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61-557: The Deutsch-Asiatische Bank ( DAB ; simplified Chinese : 德 华 银 行 ; traditional Chinese : 德 華 銀 行 ; pinyin : Déhuá Yínháng ) was a foreign bank in Asia , founded in 1889 in Shanghai . Its principal activity was trade financing , but together with English and French banks, it also played a role in the underwriting of bonds for the Chinese government, issuing

122-527: A radical —usually involves either a reduction in its total number of strokes , or an apparent streamlining of which strokes are chosen in what places—for example, the ⼓   ' WRAP ' radical used in the traditional character 沒 is simplified to ⼏   ' TABLE ' to form the simplified character 没 . By systematically simplifying radicals, large swaths of the character set are altered. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms that embody graphic or phonetic simplifications of

183-434: A conversion table. While exercising such derivation, the following rules should be observed: Sample Derivations : The Series One List of Variant Characters reduces the number of total standard characters. First, amongst each set of variant characters sharing identical pronunciation and meaning, one character (usually the simplest in form) is elevated to the standard character set, and the rest are made obsolete. Then amongst

244-710: A cooperative relationship with the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) against encroachments by competing foreign banks from France , Japan and Russia . In 1906, the bank received the concession to issue its own banknotes in China, denominated in Mexican dollars and in taels . In 1914 at the start of World War I , the DAB's operations in Calcutta, Hong Kong and Singapore were promptly closed and liquidated by

305-751: A delegation to the Paris Peace Conference . China was only given two seats, as they had not supplied any combat troops. The Chinese delegation was led by Lu Zhengxiang , who was accompanied by Wellington Koo and Tsao Ju-lin . They demanded for the Shantung Peninsula to be returned to China , and for an end to imperialist institutions such as extraterritoriality , legation guards, and foreign leaseholds. The Western powers refused these claims, and allowed Japan to retain territories in Shantung that had been surrendered by Germany after

366-610: A newly coined phono-semantic compound : Removing radicals Only retaining single radicals Replacing with ancient forms or variants : Adopting ancient vulgar variants : Readopting abandoned phonetic-loan characters : Copying and modifying another traditional character : Based on 132 characters and 14 components listed in Chart 2 of the Complete List , the 1,753 derived characters found in Chart 3 can be created by systematically simplifying components using Chart 2 as

427-414: A practice which has always been present as a part of the Chinese writing system. The official name tends to refer to the specific, systematic set published by the Chinese government, which includes not only simplifications of individual characters, but also a substantial reduction in the total number of characters through the merger of formerly distinct forms. According to Chinese palaeographer Qiu Xigui ,

488-455: A reduced set of "Thirteen Demands" was transmitted in May, with a two-day deadline for response. Yuan, competing with other local warlords to become the ruler of all China, was not in a position to risk war with Japan, and accepted appeasement . The final form of the treaty was signed by both parties on 25 May 1915. As China was initially not a belligerent nation, her citizens were not allowed by

549-712: A token combat unit to the Western Front , but never did so. The USS Monocacy incident occurred in January 1918. It involved an attack on the American gunboat Monocacy by Chinese soldiers along the Yangtze River . The incident left one American dead. An apology was issued by the Chinese government after protests broke out in Shanghai , and $ 25,000 in reparations was paid to the United States. It

610-440: Is actually more complex than eliminated ones. An example is the character 搾 which is eliminated in favor of the variant form 榨 . The 扌   'HAND' with three strokes on the left of the eliminated 搾 is now seen as more complex, appearing as the ⽊   'TREE' radical 木 , with four strokes, in the chosen variant 榨 . Not all characters standardised in the simplified set consist of fewer strokes. For instance,

671-454: Is derived. Merging homophonous characters: Adapting cursive shapes ( 草書楷化 ): Replacing a component with a simple arbitrary symbol (such as 又 and 乂 ): Omitting entire components : Omitting components, then applying further alterations : Structural changes that preserve the basic shape Replacing the phonetic component of phono-semantic compounds : Replacing an uncommon phonetic component : Replacing entirely with

