The Hemudu culture (5500 BC to 3300 BC) was a Neolithic culture that flourished on the Chinese coast , just south of the Hangzhou Bay in Jiangnan in modern Yuyao , Zhejiang , China . The culture may be divided into early and late phases, before and after 4000 BC respectively. The site at Hemudu, 22 km northwest of Ningbo , was discovered in 1973. Hemudu sites were also discovered at Tianluoshan in Yuyao city, and on the islands of Zhoushan . Hemudu are said to have differed physically from inhabitants of the Yellow River sites to the north. Some authors propose that the Hemudu Culture was a source of the pre-Austronesian cultures.
51-619: Some scholars assert that the Hemudu culture co-existed with the Majiabang culture as two separate and distinct cultures, with cultural transmissions between the two. Other scholars group Hemudu in with Majiabang subtraditions. Two major floods caused the nearby Yaojiang River to change its course and inundated the soil with salt , forcing the people of Hemudu to abandon its settlements. The Hemudu people lived in long, stilt houses . Communal longhouses were also common in Hemudu sites, much like
102-512: A definite communal burial ground, for the most part, but a clan communal burial ground has been found from the later period. Two groups in separate parts of this burial ground are thought to be two intermarrying clans. There were noticeably more burial goods in this communal burial ground. Fossilized amoeboids and pollen suggests Hemudu culture emerged and developed in the middle of the Holocene Climatic Optimum . A study of
153-472: A few stone-made objects that were mainly adzes and axes and most of them were polished. For the features of adzes, there are mainly two types. Type A has the features of wide flat shape, while type B has strip shape. Axes had two types as well. Type A has the shape of flat trapezium, while B has the shape of tongue. Wood is another important material. At Weidun site, a few large wooden objects were discovered. There are mainly two types, scull and oar. The scull
204-457: A male skeleton lying on his back, lying at a 20-degree angle, and facing east, with a few grave objects that include stone adzes , spindle whorls and ceramic bo-bowls . In the Majiabang culture, people were already starting to make artifacts with different materials, jade and pottery in particular. They made these objects for different purposes. These Neolithic artifacts usually represent
255-548: A number of cities with Kuomintang mayors. However, the current Tsai Ing-wen administration and Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) along with the majority of the people in Taiwan, both native and overseas, use spelling and transcribe their legal names based on the Wade–Giles system, as well as the other aforementioned systems. The tables below show the Wade–Giles representation of each Chinese sound (in bold type), together with
306-581: A sea-level highstand in the Ningshao Plain from 7000 to 5000 BP shows that there may have been stabilized lower sea levels at this time, followed by frequent flooding from 5000 to 3900 BP. The climate was said to be tropical to subtropical with high temperatures and much precipitation throughout the year. 29°57′51″N 121°20′40″E / 29.9642°N 121.3444°E / 29.9642; 121.3444 Majiabang culture The Majiabang culture , formerly also written Ma-chia-pang ,
357-418: A specific area to bury, they usually were buried near their settlements with the position of lying sideways with their limbs bent and their heads facing east, like the finding of a male skeleton that lying at a 20-degree angle and facing east on the grave M127 at Weidun site. Five hundred years later, their burial culture has been changed that they were buried in separate burial pits in a merged burial area with
408-458: A syllable is not the first in a word, its first letter is not capitalized , even if it is part of a proper noun . The use of apostrophe-like characters, hyphens, and capitalization is frequently not observed in place names and personal names. For example, the majority of overseas Taiwanese people write their given names like "Tai Lun" or "Tai-Lun", whereas the Wade–Giles is actually "Tai-lun". (See also Chinese names .) Note: In Hànyǔ Pīnyīn,
459-487: A syllable on its own, Wade–Giles writes ê or o depending on the character. In all other circumstances, it writes ê . What is pronounced in Peking dialect as [wo] is usually written as o in Wade–Giles, except for wo , shuo (e.g. "說" shuo ) and the three syllables of kuo , kʻuo , and huo (as in 過, 霍, etc.), which contrast with ko , kʻo , and ho that correspond to Pīnyīn ge , ke , and he . This
510-400: A syllable on its own, it is written ê or o depending on the character. Wade–Giles writes [-wo] as -uo after kʻ , k , h and sh , otherwise as -o : kʻuo , kuo , huo , shuo , bo , tso . After chʻ , it is written chʻo or chʻuo depending on the character. For -ih and -ŭ , see below . Giles's A Chinese–English Dictionary also includes
