy for his biological father at the rostra . In 29 BC, he rode in the triumphal chariot along with his adoptive father Octavian in celebration of the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium . In 23 BC, Emperor Augustus became gravely ill, and his possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into even more civil conflict. Historians generally agree that it

4988-795: The amount of light the plants get, hereby increasing the yield with certain crops. The benefits of carbon dioxide enrichment to about 1100 parts per million in greenhouse cultivation to enhance plant growth has been known for nearly 100 years. After the development of equipment for the controlled serial enrichment of carbon dioxide, the technique was established on a broad scale in the Netherlands. Secondary metabolites, e.g., cardiac glycosides in Digitalis lanata , are produced in higher amounts by greenhouse cultivation at enhanced temperature and at enhanced carbon dioxide concentration. Carbon dioxide enrichment can also reduce greenhouse water usage by

5104-645: The artificial environment. The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty confirm that greenhouse-like structures incorporating ondol were constructed to provide heat for mandarin orange trees during the winter of 1438. The concept of greenhouses also appeared in the Netherlands and then England in the 17th century, along with the plants. Some of these early attempts required enormous amounts of work to close up at night or to winterize. There were serious problems with providing adequate and balanced heat in these early greenhouses. The first 'stove' (heated) greenhouse in

5220-581: The bonuses promised to them by Augustus, and showed early signs of mutiny when it was clear that a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming. Germanicus and Tiberius's son, Drusus Julius Caesar , were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising and bring the legions back in line. Germanicus took charge of the mutinous troops and led them on a short campaign across the Rhine into Germanic territory, promising that whatever treasure they could grab would count as their bonus. Germanicus's forces took over all

5336-590: The clear candidate for succession. As such, in 12 BC he received military commissions in Pannonia and Germania , both areas highly volatile and of key importance to Augustan policy. In 6 BC, Tiberius launched a pincer movement against the Marcomanni . Setting out northwest from Carnuntum on the Danube with four legions, Tiberius passed through Quadi territory in order to invade Marcomanni territory from

5452-454: The conclusion of the lustral ceremonies." Thus, according to Suetonius, these ceremonies and the declaration of his "co-Princeps" took place in the year AD 12, after Tiberius's return from Germania. "But he was at once recalled, and finding Augustus in his last illness but still alive, he spent an entire day with him in private." Augustus died on 19 August AD 14, a month before his 76th birthday and exactly 56 years after he first assumed

5568-413: The country. The Netherlands has around 4,000 greenhouse enterprises that operate over 9,000 hectares of greenhouses and employ some 150,000 workers, producing €7.2 billion worth of vegetables, fruit, plants, and flowers, some 80% of which is exported. Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus ( / t aɪ ˈ b ɪər i ə s / ty- BEER -ee-əs ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37)

5684-454: The date and location of his death, contradictory accounts exist of the precise circumstances. Tacitus relates that the emperor appeared to have stopped breathing, and that Caligula, who was at Tiberius's villa, was being congratulated on his succession to the empire, when news arrived that the emperor had revived and was recovering his faculties. He goes on to report that those who had moments before recognized Caligula as Augustus fled in fear of

5800-492: The date of his death and/or the length of his reign. Modern medical analysis has concluded Tiberius most likely died as a result of myocardial infarction . After his death, the Senate refused to vote Tiberius the divine honours that had been paid to Augustus, and mobs filled the streets yelling "To the Tiber with Tiberius!" (the bodies of criminals were typically thrown into the river, instead of being buried or burnt). However,

5916-499: The death of Lucius. Augustus, with perhaps some pressure from Livia, allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen and nothing more. In AD 4, Gaius was killed in Armenia, and Augustus had no other choice but to turn to Tiberius. The death of Gaius initiated a flurry of activity in the household of Augustus. Tiberius was adopted in 26 June as full son and heir, and in turn he was required to adopt his nephew Germanicus ,

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6032-565: The deaths of his nephew Germanicus in AD 19 and his son Drusus in 23, Tiberius became reclusive and aloof. In 26 he removed himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his ambitious praetorian prefect Sejanus , whom he later had executed for treason, and then Sejanus's replacement, Macro . When Tiberius died, he was succeeded by his grand-nephew and adopted grandson, Germanicus's son Caligula , whose lavish building projects and varyingly successful military endeavours drained much of