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732-813: Is now discouraged. A State Language Commission official cited "oversimplification" as the reason for restoring some characters. The language authority declared an open comment period until 31 August 2009, for feedback from the public. In 2013, the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters was published as a revision of the 1988 lists; it included a total of 8105 characters. It included 45 newly recognized standard characters that were previously considered variant forms, as well as official approval of 226 characters that had been simplified by analogy and had seen wide use but were not explicitly given in previous lists or documents. Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification , eventually arriving at

793-547: Is used instead of 叠 in regions using traditional characters. The Chinese government stated that it wished to keep Chinese orthography stable. The Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese was published in 1988 and included 7000 simplified and unsimplified characters. Of these, half were also included in the revised List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese , which specified 2500 common characters and 1000 less common characters. In 2009,

854-665: The Armistice of 11 November 1918 , most of the Chinese labourers serving abroad were shipped home. When the war ended, some Chinese labourers remained employed to clear mines, to recover the bodies of soldiers, and fill in miles of trenches. While most eventually returned to China, some remained in Europe after the 1920 collapse of the National Industrial Bank of China . About 5,000 to 7,000 stayed in France, forming

915-633: The Kiautschou Dollar and financing of railway construction in China . The Deutsch-Asiatische Bank was founded in the Shanghai International Settlement on 12 February 1889, at the initial initiative of the Disconto-Gesellschaft , and with the additional participation of all the other major German commercial banks of the time. Its initial capital, denominated in local taels , was divided between

976-466: The People's Republic of China (PRC) to promote literacy, and their use in ordinary circumstances on the mainland has been encouraged by the Chinese government since the 1950s. They are the official forms used in mainland China and Singapore , while traditional characters are officially used in Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan . Simplification of a component—either a character or a sub-component called

1037-554: The Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) the character meaning 'bright' was written as either 明 or 朙 —with either 日 'Sun' or 囧 'window' on the left, with the 月 'Moon' component on the right. Li Si ( d.  208 BC ), the Chancellor of Qin, attempted to universalize the Qin small seal script across China following the wars that had politically unified the country for

1098-531: The states of ancient China , with his chief chronicler having "[written] fifteen chapters describing" what is referred to as the " big seal script ". The traditional narrative, as also attested in the Shuowen Jiezi dictionary ( c.  100 AD ), is that the Qin small seal script that would later be imposed across China was originally derived from the Zhou big seal script with few modifications. However,

1159-558: The "Dot" stroke : The traditional components ⺥ and 爫 become ⺈ : The traditional component 奐 becomes 奂 : China during World War I World War I began at the time when China entered a new period after the end of feudalism. In April 1912, the Chinese military official Yuan Shih-kai gained power and ended the rule of the Manchu dynasty. Yuan became the president of the Republic of China while he sought to reinforce

1220-469: The 1919 May Fourth Movement —many anti-imperialist intellectuals throughout China began to see the country's writing system as a serious impediment to its modernization. In 1916, a multi-part English-language article entitled "The Problem of the Chinese Language" co-authored by the Chinese linguist Yuen Ren Chao (1892–1982) and poet Hu Shih (1891–1962) has been identified as a turning point in

1281-482: The 1986 General List of Simplified Chinese Characters , hereafter the General List . All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Chart 1 and Chart 2 in the 1986 Complete List . Characters in both charts are structurally simplified based on similar set of principles. They are separated into two charts to clearly mark those in Chart 2 as 'usable as simplified character components', based on which Chart 3

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1342-520: The 1986 mainland China revisions. Unlike in mainland China, Singapore parents have the option of registering their children's names in traditional characters. Malaysia also promulgated a set of simplified characters in 1981, though completely identical to the mainland Chinese set. They are used in Chinese-language schools. All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Charts 1 and 2 of

1403-749: The British authorities. In Japan, the operations in Kobe and Yokohama came to a standstill in September 1916. The branch in Tsingtau was plundered by the victorious Japanese army following the siege of the city in 1914, and was subsequently used to host the Japanese Consulate until World War II. The rest of the DAB's Chinese network was closed by the Chinese government following China's entry into

