120-670: A doubting Thomas is a skeptic who refuses to believe without direct personal experience – a reference to the Gospel of John 's depiction of the Apostle Thomas , who, in John's account, refused to believe the resurrected Jesus had appeared to the ten other apostles until he could see and feel Jesus's crucifixion wounds . In art, the episode (formally called the Incredulity of Thomas ) has been frequently depicted since at least
240-475: A bad or unhealthy form of radical skepticism. On this view, the "good" skeptic is a critically-minded person who seeks strong evidence before accepting a position. The "bad" skeptic, on the other hand, wants to "suspend judgment indefinitely... even in the face of demonstrable truth". Another categorization focuses on the motivation for the skeptical attitude. Some skeptics have ideological motives: they want to replace inferior beliefs with better ones. Others have
360-456: A book. Allowing decoration a "right to roam" was to be very influential on Romanesque and Gothic art in all media. The buildings of the monasteries for which the insular gospel books were made were then small and could fairly be called primitive, especially in Ireland. There increasingly were other decorations to churches, where possible in precious metals, and a handful of these survive, like
480-729: A common feature of single iconic figures of Jesus and subjects such as the Last Judgement (where Bamberg Cathedral has an early example of about 1235), Christ in Majesty , the Man of Sorrows and Christ with the Arma Christi , and was used to emphasize Christ's suffering as well as the fact of his Resurrection. In the Renaissance the famous sculpted pair of Christ and St. Thomas by Andrea del Verrocchio (1467–1483) for
600-488: A constant in medieval art; until the end of the period, far more was typically spent on buying them than on paying the artists, even if these were not monks performing their duties. Gold was used for objects for churches and palaces, personal jewellery and the fittings of clothes, and—fixed to the back of glass tesserae —as a solid background for mosaics , or applied as gold leaf to miniatures in manuscripts and panel paintings. Many objects using precious metals were made in
720-521: A doubting attitude toward knowledge claims that are rejected by many. Almost everyone shows some form of ordinary skepticism, for example, by doubting the knowledge claims made by flat earthers or astrologers . Philosophical skepticism, on the other hand, is a much more radical and rare position. It includes the rejection of knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective of common sense . Some forms of it even deny that one knows that "I have two hands" or that "the sun will come out tomorrow". It
840-565: A fairly steady and general increase until the massive setback of the Black Death around 1350, which is estimated to have killed at least a third of the overall population in Europe, with generally higher rates in the south and lower in the north. Many regions did not regain their former population levels until the 17th century. The population of Europe is estimated to have reached a low point of about 18 million in 650, to have doubled around
960-524: A fully Byzantine style in about 500. There continue to be different views as to when the medieval period begins during this time, both in terms of general history and specifically art history, but it is most often placed late in the period. In the course of the 4th century Christianity went from being a persecuted popular sect to the official religion of the Empire, adapting existing Roman styles and often iconography , from both popular and Imperial art. From
1080-462: A great strength of Roman art, declines sharply, and the anatomy and drapery of figures is shown with much less realism. The models from which medieval Northern Europe in particular formed its idea of "Roman" style were nearly all portable Late Antique works, and the Late Antique carved sarcophagi found all over the former Roman Empire; the determination to find earlier "purer" classical models,
1200-547: A lay market, and monasteries would equally hire lay specialists where necessary. The impression may be left by the surviving works that almost all medieval art was religious. This is far from the case; though the church became very wealthy over the Middle Ages and was prepared at times to spend lavishly on art, there was also much secular art of equivalent quality which has suffered from a far higher rate of wear and tear, loss and destruction. The Middle Ages generally lacked
1320-419: A more practical outlook in that they see problematic beliefs as the cause of harmful customs they wish to stop. Some skeptics have very particular goals in mind, such as bringing down a certain institution associated with the spread of claims they reject. Philosophical skepticism is a prominent form of skepticism and can be contrasted with non-philosophical or ordinary skepticism. Ordinary skepticism involves
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#17327797098501440-475: A non-realist style, often with large-eyed figures floating on unpainted backgrounds. Coptic decoration used intricate geometric designs, which Islamic art later followed. Because of the exceptionally good preservation of Egyptian burials, we know more about the textiles used by the less well-off in Egypt than anywhere else. These were often elaborately decorated with figurative and patterned designs. Ethiopian art
1560-523: A number of Sophists . Gorgias , for example, reputedly argued that nothing exists, that even if there were something we could not know it, and that even if we could know it we could not communicate it. The Heraclitean philosopher Cratylus refused to discuss anything and would merely wriggle his finger, claiming that communication is impossible since meanings are constantly changing. Socrates also had skeptical tendencies, claiming to know nothing worthwhile. There were two major schools of skepticism in
1680-481: A number of important responses. Hume's Scottish contemporary, Thomas Reid (1710–1796), challenged Hume's strict empiricism and argued that it is rational to accept "common-sense" beliefs such as the basic reliability of our senses, our reason, our memories, and inductive reasoning, even though none of these things can be proved. In Reid's view, such common-sense beliefs are foundational and require no proof in order to be rationally justified. Not long after Hume's death,
1800-553: A particular association with St Thomas, though the painting by Salviati seems to reflect anti-Medici feeling in the 1540s. The subject enjoyed a revival in popularity in Counter-Reformation art as an assertion of Catholic doctrine against Protestant rejection of the Catholic practices which the episode was held to support, and Protestant belief in "faith alone". In the Catholic interpretation, although Jesus asserts