561-547: A wide rim, flared collar and contracted neck, in more detail, this can be divided into two subtypes, Aa without decoration around the rim and Ab with floral border around the rim, while type B has the feature of contracted collar, and curved body. While Guan-pot has five types, and most of them were fragments. Type A has the features of round shoulder and contracted neck, in great detail, it can be divided three sub-types, type Aa with flat and straight rim, type Ab with concave rim, type Ac with tine and slightly concave rim. Type B has
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#1732764830739612-601: Is a romanization system for Mandarin Chinese . It developed from the system produced by Thomas Francis Wade during the mid-19th century, and was given completed form with Herbert Giles 's A Chinese–English Dictionary (1892). The romanization systems in common use until the late 19th century were based on the Nanjing dialect , but Wade–Giles was based on the Beijing dialect and was the system of transcription familiar in
663-736: Is based on the Wade–Giles derived romanized form, for example Kaohsiung , the Matsu Islands and Chiang Ching-kuo . Wade–Giles was developed by Thomas Francis Wade , a scholar of Chinese and a British ambassador in China who was the first professor of Chinese at the University of Cambridge . Wade published Yü-yen Tzŭ-erh Chi ( 語言自邇集 ; 语言自迩集 ) in 1867, the first textbook on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin in English, which became
714-522: Is because characters like 羅, 多, etc. (Wade–Giles: lo , to ; Pīnyīn: luó , duō ) did not originally carry the medial [w] . Peking dialect does not have phonemic contrast between o and -uo / wo (except in interjections when used alone) and a medial [w] is usually inserted in front of -o to form [wo] . Zhùyīn and Pīnyīn write [wo] as ㄛ -o after ㄅ b , ㄆ p , ㄇ m and ㄈ f , and as ㄨㄛ -uo after all other initials. Tones are indicated in Wade–Giles using superscript numbers (1–4) placed after
765-557: Is similar to Wade–Giles. POJ, Legge romanization , Simplified Wade , and EFEO Chinese transcription use the letter ⟨h⟩ instead of an apostrophe-like character to indicate aspiration. (This is similar to the obsolete IPA convention before the revisions of the 1970s ). The convention of an apostrophe-like character or ⟨h⟩ to denote aspiration is also found in romanizations of other Asian languages, such as McCune–Reischauer for Korean and ISO 11940 for Thai . People unfamiliar with Wade–Giles often ignore
816-563: The Songze culture . The Majiabang and Songze cultures were succeeded in their area by the Liangzhu culture . Based on their archaeological findings, archaeologists have theorised that the Majiabang culture is the origin of the early fishing, hunting and gathering economy in China, and that the rice-dominant system of agriculture was developed by people living in this period. Majiabang people cultivated rice. At Caoxieshan and Chuodun, sites of
867-556: The unaspirated-aspirated stop consonant pairs using a character resembling an apostrophe . Thomas Wade and others used the spiritus asper (ʽ or ʻ), borrowed from the polytonic orthography of the Ancient Greek language. Herbert Giles and others used a left (opening) curved single quotation mark (‘) for the same purpose. A third group used a plain apostrophe ('). The backtick , and visually similar characters, are sometimes seen in various electronic documents using
918-574: The English-speaking world for most of the 20th century. Both of these kinds of transcription were used in postal romanizations (romanized place-names standardized for postal uses). In mainland China , Wade–Giles has been mostly replaced by Hanyu Pinyin , which was officially adopted in 1958, with exceptions for the romanized forms of some of the most commonly used names of locations and persons, and other proper nouns. The romanized name for most locations, persons and other proper nouns in Taiwan
969-399: The Majiabang culture, all the pottery from the early period and most from the late period was handmade. Compared with the early period, the late period contained more types and styles of pottery. People made the pottery objects for with a particular function in mind. For example, pottery, pots, jars, bowls, etc. Those were important in their daily life, like cooking, drinking, and rituals. In
1020-466: The Majiabang culture, archaeologists excavated paddy fields , indicating the centrality of rice to the economy. In addition faunal remains excavated from Majiabang archaeological sites indicated that people had domesticated pigs. However, the remains of sika and roe deer have been found, showing that people were not totally reliant on agricultural production. Archaeological sites also bear evidence that Majiabang people produced jade ornaments. In