1464-544: The Central Powers on 14 August, one month after the failed Manchu Restoration . German and Austro-Hungarian concessions in Tientsin and Hankow were swiftly occupied by China. By entering the war, Duan Qirui , Premier of the Republic of China , hoped to gain international prestige from China's new allies. He sought the cancellation of many of the indemnities and concessions that China had been forced to sign in

1525-470: The Chinese government published a major revision to the list which included a total of 8300 characters. No new simplifications were introduced. In addition, slight modifications to the orthography of 44 characters to fit traditional calligraphic rules were initially proposed, but were not implemented due to negative public response. Also, the practice of unrestricted simplification of rare and archaic characters by analogy using simplified radicals or components

1586-543: The Chinese government to participate in the fighting. However, in 1916, the French government began a scheme to recruit Chinese to serve as non-military personnel. A contract for China to supply 50,000 labourers was agreed upon on 14 May 1916, and the first contingent left Tientsin for Taku and Marseille in July 1916. The British government also signed an agreement with the Chinese authorities to supply labourers. The recruiting

1647-553: The Disconto-Gesellschaft (16.1 percent), Deutsche Bank (11.1 percent), S. Bleichröder (11.1 percent), Berliner Handels-Gesellschaft (9.4 percent), Jacob S.H. Stern  [ de ] (9.4 percent), Norddeutsche Bank (7.6 percent), Darmstädter Bank (6.2 percent), Mendelssohn & Co. (6.2 percent), M. A. Rothschild & Söhne (6.2 percent), as well as Dresdner Bank , A. Schaaffhausen'scher Bankverein , and Nationalbank für Deutschland among others. At

1708-536: The EBIC group (European Banks' International Company), Deutsche Bank subsequently founded Europäisch-Asiatische Bank (also known as European Asian Bank or Eurasbank ), which the former Deutsch-Asiatische Bank was merged into. Beside Deutsche, the shareholder banks included AMRO Bank (Netherlands), Banca Commerciale Italiana (Italy), Creditanstalt-Bankverein (Austria), Midland Bank (UK), Société Générale de Banque (Belgium), and Société Générale (France). In 1986,

1769-631: The German military colony in Tsingtao , but he was refused. Japan went on to capture Tsingtao and occupy portions of Shantung Province . In January 1915, Japan issued an ultimatum called the Twenty-One Demands to the Chinese government. They included Japanese control of former German rights, 99-year leases in southern Manchuria , an interest in steel mills, and concessions regarding railways. After China rejected Japan's initial proposal,

1830-538: The Pacific and by Canada . The tens of thousands of volunteers were driven by the poverty of the region and China's political uncertainties, and also lured by the generosity of the wages offered by the British. Each volunteer received an embarkment fee of 20 yuan , followed by 10 yuan a month to be paid over to his family in China. Workers cleared mines, repaired roads and railways, and built munitions depots. Some worked in armaments factories and in naval shipyards. At

1891-546: The People's Republic, the idea of a mass simplification of character forms first gained traction in China during the early 20th century. In 1909, the educator and linguist Lufei Kui formally proposed the use of simplified characters in education for the first time. Over the following years—marked by the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that toppled the Qing dynasty , followed by growing social and political discontent that further erupted into

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1952-708: The Siege of Qingdao. The apparent weak response of the Chinese government led to a surge in Chinese nationalism. On May 4, 1919, widespread student protests began in China, with a movement in Beijing that involved mainly young students, the general public, citizens, business people and other classes, through demonstrations, petitions, strikes and violent confrontations with the government, followed by support from students and workers in Tianjin, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Wuhan and Jinan. This uprising came to be known as

2013-485: The bank was renamed Deutsche Bank (Asia) after the partner banks sold their participations to Deutsche Bank. Between 1987 and 1988, it was then merged into Deutsche Bank. The Deutsch-Asiatische Bank's branch in Shanghai opened at No. 14 Bund on 2 January 1890. After World War I , the property was taken over by China's Bank of Communications , which in the 1940s replaced it with the still-standing Bank of Communications Building . Like other foreign banks in China at