1920-467: A person and differ from person to person, for example, because they follow different cognitive norms. The opposite of skepticism is dogmatism , which implies an attitude of certainty in the form of an unquestioning belief. A similar contrast is often drawn in relation to blind faith and credulity. Various types of skepticism have been discussed in the academic literature. Skepticism is usually restricted to knowledge claims on one particular subject, which
2040-411: A religious skeptic might believe that Jesus existed (see historicity of Jesus ) while questioning claims that he was the messiah or performed miracles. Historically, religious skepticism can be traced back to Xenophanes , who doubted many religious claims of his time, although he recognized that " God is one, supreme among gods and men, and not like mortals in body or in mind." He maintained that there
2160-587: A result, a number of ostensibly scientific claims are considered to be " pseudoscience " if they are found to improperly apply or to ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method. Professional skepticism is an important concept in auditing . It requires an auditor to have a "questioning mind", to make a critical assessment of evidence, and to consider the sufficiency of the evidence. Medieval art Art of Central Asia Art of East Asia Art of South Asia Art of Southeast Asia Art of Europe Art of Africa Art of
2280-496: A thesis: the thesis that knowledge does not exist. Skepticism is related to various terms. It is sometimes equated with agnosticism and relativism . However, there are slight differences in meaning. Agnosticism is often understood more narrowly as skepticism about religious questions, in particular, about the Christian doctrine . Relativism does not deny the existence of knowledge or truth but holds that they are relative to
2400-405: A way of life. This is based on the idea that maintaining the skeptical attitude of doubt toward most concerns in life is superior to living in dogmatic certainty, for example because such a skeptic has more happiness and peace of mind or because it is morally better. In contemporary philosophy , on the other hand, skepticism is often understood neither as an attitude nor as a way of life but as
2520-693: Is a term for architecture and to some extent pictorial and portable art found initially in Southern Europe (Spain, Italy and Southern France) between the Late Antique period to the start of the Romanesque period in the 11th century. Northern European art gradually forms part of the movement after Christianisation as it assimilates post-classical styles. The Carolingian art of the Frankish Empire , especially modern France and Germany, from roughly 780-900 takes its name from Charlemagne and
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#17327797098502640-529: Is an afterlife. In ancient philosophy, skepticism was understood as a way of life associated with inner peace . Skepticism has been responsible for many important developments in science and philosophy. It has also inspired several contemporary social movements. Religious skepticism advocates for doubt concerning basic religious principles, such as immortality, providence , and revelation . Scientific skepticism advocates for testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to systematic investigation using
2760-514: Is an art of the court circle and a few monastic centres under Imperial patronage, that consciously sought to revive "Roman" styles and standards as befitted the new Empire of the West . Some centres of Carolingian production also pioneered expressive styles in works like the Utrecht Psalter and Ebbo Gospels . Christian monumental sculpture is recorded for the first time, and depiction of
2880-568: Is mainly a hybrid of Catholic and Byzantine styles, with little Islamic influence, but the Mozarabic art of Christians in Al Andaluz seems to show considerable influence from Islamic art, though the results are little like contemporary Islamic works. Islamic influence can also be traced in the mainstream of Western medieval art, for example in the Romanesque portal at Moissac in southern France, where it shows in both decorative elements, like
3000-473: Is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality ( moral skepticism ), atheism (skepticism about the existence of God ), or the supernatural . Some theorists distinguish "good" or moderate skepticism, which seeks strong evidence before accepting a position, from "bad" or radical skepticism, which wants to suspend judgment indefinitely. Philosophical skepticism is one important form of skepticism. It rejects knowledge claims that seem certain from
3120-412: Is possible ( acatalepsy ). The Academic Skeptics claimed that some beliefs are more reasonable or probable than others, whereas Pyrrhonian skeptics argue that equally compelling arguments can be given for or against any disputed view. Nearly all the writings of the ancient skeptics are now lost. Most of what we know about ancient skepticism is from Sextus Empiricus , a Pyrrhonian skeptic who lived in
3240-511: Is taken seriously in philosophy nonetheless because it has proven very hard to conclusively refute philosophical skepticism. Skepticism has been responsible for important developments in various fields, such as science , medicine , and philosophy . In science, the skeptical attitude toward traditional opinions was a key factor in the development of the scientific method . It emphasizes the need to scrutinize knowledge claims by testing them through experimentation and precise measurement . In
3360-429: Is why its different forms can be distinguished based on the subject. For example, religious skeptics distrust religious doctrines and moral skeptics raise doubts about accepting various moral requirements and customs. Skepticism can also be applied to knowledge in general. However, this attitude is usually only found in some forms of philosophical skepticism. A closely related classification distinguishes based on
3480-785: The Anglo-Saxons and the Christian forms of the book, high crosses and liturgical metalwork. Extremely detailed geometric, interlace , and stylised animal decoration, with forms derived from secular metalwork like brooches , spread boldly across manuscripts, usually gospel books like the Book of Kells , with whole carpet pages devoted to such designs, and the development of the large decorated and historiated initial . There were very few human figures—most often these were Evangelist portraits —and these were crude, even when closely following Late Antique models. The insular manuscript style
3600-684: The Ardagh Chalice , together with a larger number of extremely ornate and finely made pieces of secular high-status jewellery, the Celtic brooches probably worn mainly by men, of which the Tara Brooch is the most spectacular. "Franco-Saxon" is a term for a school of late Carolingian illumination in north-eastern France that used insular-style decoration, including super-large initials, sometimes in combination with figurative images typical of contemporary French styles. The "most tenacious of all