6148-495: The description by Pliny the Elder . The next biggest breakthrough in greenhouse design came from Korea in the 15th century during the Joseon dynasty. In the 1450s, Soon ui Jeon described the first artificially heated greenhouse in his manuscript called Sangayorok . Soon ui Jeon was a physician to the royal family, and Sangayorok was intended to provide the nobility with important agricultural and housekeeping knowledge. Within

6264-460: The disfigurement of his face may have been contributing factors to his retreat to Capri, and noted that he regularly attempted to cover his sores with plaster . Despite this, Suetonius reports that Tiberius enjoyed good general health for the duration of his reign. Late in life he suffered from a poor pulse, which modern scholars believe may have been a sign of heart disease . Shortly before his death, he suffered an injury to his back while killing

6380-792: The earliest examples of a palm house is in the Belfast Botanic Gardens . Designed by Charles Lanyon , the building was completed in 1840. It was constructed by iron-maker Richard Turner , who would later build the Palm House, Kew Gardens at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew , London, in 1848. This came shortly after the Chatsworth Great Conservatory (1837–40) and shortly before The Crystal Palace (1851), both designed by Joseph Paxton , and both now lost. Other large greenhouses built in

6496-599: The east. Meanwhile, general Gaius Sentius Saturninus would depart east from Moguntiacum on the Rhine with two or three legions, pass through newly annexed Hermunduri territory, and attack the Marcomanni from the west. The campaign was a resounding success, but Tiberius could not subjugate the Marcomanni because he was soon summoned to the Rhine frontier to protect Rome's new conquests in Germania. He returned to Rome and

6612-518: The emperor was cremated, and his ashes were placed in the Mausoleum of Augustus . In his will , Tiberius nominated Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus as his joint heirs. Caligula's first act on becoming Princeps was to void Tiberius's will. Suetonius describes Tiberius as being pale skinned, broad shouldered, left-handed , and exceptionally strong and tall for a Roman, although he had poor posture. Suetonius and Paterculus both write that, as

6728-408: The emperor's wrath, while Macro took advantage of the chaos to have Tiberius smothered with his own bedclothes. Suetonius reports that, upon recovering after an illness, and finding himself deserted by his attendants, Tiberius attempted to rise from his couch, but fell dead. Suetonius further reports several rumours, including that the emperor had been poisoned by Caligula, starved, and smothered with

6844-434: The environment inside. There are different types of greenhouses, but they all have large areas covered with transparent materials that let sunlight pass and block it as heat. The most common materials used in modern greenhouses for walls and roofs are rigid plastic made of polycarbonate, plastic film made of polyethylene, or glass panes. When the inside of a greenhouse is exposed to sunlight, the temperature increases, providing

6960-418: The existing empire by building additional bases, using diplomacy as well as military threats, and generally refraining from getting drawn into petty squabbles between competing frontier tyrants. The result was a stronger, more consolidated empire, ensuring the imperial institutions introduced by his adoptive father would remain for centuries to come. Of the authors whose texts have survived, only four describe

7076-407: The eyes of Tiberius, who thereafter refers to him as his Socius Laborum (Partner of my labours). Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city, and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether. Finally, with Tiberius's withdrawal in AD 26, Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome. Sejanus's position

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7192-445: The fantasy of the cultural 'other'. As a consequence, the collection of plants are believed to be true reflections of the world, yet are actually stereotypical arrangements of 'exotic' plants to symbolize exactly where British colonies are and how far their authority reaches. To uphold British hegemony, glasshouses became arguments of colonial power which flaunt the "absolute control of colonized environments and flora...[using plants] as

7308-485: The four innocent people to be condemned fell victims to the excessive zeal of the Senate, not to the emperor's tyranny. While Tiberius was in Capri, rumours abounded as to what exactly he was doing there. Suetonius records the rumours of lurid tales of sexual perversity, including graphic depictions of child molestation, cruelty, and most of all his paranoia. While heavily sensationalised, Suetonius's stories at least paint