2074-645: The bank's Chinese assets without compensation. The branch in Hamburg , however, could continue some activity after only a few days' interruption in May 1945, even though it had no access to the main offices' documentation. The bank's total headcount in Germany and China correspondingly evolved, from 85 in 1939 to 8 in January 1949 and 21 at end-1952. the bank's head office was formally relocated from Shanghai to Hamburg in June 1953. In 1972, together with partner banks within

2135-444: The body of epigraphic evidence comparing the character forms used by scribes gives no indication of any real consolidation in character forms prior to the founding of the Qin. The Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that inherited the Qin administration coincided with the perfection of clerical script through the process of libian . Eastward spread of Western learning Though most closely associated with

2196-447: The broadest trend in the evolution of Chinese characters over their history has been simplification, both in graphical shape ( 字形 ; zìxíng ), the "external appearances of individual graphs", and in graphical form ( 字体 ; 字體 ; zìtǐ ), "overall changes in the distinguishing features of graphic[al] shape and calligraphic style, [...] in most cases refer[ring] to rather obvious and rather substantial changes". The initiatives following

2257-538: The central government. China was neutral at the start of the war, as the country was financially chaotic, unstable politically, and militarily weak. Shikai attempted to hold China’s neutrality in the war, an idea that was favoured by the German chargé d'affaires in Peking, Adolf Georg von Maltzan . In 1914, Japanese and British military forces liquidated some of Germany's holdings in China . Yuan secretly offered British diplomat John Jordan 50,000 troops to retake

2318-407: The chosen variants, those that appear in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" are also simplified in character structure accordingly. Some examples follow: Sample reduction of equivalent variants : Ancient variants with simple structure are preferred : Simpler vulgar forms are also chosen : The chosen variant was already simplified in Chart 1 : In some instances, the chosen variant

2379-656: The country. In 1935, the first official list of simplified forms was published, consisting of 324 characters collated by Peking University professor Qian Xuantong . However, fierce opposition within the KMT resulted in the list being rescinded in 1936. Work throughout the 1950s resulted in the 1956 promulgation of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme , a draft of 515 simplified characters and 54 simplified components, whose simplifications would be present in most compound characters. Over

2440-679: The early 1920s, the DAB was able to restart activity in Beijing, Guangzhou, Hankou, Shanghai, and Tianjin, as well as the continued operations in Japan. The Deutsch-Asiatische Bank's activity in Berlin was terminated in 1945 by order of the Soviet occupation forces in Germany . On 27 September 1945, the government of the Republic of China similarly took over the head office in Shanghai and confiscated

2501-447: The economic problems in China during that time. Lu Xun , one of the most prominent Chinese authors of the 20th century, stated that "if Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die" ( 漢字不滅，中國必亡 ). During the 1930s and 1940s, discussions regarding simplification took place within the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party. Many members of the Chinese intelligentsia maintained that simplification would increase literacy rates throughout

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2562-512: The first time. Li prescribed the 朙 form of the word for 'bright', but some scribes ignored this and continued to write the character as 明 . However, the increased usage of 朙 was followed by proliferation of a third variant: 眀 , with 目 'eye' on the left—likely derived as a contraction of 朙 . Ultimately, 明 became the character's standard form. The Book of Han (111 AD) describes an earlier attempt made by King Xuan of Zhou ( d.  782 BC ) to unify character forms across

2623-475: The following decade, the Script Reform Committee deliberated on characters in the 1956 scheme, collecting public input regarding the recognizability of variants, and often approving forms in small batches. Parallel to simplification, there were also initiatives aimed at eliminating the use of characters entirely and replacing them with pinyin as an official Chinese alphabet, but this possibility

2684-430: The founding of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) to universalize the use of their small seal script across the recently conquered parts of the empire is generally seen as being the first real attempt at script reform in Chinese history. Before the 20th century, variation in character shape on the part of scribes, which would continue with the later invention of woodblock printing , was ubiquitous. For example, prior to

2745-556: The history of the Chinese script—as it was one of the first clear calls for China to move away from the use of characters entirely. Instead, Chao proposed that the language be written with an alphabet, which he saw as more logical and efficient. The alphabetization and simplification campaigns would exist alongside one another among the Republican intelligentsia for the next several decades. Recent commentators have echoed some contemporary claims that Chinese characters were blamed for