3720-476: The Codex Amiatinus —the first step necessary was to plan to breed the cattle to supply the 1,600 calves to give the skin for the vellum required. Paper became available in the last centuries of the period, but was also extremely expensive by today's standards; woodcuts sold to ordinary pilgrims at shrines were often matchbook size or smaller. Modern dendrochronology has revealed that most of
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3840-587: The Orsanmichele in Florence is the best known representation; the subject is rare in free-standing sculpture. This guild church also housed commercial tribunals, and the presentation of physical evidence gave the subject a particular relevance to courts and justice, and it appeared on many other buildings in Tuscany with judicial functions. The Medici family , heavily involved in the commission, also had
3960-544: The Paris Psalter , and throughout the period manuscript illumination shows parallel styles, often used by the same artist, for iconic figures in framed miniatures and more informal small scenes or figures added unframed in the margins of the text in a much more realist style. Monumental sculpture with figures remained a taboo in Byzantine art; hardly any exceptions are known. But small ivory reliefs, almost all in
4080-534: The Protestant Reformation the usual belief, reflected in artistic depictions, was that he had done so, which most Catholic writers continued to believe, while Protestant writers often thought that he had not. Regardless of the question of whether Thomas had felt as well as "seen" the physical evidence of the Resurrection of Jesus , the Catholic interpretation was that, although Jesus asserts
4200-682: The Reichenau School , such as the Pericopes of Henry II (1002–1012). Later Anglo-Saxon art in England, from about 900, was expressive in a very different way, with agitated figures and even drapery perhaps best shown in the many pen drawings in manuscripts. The Mozarabic art of Christian Spain had strong Islamic influence, and a complete lack of interest in realism in its brilliantly coloured miniatures, where figures are presented as entirely flat patterns. Both of these were to influence
4320-536: The Virgin Mary than for skies. Ivory , often painted, was an important material until the very end of the period, well illustrating the shift in luxury art to secular works; at the beginning of the period most uses were shifting from consular diptychs to religious objects such as book-covers, reliquaries and croziers , but in the Gothic period secular mirror-cases, caskets and decorated combs become common among
4440-675: The York Mystery Cycle , probably dating from some time between 1463 and 1477, which takes 195 six-line stanzas to tell it. Other shorter cycles omit it, and the Chester Mystery Plays take 70 lines to cover it. Thomas also appears in the Cornish language Ordinalia . The biblical episode generated two late medieval legends or stories, which also appear in art. In this story, at the Assumption of Mary , where
4560-586: The mosaics at Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna , and on the Monza ampullae . In those depictions, as later in the Baroque , the subject, normally depicted at the moment Thomas puts his fingers into Jesus's side, was used to emphasize the importance of physical experiences and evidences for the believer, as described above. The Ravenna mosaic introduces the motif of Jesus raising his hand high to reveal
4680-649: The oak for panels used in Early Netherlandish painting of the 15th century was felled in the Vistula basin in Poland, from where it was shipped down the river and across the Baltic and North Seas to Flemish ports, before being seasoned for several years. Art in the Middle Ages is a broad subject and art historians traditionally divide it in several large-scale phases, styles or periods. The period of
4800-498: The scientific method , to discover empirical evidence for them. Skepticism , also spelled scepticism (from the Greek σκέπτομαι skeptomai , to search, to think about or look for), refers to a doubting attitude toward knowledge claims. So if a person is skeptical of their government's claims about an ongoing war then the person has doubts that these claims are true. Or being skeptical that one's favorite hockey team will win
4920-425: The source of knowledge , such as skepticism about perception , memory , or intuition . A further distinction is based on the degree of the skeptical attitude. The strongest forms assert that there is no knowledge at all or that knowledge is impossible. Weaker forms merely state that one can never be absolutely certain. Some theorists distinguish between a good or healthy form of moderate skepticism in contrast to
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5040-580: The 15th century, with its depiction reflecting a range of theological interpretations. The episode is related in chapter 20 of the Gospel of John , but not in the three synoptic Gospels . The text of the King James Version is as follows: 24 But Thomas, one of the twelve, called Didymus, was not with them when Jesus came. 25 The other disciples therefore said unto him, We have seen the Lord. But he said unto them, Except I shall see in his hands
5160-486: The 7th, and in considerable numbers for the later ones—the city of Norwich alone has 40 medieval churches—but of the dozens of royal palaces none survive from earlier than the 11th century, and only a handful of remnants from the rest of the period. The situation is similar in most of Europe, though the 14th century Palais des Papes in Avignon survives largely intact. Many of the longest running scholarly disputes over
5280-848: The Ajñana philosopher Sanjaya Belatthiputta . A strong element of skepticism is found in Early Buddhism , most particularly in the Aṭṭhakavagga sutra. However the total effect these philosophies had on each other is difficult to discern. Since skepticism is a philosophical attitude and a style of philosophizing rather than a position, the Ajñanins may have influenced other skeptical thinkers of India such as Nagarjuna , Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa , and Shriharsha . In Greece, philosophers as early as Xenophanes ( c. 570 – c. 475 BCE ) expressed skeptical views, as did Democritus and
5400-681: The Americas Art of Oceania The medieval art of the Western world covers a vast scope of time and place, with over 1000 years of art in Europe, and at certain periods in Western Asia and Northern Africa . It includes major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres, revivals, the artists' crafts, and the artists themselves. Art historians attempt to classify medieval art into major periods and styles, often with some difficulty. A generally accepted scheme includes