1071-695: The Majiabang culture, was discovered at Weidun village, Changzhou, Jiangsu Province in September 1985. At this site, several artifacts and about 38 burials were uncovered by the archaeological team from the Changzhou Museum and the Department of Anthropology from Zhejiang University. In addition, the deposit of this site is nearly 2 meters and can be separated into six layers, the ploughed layer on top, yellow-brown soil, yellow-green soil, grey-brown soil, grey-black soil and yellow-brown sterile soil at
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#17327648307391122-532: The Zhejiang Museum is dated to 4000-5000 BC. It is believed to be the earliest such object in the world. The remains of various plants, including water caltrop , Nelumbo nucifera , acorns , melon , wild kiwifruit , blackberries , peach , the foxnut or Gorgon euryale and bottle gourd , were found at Hemudu and Tianluoshan. The Hemudu people likely domesticated pigs but practiced extensive hunting of deer and some wild water buffalo . Fishing
1173-472: The ability to produce artifacts in the age of the Neolithic. In the Majiabang period, people had the belief in the afterlife that people's souls should be able to return to where they used to live after death, this could explain those graves from this period usually were found near the settlement. Based on the findings of those graves, experts suggested that people living in the period of 6500 B.P. did not have
1224-422: The analysis of the findings from the ancient paddy fields, Luojiajiao (existing in the period 5300 to 4900 cal. BC) was one of the earliest one. At this site, archaeologists unearthed hundreds of carbonised rice chaffs and rice grains, based on the study, half were considered as the cultivated japonica species, while another half belonged to the wild species. At other sites that belonged to the later period ( during
1275-563: The annual precipitation was 1500 to 2000 mm with the average temperature 15 to 18 °C. After that, the average temperature reduced about 6000 BP, and slightly increased again about 5500 BP. Since 5300 BP, the temperature has gradually become cooler, in parallel with the climate changes in Northern Europe and Northern Asia during the Recent Epoch . The Weidun Site, one of the most important archaeological discoveries of
1326-650: The apostrophe-like characters are kept, the system reveals a symmetry that leaves no overlap: Like Yale and Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II , Wade–Giles renders the two types of syllabic consonant ( simplified Chinese : 空韵 ; traditional Chinese : 空韻 ; Wade–Giles: kʻung -yün ; Hànyǔ Pīnyīn : kōngyùn ) differently: These finals are both written as -ih in Tongyòng Pinyin , as -i in Hànyǔ Pīnyīn (hence distinguishable only by
1377-715: The basis for the system later known as Wade–Giles. The system, designed to transcribe Chinese terms for Chinese specialists, was further refined in 1892 by Herbert Giles (in A Chinese–English Dictionary ), a British diplomat in China, and his son Lionel Giles , a curator at the British Museum. Taiwan used Wade–Giles for decades as the de facto standard, co-existing with several official romanizations in succession, namely, Gwoyeu Romatzyh (1928), Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II (1986), and Tongyong Pinyin (2000). The Kuomintang (KMT) has previously promoted pinyin with Ma Ying-jeou 's successful presidential bid in 2008 and in
1428-430: The bottom. Among those burials, 33 of them were considered as belonging to the period of the Majiabang culture, and those were found below a layer of yellow-brown, grey-brown and grey-black soil. Only 7 burials contained grave objects; the tomb M127 which was discovered under the layer of yellow-brown soil was one of them. Inside this tomb, the archaeologists found no trace of a coffin or burial pit, instead, they only found
1479-531: The combinations of beliefs and economic needs, they could also be seen as reflections of the owners' social status and identity in the Neolithic period. Majiabang people used jade when making ornaments. At Weisun Site, a few jade objects were found in the Majiabang Culture deposits, including hue-earrings, huang-pendants, small tube, and other ornaments. For example, a penannular jade ring and semi-annular jade discs, all made from local materials. In
1530-555: The corresponding IPA phonetic symbol (in square brackets), and equivalent representations in Bopomofo and Hanyu Pinyin . Instead of ts , tsʻ and s , Wade–Giles writes tz , tzʻ and ss before ŭ (see below ). Wade–Giles writes -uei after kʻ and k , otherwise -ui : kʻuei , kuei , hui , shui , chʻui . It writes [-ɤ] as -o after kʻ , k and h , otherwise as -ê : kʻo , ko , ho , shê , chʻê . When [ɤ] forms