7424-684: The full powers of a princeps were taken as insults to the elite who offered them; signs of hypocrisy, not humility. According to Tacitus, Tiberius derided the Senate as "men fit to be slaves". Antagonism between Tiberius and his senate seems to have been a feature of his rule. In his first few years as emperor, Tiberius seems to have wanted the Senate to act alone, with no reference to him or his responsibilities as "first Senator". His direct orders were rather vague, inspiring debates on what he actually meant, rather than passing his legislation. The Roman legions in Pannonia and Germania had not been paid

7540-457: The governor of Syria, of poisoning him. The Pisones had been longtime supporters of the Claudians, and had allied themselves with the young Octavian after his marriage to Livia, the mother of Tiberius. Germanicus's death and accusations indicted the new Princeps . Piso was placed on trial and, according to Tacitus, threatened to implicate Tiberius. Whether the governor actually could connect

7656-567: The greenhouse covering. Since the coverings need to allow light to filter into the structure, they conversely cannot insulate very well. With traditional plastic greenhouse coverings having an R-value of around 2, a great amount of money is therefore spent to continually replace the heat lost. Most greenhouses, when supplemental heat is needed use natural gas or electric furnaces . Passive heating methods exist which seek heat using low energy input. Solar energy can be captured from periods of relative abundance (day time/summer), and released to boost

7772-426: The greenhouse crop. Ventilation can be achieved via the use of vents – often controlled automatically via a computer – and recirculation fans. Heating or electricity is one of the most considerable costs in the operation of greenhouses across the globe, especially in colder climates. The main problem with heating a greenhouse as opposed to a building that has solid opaque walls is the amount of heat lost through

7888-411: The growers themselves. Constructed of aluminum extrusions, special galvanized steel tubing, or even just lengths of steel or PVC water pipe, construction costs were greatly reduced. This resulted in many more greenhouses being constructed on smaller farms and garden centers. Polyethylene film durability increased greatly when more effective UV-inhibitors were developed and added in the 1970s; these extended

8004-599: The growing environment of plants. Depending upon the technical specification of a greenhouse, key factors that may be controlled include temperature, levels of light and shade, irrigation , fertilizer application, and atmospheric humidity . Greenhouses may be used to overcome shortcomings in the growing qualities of a piece of land, such as a short growing season or poor light levels, and they can thereby improve food production in marginal environments. Shade houses are used specifically to provide shade in hot, dry climates. As they may enable certain crops to be grown throughout

8120-485: The largest greenhouses in the world. Such is the scale of food production in the country that in 2017, greenhouses occupied nearly 5,000 hectares. Greenhouses began to be built in the Westland region of the Netherlands in the mid-19th century. The addition of sand to bogs and clay soil created fertile soil for agriculture, and around 1850, grapes were grown in the first greenhouses, simple glass constructions with one of

8236-497: The leadership of the Princeps . Suetonius records that he became paranoid , and spent a great deal of time brooding over the death of his son. During this period there was a short invasion by Parthia , and incursions on Roman territories by Dacian and Germanic tribes. Little was done to plan or secure Tiberius's succession . The Julians and their supporters were diminished in numbers and political influence, thanks to Sejanus, and Tiberius's immediate heirs were dead. Caligula ,

8352-459: The need for additional heating systems. Originating in 1978, these greenhouses feature three solid walls, often made of brick or clay, with a transparent south-facing side that captures solar heat during the day. This design can keep the interior up to 25°C (45°F) warmer than the outside, even in winter. Over time, innovations like modern insulation materials and automated night curtains have been incorporated, enhancing their efficiency and maintaining

8468-519: The optimum environment for cultivation of a specific crop. Before the development of greenhouses, agricultural practices were constrained to weather conditions. According to the climatic zone of communities, people were limited to a select range of species and time of the year in which they could grow plants. Yet around 30 CE, the Roman Empire built the first recorded attempt of an artificial environment. Due to emperor Tiberius 's declining health,

8584-406: The organization. Following the dissolution of Growing Power, the leadership team of its Chicago branch formed the nonprofit Urban Growers Collective , to "continue the legacy of Growing Power." The Urban Grower's Collective was co-founded by Will Allen's daughter, Erika Allen . Greenhouse A greenhouse is a special structure that is designed to regulate the temperature and humidity of