5520-551: The British Isles includes work from both pagan and Christian backgrounds, and was one of the last flowerings of this broad group of styles. Insular art refers to the distinct style found in Ireland and Britain from about the 7th century, to about the 10th century, lasting later in Ireland, and parts of Scotland. The style saw a fusion between the traditions of Celtic art , the Germanic Migration period art of
5640-471: The Carolingian styles", it continued until as late as the 11th century. Giant initials Islamic art during the Middle Ages falls outside the scope of this article, but it was widely imported and admired by European elites, and its influence needs mention. Islamic art covers a wide variety of media including calligraphy, illustrated manuscripts, textiles, ceramics, metalwork and glass, and refers to
5760-556: The Empire. These were produced, but probably not entirely so, in Imperial workshops in Constantinople, about whose operations we know next to nothing—similar workshops are often conjectured for other arts, with even less evidence. The gold ground style in mosaics, icons and manuscript miniatures was common across Europe by the Gothic period. Some other decorative arts were less developed; Byzantine ceramics rarely rise above
5880-678: The Flemish Caravaggist Matthias Stom , whose two versions of the subject are now in Madrid and Bergamo. Both Rembrandt ( Pushkin Museum ) and Rubens ( centrepiece of the Rockox Triptych , Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp ) also painted it. The dramatic nature of the episode meant that it often featured in medieval drama telling the story of the life of Jesus. It takes the whole of "Play 41" of
6000-683: The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that human empirical experience has possibility conditions which could not have been realized unless Hume's skeptical conclusions about causal synthetic a priori judgements were false. Today, skepticism continues to be a topic of lively debate among philosophers. British philosopher Julian Baggini posits that reason is perceived as "an enemy of mystery and ambiguity," but, if used properly, can be an effective tool for solving many larger societal issues. Religious skepticism generally refers to doubting particular religious beliefs or claims. For example,
6120-406: The Middle Ages neither begins nor ends neatly at any particular date, nor at the same time in all regions, and the same is true for the major phases of art within the period. The major phases are covered in the following sections. Early Christian art, more generally described as Late Antique art, covers the period from about 200 (before which no distinct Christian art survives), until the onset of
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#17327797098506240-609: The Renaissance and Reformation, particularly after the complete writings of Sextus Empiricus were translated into Latin in 1569 and after Martin Luther 's skepticism of holy orders. A number of Catholic writers, including Francisco Sanches ( c. 1550–1623 ), Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592), Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655), and Marin Mersenne (1588–1648) deployed ancient skeptical arguments to defend moderate forms of skepticism and to argue that faith, rather than reason, must be
6360-627: The Roman, the Lombard, and Arab. It is the central building of the world. ... the history of Gothic architecture is the history of the refinement and spiritualisation of Northern work under its influence". Islamic rulers controlled at various points Sicily ( Emirate of Sicily ) and most of the Iberian Peninsula ( Al-Andalus ), thus also ruling Christian populations. The Christian Crusaders equally ruled Islamic populations. Crusader art
6480-665: The Western world, and over the rest of the period Islamic peoples gradually took over the Byzantine Empire , until the end of the Middle Ages when Catholic Europe, having regained the Iberian peninsula in the southwest, was once again under Muslim threat from the southeast. At the start of the medieval period most significant works of art were very rare and costly objects associated with secular elites, monasteries or major churches and, if religious, largely produced by monks. By
6600-593: The ancient Greek and Roman world. The first was Pyrrhonism , founded by Pyrrho of Elis ( c. 360–270 BCE ). The second was Academic Skepticism , so-called because its two leading defenders, Arcesilaus ( c. 315–240 BCE ) who initiated the philosophy, and Carneades ( c. 217–128 BCE ), the philosophy's most famous proponent, were heads of Plato's Academy . Pyrrhonism's aims are psychological. It urges suspension of judgment ( epoche ) to achieve mental tranquility ( ataraxia ). The Academic Skeptics denied that knowledge
6720-413: The animal style had reached a much more abstracted form than in earlier Scythian art or La Tène style . Most artworks were small and portable and those surviving are mostly jewellery and metalwork, with the art expressed in geometric or schematic designs, often beautifully conceived and made, with few human figures and no attempt at realism. The early Anglo-Saxon grave goods from Sutton Hoo are among
6840-517: The area of Christian Valencia , where they produced work that was exported to Christian elites across Europe; other types of Islamic luxury goods, notably silk textiles and carpets, came from the generally wealthier eastern Islamic world itself (the Islamic conduits to Europe west of the Nile were, however, not wealthier), with many passing through Venice. However, for the most part luxury products of
6960-520: The art of Muslim countries in the Near East, Islamic Spain, and Northern Africa, though by no means always Muslim artists or craftsmen. Glass production , for example, remained a Jewish speciality throughout the period, and Christian art, as in Coptic Egypt continued, especially during the earlier centuries, keeping some contacts with Europe. There was an early formative stage from 600-900 and
7080-526: The art of the " barbarian " Germanic and Eastern-European peoples who were on the move, and then settling within the former Roman Empire, during the Migration Period from about 300-700; the blanket term covers a wide range of ethnic or regional styles including early Anglo-Saxon art , Visigothic art , Viking art , and Merovingian art , all of which made use of the animal style as well as geometric motifs derived from classical art. By this period
7200-469: The artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and the iconographic traditions of the early Christian church . These sources were mixed with the vigorous "barbarian" artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce a remarkable artistic legacy. Indeed, the history of medieval art can be seen as the history of the interplay between the elements of classical , early Christian and "barbarian" art. Apart from