1581-679: The early period, people were using the mud from the bank, firewood that was heaped and the level earth to make the pottery, while in the late period, they started to put the red cover on the pottery. Besides that, those pottery objects also could be used as burial objects, this could be proved through the archaeological discoveries from those tombs. At Weidun Site, archaeologists discovered a huge number of pottery objects, include fu-cauldrons, guan-pots, ding-tripod, dou-stemmed plates, bo-bowls, and pen-basins, most of them were fine-clay ware, and some were tempered with shell or sand. Fu-cauldron has three types, include type A, type B and type C. Type A has
Hemudu culture - Misplaced Pages Continue
1632-405: The features of slim body, sloping shoulders and small flat bottom, it also can be divided into two subtypes, type Ba with tiny and bending rim, type Bb with round rim and flared collar. Type C has the features of narrow rim and short body. Type D has the features of the cattle-nose-like handles, it can be identified into two subtypes as well, type Da with handles on the rim, type Db with handles under
1683-442: The features of wide flared upper body, and type B has contracted upper body. Lastly, pen-basin has two types as well. Type A has the features of round belly, and type B has the features of angular profile. Based on the archaeological discoveries, Majiabang people used different materials to make tools. Those materials include stone, wood, and bone, antler and teeth, and wood is the major one. At Weidun site, archaeologists found
1734-408: The finals -io (in yo , chio , chʻio , hsio , lio and nio ) and -üo (in chüo , chʻüo , hsüo , lüo and nüo ), both of which are pronounced -üeh in modern Standard Chinese : yüeh , chüeh , chʻüeh , hsüeh , lüeh and nüeh . Wade–Giles writes the syllable [i] as i or yi depending on the character. A feature of the Wade–Giles system is the representation of
1785-532: The initial from [i] as in li ), and as -y in Gwoyeu Romatzyh and Simplified Wade . They are typically omitted in Zhùyīn (Bōpōmōfō) . Final o in Wade–Giles has two pronunciations in modern Peking dialect: [wo] and [ɤ] . What is pronounced in vernacular Peking dialect as a close-mid back unrounded vowel [ɤ] is written usually as ê , but sometimes as o , depending on historical pronunciation (at
1836-620: The later periods, they gradually shifted into patrilineal clans. During that period, the social status of men rose and descent was passed through the male line. Hemudu's inhabitants worshiped a sun spirit as well as a fertility spirit . They also enacted shamanistic rituals to the sun and believed in bird totems . A belief in an afterlife and ghosts is thought to have been widespread as well. People were buried with their heads facing east or northeast and most had no burial objects. Infants were buried in urn-casket style burials, while children and adults received earth level burials. They did not have
1887-643: The lower stratum of the Songze excavation site in Shanghai's modern day Qingpu District , archaeologists found the prone skeleton of one of the area's earliest inhabitants—a 25–30-year-old male with an almost complete skull dated to the Majiabang era. Initially, archaeologists had considered the Majiabang sites and sites in northern Jiangsu to be part of the same culture, naming it the Qingliangang culture [ zh ] . Archaeologists later realized that
1938-580: The northern Jiangsu sites were of the Dawenkou culture and renamed the southern Jiangsu sites Majiabang culture. Some scholars state that the Hemudu culture co-existed with the Majiabang culture as two separate and distinct cultures, with cultural transmissions between the two. Other scholars group Hemudu in with Majiabang subtraditions. The climate in the period had more annual rainfall than at present, with higher average temperature. From 7000 to 6500 BP,
1989-469: The ones found in modern-day Borneo. The Hemudu culture was one of the earliest cultures to cultivate rice . Recent excavations at the Hemudu period site of Tianluoshan has demonstrated rice was undergoing evolutionary changes recognized as domestication . Most of the artifacts discovered at Hemudu consist of animal bones, exemplified by hoes made of shoulder bones used for cultivating rice. The culture also produced lacquer wood. A red lacquer wood bowl at
2040-434: The period 5000 to 4300 BC and 4300 to 3500 BC), more rice remains had been discovered. Compared with the earlier periods, the proportion of rice farming was increased, while gathering wild plant foods was decreased. 30°44′09″N 120°42′54″E / 30.73583°N 120.71500°E / 30.73583; 120.71500 Wade-Giles Wade–Giles ( / ˌ w eɪ d ˈ dʒ aɪ l z / WAYD JYLZE )
2091-528: The position that they were facing down in an elongated position, with the head to the north and the feet to the south. The cultivation of rice could be seen as the most significant aspect of the Majiabang culture. As experts suggest that the farming of rice in the delta of the Yangzi River was beginning at the early period of Majiabang. It was expanded rapidly, although people were relying more on hunting, fishing and gathering. This has been proved through