8700-428: The other hand, is a traditional type of greenhouse made only of glass panes that allow light to enter. The term hothouse indicates that the greenhouse is artificially heated. However, both heated and unheated structures can generally be classified as greenhouses. Greenhouses can range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings and enormous glasshouses. The smallest example is a miniature greenhouse known as

8816-880: The point of soil depletion (assuming no droughts, flooding, or both ), as demonstrated prima facie by CO 2 levels continuing to rise. In addition, laboratory experiments, free air carbon enrichment (FACE) test plots, and field measurements provide replicability . In domestic greenhouses, the glass used is typically 3mm (or ⅛″) 'horticultural glass' grade, which is good quality glass that should not contain air bubbles (which can produce scorching on leaves by acting like lenses). Plastics mostly used are polyethylene film and multi-wall sheets of polycarbonate material, or PMMA acrylic glass . Commercial glass greenhouses are often high-tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers. The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment such as screening installations, heating, cooling and lighting, and may be automatically controlled by

8932-614: The position of Princeps , he began to depend more and more upon the limited secretariat left to him by Augustus, and specifically upon Sejanus and the Praetorians. In AD 17 or 18, Tiberius had trimmed the ranks of the Praetorian Guard responsible for the defence of the city, and had moved it from encampments outside of the city walls into the city itself , giving Sejanus access to somewhere between 6000 and 9000 troops. The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus, at least in

9048-558: The position of quaestor , and was granted the right to stand for election as praetor and consul five years in advance of the age required by law. Similar provisions were made for Drusus. Shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as an advocate, and it was presumably at this time that his interest in Greek rhetoric began. In 20 BC, Tiberius went east to join Augustus . The Parthian Empire had previously captured

9164-416: The powers held by Tiberius were made equal, rather than second, to Augustus's own powers, he was for all intents and purposes a "co-Princeps" with Augustus, and, in the event of the latter's passing, would simply continue to rule without an interregnum or possible upheaval. However, according to Suetonius , after a two-year stint in Germania, which lasted from AD 10–12, "Tiberius returned and celebrated

9280-438: The public as well. Gutter-connected greenhouses are commonly covered with structured polycarbonate materials, or a double layer of polyethylene film with air blown between to provide increased heating efficiencies. The warmer temperature in a greenhouse occurs because incident solar radiation passes through the transparent roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer. These in turn warm up

9396-520: The refinery which would otherwise be vented to atmosphere. The refinery reduces its carbon emissions, whilst the nursery enjoys boosted tomato yields and does not need to provide its own greenhouse heating. Enrichment only becomes effective where, by Liebig's law , carbon dioxide has become the limiting factor . In a controlled greenhouse, irrigation may be trivial, and soils may be fertile by default. In less-controlled gardens and open fields, rising CO 2 levels only increase primary production to

9512-420: The result of post-traumatic stress disorder . Proponents of this theory believe the tales of Tiberius's lurid sexual exploits were contemporary exaggerations of sexual compulsivity as a means of coping with untreated trauma. Other modern diagnoses offered for Tiberius include obsessive compulsive personality disorder and Schizoid personality disorder ; the latter diagnoses was offered by Gregorio Marañón in

9628-643: The royal physicians recommended that the emperor eat one cucumber a day. Cucumbers , however, are quite tender plants and do not grow easily year-round. Therefore, the Romans designed an artificial environment, like a greenhouse, to have cucumbers available for the emperor all year. Cucumbers were planted in wheeled carts which were put in the sun daily, then taken inside to keep them warm at night. The cucumbers were stored under frames or in cucumber houses glazed with either oiled cloth known as specularia or with sheets of selenite (a.k.a. lapis specularis ), according to

9744-468: The same hairstyle. Suetonius describes his eyes as being larger than average, while a passage in Pliny indicates they were grey or blue-grey; polychromy restoration on a bust of Tiberius depict him with grey eyes and hair. Suetonius reports he tended to talk with his hands , a habit others found unnerving, and which Augustus saw as an inherent character flaw. Both Cassius Dio and Tacitus record that by