7320-429: The assumption, still commonly made, that all work of the best quality with no indication as to origin was produced in the capital. Byzantine art's crowning achievement were the monumental frescos and mosaics inside domed churches, most of which have not survived due to natural disasters and the appropriation of churches to mosques . Byzantine art exercised a continuous trickle of influence on Western European art, and
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#17327797098507440-402: The basis of scientific understanding and empirical evidence. Scientific skepticism may discard beliefs pertaining to purported phenomena not subject to reliable observation and thus not systematic or empirically testable . Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to systematic investigation via the scientific method . As
7560-422: The best examples. As the "barbarian" peoples were Christianised , these influences interacted with the post-classical Mediterranean Christian artistic tradition, and new forms like the illuminated manuscript , and indeed coins , which attempted to emulate Roman provincial coins and Byzantine types. Early coinage like the sceat shows designers completely unused to depicting a head in profile grappling with
7680-566: The case for skepticism as powerfully as possible. Descartes argued that no matter what radical skeptical possibilities we imagine there are certain truths (e.g., that thinking is occurring, or that I exist) that are absolutely certain. Thus, the ancient skeptics were wrong to claim that knowledge is impossible. Descartes also attempted to refute skeptical doubts about the reliability of our senses, our memory, and other cognitive faculties. To do this, Descartes tried to prove that God exists and that God would not allow us to be systematically deceived about
7800-424: The championship means that one is uncertain about the strength of their performance. Skepticism about a claim implies that one does not believe the claim to be true. But it does not automatically follow that one should believe that the claim is false either. Instead, skeptics usually recommend a neutral attitude: beliefs about this matter should be suspended. In this regard, skepticism about a claim can be defined as
7920-472: The concept of preserving older works for their artistic merit, as opposed to their association with a saint or founder figure, and the following periods of the Renaissance and Baroque tended to disparage medieval art. Most luxury illuminated manuscripts of the Early Middle Ages had lavish treasure binding book-covers in precious metal, ivory and jewels; the re-bound pages and ivory reliefs for
8040-492: The court culture such as silks, ivory, precious stones and jewels were imported to Europe only in an unfinished form and manufactured into the end product labelled as "eastern" by local medieval artisans. They were free from depictions of religious scenes and normally decorated with ornament , which made them easy to accept in the West, indeed by the late Middle Ages there was a fashion for pseudo-Kufic imitations of Arabic script used decoratively in Western art. Pre-Romanesque
8160-403: The covers have survived in far greater numbers than complete covers, which have mostly been stripped off for their valuable materials at some point. Most churches have been rebuilt, often several times, but medieval palaces and large houses have been lost at a far greater rate, which is also true of their fittings and decoration. In England, churches survive largely intact from every century since
8280-541: The date and origin of individual works relate to secular pieces, because they are so much rarer - the Anglo-Saxon Fuller Brooch was refused by the British Museum as an implausible fake, and small free-standing secular bronze sculptures are so rare that the date, origin and even authenticity of both of the two best examples has been argued over for decades. The use of valuable materials is
8400-606: The development of regional styles from 900 onwards. Early Islamic art used mosaic artists and sculptors trained in the Byzantine and Coptic traditions. Instead of wall-paintings, Islamic art used painted tiles , from as early as 862-3 (at the Great Mosque of Kairouan in modern Tunisia ), which also spread to Europe. According to John Ruskin , the Doge's Palace in Venice contains "three elements in exactly equal proportions —
8520-569: The early medieval period the best Byzantine art, often from the large Imperial workshops, represented an ideal of sophistication and technique which European patrons tried to emulate. During the period of Byzantine iconoclasm in 730-843 the vast majority of icons (sacred images usually painted on wood) were destroyed; so little remains that today any discovery sheds new understanding, and most remaining works are in Italy (Rome and Ravenna etc.), or Egypt at Saint Catherine's Monastery . Byzantine art
8640-518: The end of the Middle Ages works of considerable artistic interest could be found in small villages and significant numbers of bourgeois homes in towns, and their production was in many places an important local industry, with artists from the clergy now the exception. However the Rule of St Benedict permitted the sale of works of art by monasteries, and it is clear that throughout the period monks might produce art, including secular works, commercially for
8760-535: The evangelical-leaning Anglican Thomas Hartwell Horne , in his widely read Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures (first published in 1818) treated Thomas's incredulity, which he extended somewhat to the other apostles, approvingly, as evidence both of the veracity of the gospels, as a "forger" would be unlikely to have invented it, and of their proper suspicion of
8880-547: The field of medicine, skepticism has helped establish more advanced forms of treatment by putting into doubt traditional forms that were based on intuitive appeal rather than empirical evidence . In the history of philosophy, skepticism has often played a productive role not just for skeptics but also for non-skeptical philosophers. This is due to its critical attitude that challenges the epistemological foundations of philosophical theories. This can help to keep speculation in check and may provoke creative responses, transforming
9000-544: The formal aspects of classicism, there was a continuous tradition of realistic depiction of objects that survived in Byzantine art throughout the period, while in the West it appears intermittently, combining and sometimes competing with new expressionist possibilities developed in Western Europe and the Northern legacy of energetic decorative elements. The period ended with the self-perceived Renaissance recovery of
9120-550: The frescos of the Bardi Chapel of Santa Croce, Florence by Giotto and his workshop, and appears in some other Franciscan works. Skeptic Skepticism , also spelled scepticism in British English , is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma . For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then