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2142-507: The rim. Type E has the features of round ring foot and smaller size, it also can be divided into two subtypes, type Ea with a round belly, type Eb with an angular profile. Ding has two types. Type A has the features of cauldron-like body, while type B has the features of pot-like body. In more detail, the legs of ding can be divided into three types, taper in shape, wide flat and long. Unlike others, dou-stemmed plate has two parts, stem part and plate part, each part has different features. For
2193-676: The spiritus asper, sometimes omitting them when copying texts, unaware that they represent vital information. Hànyǔ Pīnyīn addresses this issue by employing the Latin letters customarily used for voiced stops, unneeded in Mandarin, to represent the unaspirated stops: b, p, d, t, g, k, j, q, zh, ch. Partly because of the popular omission of apostrophe-like characters, the four sounds represented in Hànyǔ Pīnyīn by j , q , zh , and ch often all become ch , including in many proper names. However, if
2244-509: The stem part, it has two types, type A has the features of slim shape, while type B has a chunky shape. For the plate part, it can be identified into three types. Type A has the features of a shallow plat, it can be divided into 2 subtypes, type Aa with contracted collar, type Ab with a flared collar. Type B has the features of deep plate, it can be further divided into two subtypes as well, type Ba with contracted collar, type Bb with flared collar. Bo-bowl can be divided into two types. Type A has
2295-465: The syllable. This contrasts with the use of diacritics to represent the tones in Pīnyīn. For example, the Pīnyīn qiàn (fourth tone) has the Wade–Giles equivalent chʻien . ( s ; t ; lit ) Wade–Giles uses hyphens to separate all syllables within a word (whereas Pīnyīn separates syllables only in specially defined cases, using hyphens or closing (right) single quotation marks as appropriate). If
2346-469: The system. Examples using the spiritus asper: p , pʻ , t , tʻ , k , kʻ , ch , chʻ . The use of this character preserves b , d , g , and j for the romanization of Chinese varieties containing voiced consonants, such as Shanghainese (which has a full set of voiced consonants) and Min Nan (Hō-ló-oē) whose century-old Pe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ, often called Missionary Romanization)
2397-437: The time Wade–Giles was developed). Specifically, after velar initials k , kʻ and h (and a historical ng , which had been dropped by the time Wade–Giles was developed), o is used; for example, "哥" is ko (Pīnyīn gē ) and "刻" is kʻo (Pīnyīn kè ). In Peking dialect, o after velars (and what used to be ng ) have shifted to [ɤ] , thus they are written as ge , ke , he and e in Pīnyīn. When [ɤ] forms
2448-556: Was a Neolithic culture that occupied the Yangtze River Delta , primarily around Lake Tai west of modern Shanghai and north of Hangzhou Bay . The culture spread throughout southern Jiangsu and Zhejiang north of Hangzhou Bay from around 5000 BC to 3300 BC, coexisting with the Hemudu culture in Zhejiang south of the bay. The later part of the period is now considered a separate cultural phase, referred to as
2499-450: Was also carried out on a large scale, with a particular focus on crucian carp . The practices of fishing and hunting are evidenced by the remains of bone harpoons and bows and arrowheads. Music instruments, such as bone whistles and wooden drums, were also found at Hemudu. Artifact design by Hemudu inhabitants bears many resemblances to those of Insular Southeast Asia. The culture produced a thick, porous pottery . This distinctive pottery
2550-523: Was made by the crassitude log, and its length is 120 cm, while oar has the features of flat and half-ellipse shape with a handle, and its length is shorter than scull, which is ranged from 70 to 90 cm. A few objects made by bone, antler and teeth also had been discovered at Weidun site that include bone-made degrees and knives, antler-made shoe-shape tool, arrowheads, awls, needles, spears and tube. The burial culture could be seen as an important part of this culture, it presents people's beliefs and
2601-442: Was typically black and made with charcoal powder. Plant and geometric designs were commonly painted onto the pottery; the pottery was sometimes also cord-marked. The culture also produced carved jade ornaments, carved ivory artifacts and small clay figurines. The early Hemudu period is considered the maternal clan phase. Descent is thought to have been matrilineal and the social status of children and women comparatively high. In
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