9860-405: The section of agricultural techniques, Soon ui Jeon wrote how to build a greenhouse that was able to cultivate vegetables and other plants in the winter. The Korean design adds an ondol system to the structure. An ondol is a Korean heating system used in domestic spaces, which runs a flue pipe from a heat source underneath the flooring. In addition to the ondol , a cauldron filled with water

9976-524: The sides consisting of a solid wall. By the early 20th century, greenhouses began to be constructed with all sides built using glass, and they began to be heated. This also allowed for the production of fruits and vegetables that did not ordinarily grow in the area. Today, the Westland and the area around Aalsmeer have the highest concentration of greenhouse agriculture in the world. The Westland produces mostly vegetables, besides plants and flowers; Aalsmeer

10092-557: The sole surviving son of Germanicus, or Tiberius's own grandson, Tiberius Gemellus , were possibly candidates. However, Tiberius only made a half-hearted attempt at the end of his life to make Caligula a quaestor , and thus give him some credibility as a possible successor, while Gemellus himself was still only a teenager and thus completely unsuitable for some years to come. Tiberius died in Misenum on 16 March AD 37, months before his 78th birthday. While ancient sources agree on

10208-458: The son of his brother Nero Claudius Drusus and Augustus's niece Antonia Minor . Along with his adoption, Tiberius received tribunician power as well as a share of Augustus's maius imperium , something that even Marcus Agrippa may never have had. In AD 7, Agrippa Postumus , a younger brother of Gaius and Lucius, was disowned by Augustus and banished to the island of Pianosa , to live in solitary confinement. Thus, when in AD 13,

10324-610: The sorrow of each mourner and followed the rotting corpses, till they were dragged to the Tiber, where, floating or driven on the bank, no one dared to burn or to touch them. However, Tacitus's portrayal of a tyrannical, vengeful emperor has been challenged by some historians: Edward Togo Salmon notes in A History of the Roman World : In the whole twenty two years of Tiberius's reign, not more than fifty-two persons were accused of treason, of whom almost half escaped conviction, while

10440-441: The state. As Tacitus vividly describes, Executions were now a stimulus to his fury, and he ordered the death of all who were lying in prison under accusation of complicity with Sejanus. There lay, singly or in heaps, the unnumbered dead, of every age and sex, the illustrious with the obscure. Kinsfolk and friends were not allowed to be near them, to weep over them, or even to gaze on them too long. Spies were set round them, who noted

10556-433: The surrounding air within the greenhouse. As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, the warmed air cannot escape via convection due to the presence of roof and walls, so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. Quantitative studies suggest that the effect of infrared radiative cooling is not negligibly small, and may have economic implications in a heated greenhouse. Analysis of issues of near-infrared radiation in

10672-462: The temperature and adjusts the furnace operation to the conditions. This can be as simple as a basic thermostat, but can be more complicated in larger greenhouse operations. For very hot situations, a shade house providing cooling by shade may be used. During the day, light enters the greenhouse via the windows and is used by the plants. Some greenhouses are also equipped with grow lights (often LED lights) which are switched on at night to increase

10788-626: The temperature during cooler periods (night time/winter). Waste heat from livestock can be used to heat greenhouses, e.g., placing a chicken coop inside a greenhouse recovers the heat generated by the chickens, which would otherwise be wasted. Some greenhouses also rely on geothermal heating . Cooling is typically done by opening windows in the greenhouse when it gets too warm for the plants inside it. This can be done manually, or in an automated manner. Window actuators can open windows due to temperature difference or can be opened by electronic controllers. Electronic controllers are often used to monitor

10904-595: The territory between the Rhine and the Elbe . They took control of the Teutoburg forest , where three Roman legions and their auxiliary cohorts, led by Publius Quinctilius Varus , had been annihilated by Germanic tribes several years before. Germanicus took back the legionary standards lost in that disaster, saving them from the disgrace of captivity. These bold and successful actions increased Germanicus's already high popular standing. After his return to Rome, Germanicus

11020-543: The time he became Emperor, Tiberius had gone bald. Tacitus further reports that the Emperor had lost most of his body fat and become abnormally thin, although he retained his physical strength. He also contracted a disfiguring facial ailment which may have been a severe case of herpes , an outbreak of which affected the Empire during his reign; Tiberius banned kissing at public functions in an effort to curtail its spread. Tacitus believed that embarrassment over his baldness and