9240-527: The history of philosophy and is still widely discussed today. As a philosophical school or movement, skepticism arose both in ancient Greece and India. In India the Ajñana school of philosophy espoused skepticism. It was a major early rival of Buddhism and Jainism , and possibly a major influence on Buddhism. Two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha , Sariputta and Moggallāna , were initially students of
9360-636: The human figure in narrative scenes became confident for the first time in Northern art. Carolingian architecture produced larger buildings than had been seen since Roman times, and the westwork and other innovations. After the collapse of the dynasty there was a hiatus before a new dynasty brought a revival in Germany with Ottonian art , again centred on the court and monasteries, with art that moved towards great expressiveness through simple forms that achieve monumentality even in small works like ivory reliefs and manuscript miniatures , above all those of
9480-543: The iconic mode (the Harbaville Triptych is of similar date to the Paris Psalter, but very different in style), were a speciality, as was relief decoration on bowls and other metal objects. The Byzantine Empire produced much of the finest art of the Middle Ages in terms of quality of material and workmanship, with court production centred on Constantinople , although some art historians have questioned
9600-417: The knowledge that their bullion value might be realised at a future point—only near the end of the period could money be invested other than in real estate , except at great risk or by committing usury . The even more expensive pigment ultramarine , made from ground lapis lazuli obtainable only from Afghanistan , was used lavishly in the Gothic period, more often for the traditional blue outer mantle of
9720-407: The later phases of Early Christian art , Migration Period art , Byzantine art , Insular art , Pre-Romanesque , Romanesque art , and Gothic art , as well as many other periods within these central styles. In addition, each region, mostly during the period in the process of becoming nations or cultures, had its own distinct artistic style, such as Anglo-Saxon art or Viking art . Medieval art
9840-648: The level of attractive folk art , despite the Ancient Greek heritage and the impressive future in the Ottoman period of İznik wares and other types of pottery. Other local traditions in Armenia , Syria , Georgia and elsewhere showed generally less sophistication, but often more vigour than the art of Constantinople , and sometimes, especially in architecture , seem to have had influence even in Western Europe. For example, figurative monumental sculpture on
9960-557: The moment shown follows an examination or not, but probably suggests that it does not, especially in Protestant art. From the late Middle Ages onwards a number of variations of the poses of the two figures occur (see gallery). The typical "touching" representation formed one of a number of scenes sometimes placed around a central Crucifixion of Jesus , and is one of the scenes shown on the Irish Muiredach's High Cross , and
10080-831: The nature of reality. Many contemporary philosophers question whether this second stage of Descartes's critique of skepticism is successful. In the eighteenth century a new case for skepticism was offered by the Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711–1776). Hume was an empiricist, claiming that all genuine ideas can be traced back to original impressions of sensation or introspective consciousness. Hume argued that on empiricist grounds there are no sound reasons for belief in God, an enduring self or soul, an external world, causal necessity, objective morality, or inductive reasoning. In fact, he argued that "Philosophy would render us entirely Pyrrhonian, were not Nature too strong for it." As Hume saw it,
10200-490: The other apostles were present, Thomas once again missed the occasion (being on his way back from his mission to India), so the Virgin Mary , aware of Thomas's sceptical nature, appeared to him individually and dropped the girdle (cloth belt) she was wearing down onto him, to give him a physical proof of what he had seen. In other versions he is present at the actual Assumption, and the Virgin dropped her girdle down to him as she
10320-667: The outside of churches appears here some centuries before it is seen in the West. Often overlooked in reviews of medieval art are the works of the African continent. Among these are the arts of Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia. After the African churches refused the Council of Chalcedon and became the Oriental Orthodox Churches , their art developed in new directions, related to Byzantium but different from it. Coptic art arose from indigenous Egyptian conceptions, with
10440-569: The person doubts that these claims are accurate. In such cases, skeptics normally recommend not disbelief but suspension of belief, i.e. maintaining a neutral attitude that neither affirms nor denies the claim. This attitude is often motivated by the impression that the available evidence is insufficient to support the claim. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy , particularly epistemology . More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. It
10560-422: The perspective of common sense . Radical forms of philosophical skepticism deny that "knowledge or rational belief is possible" and urge us to suspend judgment on many or all controversial matters. More moderate forms claim only that nothing can be known with certainty, or that we can know little or nothing about nonempirical matters, such as whether God exists, whether human beings have free will, or whether there
10680-599: The primary guide to truth. Similar arguments were offered later (perhaps ironically) by the Protestant thinker Pierre Bayle in his influential Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697–1702). The growing popularity of skeptical views created an intellectual crisis in seventeenth-century Europe. An influential response was offered by the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650). In his classic work, Meditations of First Philosophy (1641), Descartes sought to refute skepticism, but only after he had formulated
10800-788: The print of the nails, and put my finger into the print of the nails, and thrust my hand into his side, I will not believe. 26 And after eight days again his disciples were within, and Thomas with them: then came Jesus, the doors being shut, and stood in the midst, and said, Peace be unto you. 27 Then saith he to Thomas, Reach hither thy finger, and behold my hands; and reach hither thy hand, and thrust it into my side: and be not faithless, but believing. 28 And Thomas answered and said unto him, My Lord and my God. 29 Jesus saith unto him, Thomas, because thou hast seen me, thou hast believed: blessed are they that have not seen, and yet have believed. Commentators have noted that John avoids saying whether Thomas actually did "thrust" his hand in. Before
10920-622: The problem in a variety of different ways. As for larger works, there are references to Anglo-Saxon wooden pagan statues, all now lost, and in Norse art the tradition of carved runestones was maintained after their conversion to Christianity. The Celtic Picts of Scotland also carved stones before and after conversion, and the distinctive Anglo-Saxon and Irish tradition of large outdoor carved crosses may reflect earlier pagan works. Viking art from later centuries in Scandinavia and parts of
11040-434: The real basis of human belief is not reason, but custom or habit. We are hard-wired by nature to trust, say, our memories or inductive reasoning, and no skeptical arguments, however powerful, can dislodge those beliefs. In this way, Hume embraced what he called a "mitigated" skepticism, while rejecting an "excessive" Pyrrhonian skepticism that he saw as both impractical and psychologically impossible. Hume's skepticism provoked
11160-483: The resurrection, but as early as the writings of the 4th- and 5th-century saints John Chrysostom and Cyril of Alexandria it had been given a eucharistic interpretation, seen as an allegory of the sacrament of the Eucharist, what remained a recurring theme in commentary. In art this subject, formally termed The Incredulity of Saint Thomas , has been common since at least the early 6th century, when it appears in
11280-572: The scalloped edges to the doorway, the circular decorations on the lintel above, and also in having Christ in Majesty surrounded by musicians, which was to become a common feature of Western heavenly scenes, and probably derives from images of Islamic kings on their diwan . Calligraphy , ornament and the decorative arts generally were more important than in the West. The Hispano-Moresque pottery wares of Spain were first produced in Al-Andalus, but Muslim potters then seem to have emigrated to
11400-547: The second or third century CE . His works contain a lucid summary of stock skeptical arguments. Ancient skepticism faded out during the late Roman Empire, particularly after Augustine (354–430 CE ) attacked the skeptics in his work Against the Academics (386 CE ). There was little knowledge of, or interest in, ancient skepticism in Christian Europe during the Middle Ages. Interest revived during
11520-407: The seemingly impossible, demonstrating their reliability as witnesses. In the early church, Gnostic authors were very insistent that Thomas did not actually examine Jesus, and elaborated on this in apocryphal accounts, perhaps tending to push their non-Gnostic opponents in the other direction. The theological interpretation of the episode has concentrated on it as a demonstration of the reality of
11640-511: The skills and values of classical art, and the artistic legacy of the Middle Ages was then disparaged for some centuries. Since a revival of interest and understanding in the 19th century it has been seen as a period of enormous achievement that underlies the development of later Western art. The first several centuries of the Middle Ages in Europe — up to about 800 AD - saw a decrease in prosperity, stability, and population, followed by
11760-403: The splendours of the Byzantine court and monasteries, even at the end of the Empire, provided a model for Western rulers and secular and clerical patrons. For example, Byzantine silk textiles, often woven or embroidered with designs of both animal and human figures, the former often reflecting traditions originating much further east, were unexcelled in the Christian world until almost the end of
11880-437: The start of the period the main survivals of Christian art are the tomb-paintings in popular styles of the catacombs of Rome , but by the end there were a number of lavish mosaics in churches built under Imperial patronage. Over this period imperial Late Roman art went through a strikingly "baroque" phase, and then largely abandoned classical style and Greek realism in favour of a more mystical and hieratic style—a process that
12000-692: The story is called the Madonna of the Girdle in art. An altarpiece by Palma Vecchio , now in the Brera Gallery in Milan, shows an intermediate version, with Thomas hurrying towards the other apostles, and the Virgin taking off her girdle. In other works Thomas is catching the falling girdle, or has received the girdle and holds it. Saint Francis of Assisi (1181/1182 – 1226) had a vision in 1224, after which he acquired stigmata on his own body, repeating
12120-614: The subject of a large relief in the famous Romanesque sculpted cloister at the Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos . In works showing pairs of typologically related scenes from the Old and New Testaments it could be paired with Jacob Wrestling with the Angel , but in a 10th-century Ottonian ivory diptych it is paired with Moses receiving the Law , comparing both the two Biblical Testaments and
12240-486: The superiority of those who have faith without physical evidence, he was nonetheless willing to show Thomas his wound, and let him feel it. The Incredulity of Saint Thomas by Caravaggio (c. 1601–1602) is now the most famous depiction (unusually showing Thomas to the viewer's right of Jesus), but there are many others, especially by the Utrecht Caravaggisti , painting in a Protestant environment, such as
12360-442: The superiority of those who have faith without physical evidence, he was nonetheless willing to show Thomas his wound, and let him feel it. This was used by theologians as biblical encouragement for the use of physical experiences such as pilgrimages , veneration of relics and ritual in reinforcing Christian beliefs. Protestant theologians emphasized Jesus's statement of the superiority of "faith alone" (see sola fide ), although
12480-408: The support for the faith from both textual "sacred writ" and physical evidences. In the later Middle Ages Jesus with one side of his robe pulled back, displaying the wound in his side and his other four wounds (called the ostentatio vulnerum ), was taken from images with Thomas and turned into a pose adopted by Jesus alone, who often places his own fingers into the wound in his side. This form became
12600-438: The theory in question in order to overcome the problems posed by skepticism. According to Richard H. Popkin, "the history of philosophy can be seen, in part, as a struggle with skepticism". This struggle has led many contemporary philosophers to abandon the quest for absolutely certain or indubitable first principles of philosophy, which was still prevalent in many earlier periods. Skepticism has been an important topic throughout