11136-501: The triumph which he had postponed, accompanied also by his generals, for whom he had obtained the triumphal regalia. And before turning to enter the Capitol, he dismounted from his chariot and fell at the knees of his father, who was presiding over the ceremonies." "Since the consuls caused a law to be passed soon after this that he should govern the provinces jointly with Augustus and hold the census with him, he set out for Illyricum on

11252-495: The usable life of the film from one or two years up to three and eventually four or more years. Gutter-connected greenhouses became more prevalent in the 1980s and 1990s. These greenhouses have two or more bays connected by a common wall, or row of support posts. Heating inputs were reduced as the ratio of floor area to exterior wall area was increased substantially. Gutter-connected greenhouses are now commonly used both in production and in situations where plants are grown and sold to

11368-455: The wealth that Tiberius had accumulated in the public and Imperial coffers through good management. Tiberius allowed the worship of his divine Genius in only one temple, in Rome's eastern provinces, and promoted restraint in the empire-wide cult to the deceased Augustus. When Tiberius died, he was given a sumptuous funeral befitting his office, but no divine honours. He came to be remembered as

11484-473: The weather warms. Seed tray racks can also be used to stack seed trays inside the greenhouse for later transplanting outside. Hydroponics (especially hydroponic A-frames ) can be used to make the most use of the interior space when growing crops to mature size inside the greenhouse. Bumblebees can be used as pollinators for pollination , but other types of bees have also been used, as well as artificial pollination. The relatively closed environment of

11600-621: The year, greenhouses are increasingly important in the food supply of high-latitude countries. One of the largest complexes in the world is in Almería , Andalucía , Spain , where greenhouses cover almost 200 km (49,000 acres). Greenhouses are often used for growing flowers , vegetables , fruits , and transplants . Special greenhouse varieties of certain crops, such as tomatoes, are generally used for commercial production. Many vegetables and flowers can be grown in greenhouses in late winter and early spring, and then transplanted outside as

11716-489: The young Tiberius Gemellus or possibly even Caligula . Those who stood in his way were tried for treason and swiftly dealt with. In AD 31 Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate, where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution. Sejanus was tried, and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week. As commander of the Praetorian Guard, he

11832-404: Was Roman emperor from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfather Augustus , the first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC to Roman politician Tiberius Claudius Nero and his wife, Livia Drusilla . In 38 BC, Tiberius's mother divorced his father and married Augustus. Following the untimely deaths of Augustus's two grandsons and adopted heirs, Gaius and Lucius Caesar , Tiberius

11948-481: Was also a member of the Livii family, an ancient plebeian but prominent family, through the adoption into it of his maternal grandfather. Little is recorded of Tiberius's early life. In 39 BC, his mother divorced his biological father and, though again pregnant by Tiberius Nero, remarried to Octavian , later known as Augustus. In 38 BC his brother, Nero Claudius Drusus , was born. In 32 BC, Tiberius, at

12064-424: Was also heated to create steam and increase the temperature and humidity in the greenhouse. These Korean greenhouses were the first active greenhouses that controlled temperature, rather than only relying on energy from the sun. The design still included passive heating methods, such as semi-transparent oiled hanji windows to capture light and cob walls to retain heat, but the furnace provided extra control over

12180-464: Was an example of their size and elaborateness; it was more than 150 metres (490 ft) long, 13 metres (43 ft) wide, and 14 metres (46 ft) high. Andrew Faneuil, a prosperous Boston merchant, built the first American greenhouse in 1737. When returning to Mount Vernon after the war, George Washington learned of the greenhouse built at the Carroll estate of Mount Clare (Maryland) . It

12296-403: Was appointed as consul , and around this same time his son, Drusus Julius Caesar , was born. Agrippa's death in 12 BC elevated Tiberius and Drusus with respect to the succession. At Augustus's request in 11 BC, Tiberius divorced Vipsania and married Julia the Elder , Augustus's daughter and Agrippa's widow. Tiberius was very reluctant to do this, as Julia had made advances to him when she

12412-415: Was awarded a full triumph , which he celebrated in AD 17. It was the first full triumph held since Augustus's own in 29 BC. In AD 18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire, like Agrippa and Tiberius before him. This was interpreted as a sign that he would be Tiberius's successor; but Germanicus died just over a year later, having accused Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso ,