12720-622: The thesis that "the only justified attitude with respect to [this claim] is suspension of judgment". It is often motivated by the impression that one cannot be certain about it. This is especially relevant when there is significant expert disagreement. Skepticism is usually restricted to a claim or a field of inquiry. So religious and moral skeptics have a doubtful attitude about religious and moral doctrines. But some forms of philosophical skepticism, are wider in that they reject any form of knowledge. Some definitions, often inspired by ancient philosophy , see skepticism not just as an attitude but as
12840-402: The two denominations conflict concerning some belief. Additionally, they may also be skeptical of the claims made by atheists. The historian Will Durant writes that Plato was "as skeptical of atheism as of any other dogma". The Baháʼí Faith encourages skepticism that is mainly centered around self-investigation of truth. A scientific or empirical skeptic is one who questions beliefs on
12960-528: The well-off. As thin ivory panels carved in relief could rarely be recycled for another work, the number of survivals is relatively high—the same is true of manuscript pages, although these were often re-cycled by scraping, whereupon they become palimpsests . Even these basic materials were costly: when the Anglo-Saxon Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Abbey planned to create three copies of the bible in 692—of which one survives as
13080-508: The wound in his side; his pose often, but not always, is such that the wounds on his hands can also be seen, and often those on his feet as well. The scene was used in a number of contexts in medieval art , including Byzantine icons. Where there was room all the apostles were often shown, and sometimes Thomas's acceptance of the Resurrection is shown, with Thomas kneeling and Jesus blessing him. This iconography leaves it unclear whether
13200-417: The wounds of Jesus, which he kept until his death. According to the many who saw them, the wounds on his hands and feet were as if the nails still remained in place, and the nail-like projections could be moved. An early biographer of Francis, Saint Bonaventure (1221–1274), reported that a soldier called Jerome was sceptical and moved the "nails" about. Jerome is thought to be shown examining Francis' feet in
13320-478: The year 1000, and to have reached over 70 million by 1340, just before the Black Death. In 1450 it was still only 50 million. To these figures, Northern Europe, especially Britain, contributed a lower proportion than today, and Southern Europe, including France, a higher one. The increase in prosperity, for those who survived, was much less affected by the Black Death. Until about the 11th century most of Europe
13440-582: Was a key element in the art all'antica of the Renaissance. Ivory reliefs Byzantine art is the art of the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire formed after the division of the Roman Empire between Eastern and Western halves, and sometimes of parts of Italy under Byzantine rule. It emerges from Late Antiquity in about 500 CE and soon formed a tradition distinct from that of Catholic Europe but with great influence over it. In
13560-666: Was a vital part of the Aksumite empire , with one important example being the Garima Gospels , among the earliest illustrated biblical manuscripts anywhere. Works about the Virgin Mary were especially likely to be illustrated, as demonstrated by a royal manuscript known as EMML 9002 created at the end of the 1300s. Some of these images of Mary can be viewed at the Princeton Ethiopian, Eritrean and Egyptian Miracles of Mary project. Migration Period art describes
13680-453: Was extremely conservative, for religious and cultural reasons, but retained a continuous tradition of Greek realism, which contended with a strong anti-realist and hieratic impulse. After the resumption of icon production in 843 until 1453 the Byzantine art tradition continued with relatively few changes, despite, or because of, the slow decline of the Empire. There was a notable revival of classical style in works of 10th century court art like
13800-552: Was one greatest God. God is one eternal being, spherical in form, comprehending all things within himself, is the absolute mind and thought, therefore is intelligent, and moves all things, but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind." Religious skepticism is not the same as atheism or agnosticism , though these often do involve skeptical attitudes toward religion and philosophical theology (for example, towards divine omnipotence ). Religious people are generally skeptical about claims of other religions, at least when
13920-612: Was produced in many media, and works survive in large numbers in sculpture , illuminated manuscripts , stained glass , metalwork and mosaics , all of which have had a higher survival rate than other media such as fresco wall-paintings, work in precious metals or textiles , including tapestry . Especially in the early part of the period, works in the so-called "minor arts" or decorative arts , such as metalwork, ivory carving, vitreous enamel and embroidery using precious metals, were probably more highly valued than paintings or monumental sculpture . Medieval art in Europe grew out of
14040-471: Was short of agricultural labour, with large amounts of unused land, and the Medieval Warm Period benefited agriculture until about 1315. The medieval period eventually saw the falling away of the invasions and incursions from outside the area that characterised the first millennium. The Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries suddenly and permanently removed all of North Africa from
14160-531: Was taken up to heaven. The supposed girdle itself ( Sacra Cintola ) is a relic of Prato Cathedral , and its veneration was regarded as especially helpful for pregnant women. After Florence took control of Prato in 1350–51, the girdle begins to feature in Florentine art and to be shown worn by figures of Madonna del Parto , iconic figures showing the Virgin Mary when pregnant. The first version of
14280-534: Was transmitted to the continent by the Hiberno-Scottish mission , and its anti-classical energy was extremely important in the formation of later medieval styles. In most Late Antique manuscripts text and decoration were kept clearly apart, though some initials began to be enlarged and elaborated, but major insular manuscripts sometimes take a whole page for a single initial or the first few words (see illustration) at beginnings of gospels or other sections in
14400-481: Was well underway before Christianity became a major influence on imperial art. Influences from Eastern parts of the Empire— Egypt , Syria and beyond, and also a robust "Italic" vernacular tradition, contributed to this process. Figures are mostly seen frontally staring out at the viewer, where classical art tended to show a profile view - the change was eventually seen even on coins. The individuality of portraits,
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