12528-520: Was considered healthy by Roman standards; in the legions he earned the nickname "Biberius" (from bibere , "to drink"). This has led modern writers to conclude he probably suffered from alcoholism . As the Julio-Claudian Emperor who saw the most frontlines combat, and the one who actually led troops into battle, modern writers have concluded Tiberus' erratic and paranoid behavior later in life, as well as his alcohol intake, may have been

12644-819: Was consul for a second time in 7 BC, and in 6 BC was granted tribunician power ( tribunicia potestas ) and control in the East, positions that Agrippa had held before him. In 6 BC, while on the verge of accepting command in the East and becoming the second-most powerful man in Rome, Tiberius announced his withdrawal from politics and retired to Rhodes . The motives for Tiberius's withdrawal are unclear. Some historians have speculated that Tiberius and Drusus were only ever intended as caretakers, and would have been swept aside once Julia's two sons by Agrippa, Gaius and Lucius , were adopted as Augustus's heirs and came of age. The promiscuous, and very public behaviour of his unhappily married wife, Julia, may have also played

12760-469: Was designated Augustus's successor. Prior to this, Tiberius had proved himself an able diplomat and one of the most successful Roman generals : his conquests of Pannonia , Dalmatia , Raetia , and (temporarily) parts of Germania laid the foundations for the empire 's northern frontier. Early in his career, Tiberius was happily married to Vipsania , daughter of Augustus's friend, distinguished general and intended heir, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa . They had

12876-413: Was designed by Margaret Tilghman Carroll, an industrious gardener who cultivated citrus trees in this orangery. In 1784 Washington wrote requesting details about the design of her greenhouse, and she complied. Washington wrote: I shall essay the finishing of my greenhouse this fall, but find that neither myself, nor any person about me is so well skilled in the internal constructions as to proceed without

12992-479: Was married, and Tiberius was happily married. His new marriage with Julia was happy at first, but turned sour. Suetonius claims that when Tiberius ran into Vipsania again, he followed her home crying and begging forgiveness. Soon afterwards, Tiberius met with Augustus, and steps were taken to ensure that Tiberius and Vipsania would never meet again. Tiberius continued to be elevated by Augustus, and after Agrippa's death and his brother Drusus's death in 9 BC, seemed

13108-802: Was no longer a guarantee of a peaceful transfer of power after Augustus's death, nor a guarantee that his family, and therefore his family's allies, would continue to hold power should the position of Princeps survive. Somewhat melodramatic stories tell of Augustus pleading with Tiberius to stay, even going so far as to stage a serious illness. Tiberius's response was to anchor off the shore of Ostia until word came that Augustus had survived, then sailing straightway for Rhodes. Tiberius reportedly regretted his departure and requested to return to Rome several times, but each time Augustus refused his requests. With Tiberius's departure, succession rested solely on Augustus's two young grandsons, Lucius and Gaius Caesar. The situation became more precarious in AD 2 with

13224-463: Was not quite that of successor; he had requested marriage in AD 25 to Tiberius's niece, Livilla , though under pressure quickly withdrew the request. While Sejanus's Praetorians controlled the imperial post, and therefore the information that Tiberius received from Rome and the information Rome received from Tiberius, the presence of Livia seems to have checked his overt power for a time. Her death in AD 29 changed all that. Sejanus began

13340-511: Was replaced by Naevius Sutorius Macro . Tacitus claims that more treason trials followed and that whereas Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the outset of his reign, now, towards the end of his life, he seemed to do so without compunction. The hardest hit were those families with political ties to the Julians. Even the imperial magistracy was hit, as any and all who had associated with Sejanus or could in some way be tied to his schemes were summarily tried and executed, their properties seized by

13456-701: Was sent with his legions to assist his brother Drusus in campaigns in the west. While Drusus focused his forces in Gallia Narbonensis and along the German frontier, Tiberius combated the tribes in the Alps and within Transalpine Gaul , conquering Raetia . In 15 BC he discovered the sources of the Danube , and soon afterward the bend of the middle course. Returning to Rome in 13 BC, Tiberius

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