2806-659: The nucleus of later Chinese communities in Paris . The number of Chinese nationals who died in the war is unknown, and estimations are controversial. European records put the number at only 2,000, while Chinese scholars estimate the number to be as high as 20,000. While most died of the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918 , there were also victims of shelling, landmines, and poor treatment. Their remains are interred in dozens of European graveyards. The cemetery at Noyelles-sur-Mer , for example, contains 838 Chinese gravestones. China sent

2867-568: The past. The major aim was to earn China a place at the post-war bargaining table, to regain control over the Shantung Peninsula, and to shrink Japan's sphere of influence . China officially issued a declaration of war on 14 August 1917. After war was declared the Labour Department of the Chinese government began officially organizing the recruitment of Chinese nationals as labourers. The government considered sending

2928-430: The public and quickly fell out of official use. It was ultimately formally rescinded in 1986. The second-round simplifications were unpopular in large part because most of the forms were completely new, in contrast to the familiar variants comprising the majority of the first round. With the rescission of the second round, work toward further character simplification largely came to an end. In 1986, authorities retracted

2989-481: The same set of simplified characters as mainland China. The first round was promulgated by the Ministry of Education in 1969, consisting of 498 simplified characters derived from 502 traditional characters. A second round of 2287 simplified characters was promulgated in 1974. The second set contained 49 differences from the mainland China system; these were removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted

3050-467: The second round completely, though they had been largely fallen out of use within a year of their initial introduction. That year, the authorities also promulgated a final version of the General List of Simplified Chinese Characters . It was identical to the 1964 list save for 6 changes—including the restoration of 3 characters that had been simplified in the first round: 叠 , 覆 , 像 ; the form 疊

3111-479: The simplification process after the bulk of characters were introduced by the 1960s. In the wake of the Cultural Revolution , a second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977—largely composed of entirely new variants intended to artificially lower the stroke count, in contrast to the first round—but was massively unpopular and never saw consistent use. The second round of simplifications

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3172-529: The time they were seen as cheap labour, not even allowed out of camp to fraternise locally, and dismissed as mere coolies . On 17 February 1917, the French passenger/cargo ship SS Athos was sunk by the German U-boat SM U -65 . The ship carried 900 Chinese workers, 543 of whom were killed, and China subsequently severed diplomatic ties with Germany in March. The Chinese officially declared war on

3233-600: The time, it was the first large non-British bank to enter the Chinese market. Its general management ( German : Vorstand ) resided in Shanghai, while the supervisory board ( German : Aufsichtsrat ) met in Berlin . The bank soon set up branches in Tianjin (1890), Calcutta (1896), Hankou (1897), Qingdao (1897), Hong Kong (1899), Yokohama (1905), Beijing (1905), Kobe (1906), Singapore (1906), Jinan (1910), and Guangzhou (1910). Until World War I , it developed

3294-490: The time, the Deutsch-Asiatische Bank issued paper currency in the concessions where it had established branch offices. Simplified Chinese characters Simplified Chinese characters are one of two standardized character sets widely used to write the Chinese language , with the other being traditional characters . Their mass standardization during the 20th century was part of an initiative by

3355-833: The traditional character 強 , with 11 strokes is standardised as 强 , with 12 strokes, which is a variant character. Such characters do not constitute simplified characters. The new standardized character forms shown in the Characters for Publishing and revised through the Common Modern Characters list tend to adopt vulgar variant character forms. Since the new forms take vulgar variants, many characters now appear slightly simpler compared to old forms, and as such are often mistaken as structurally simplified characters. Some examples follow: The traditional component 釆 becomes 米 : The traditional component 囚 becomes 日 : The traditional "Break" stroke becomes

3416-415: The traditional forms. In addition, variant characters with identical pronunciation and meaning were reduced to a single standardized character, usually the simplest among all variants in form. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification and are thus identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. The Chinese government has never officially announced the completion of

3477-551: The war on 14 August 1917. in early 1919, the branch in Shanghai was liquidated, with its prestige main building taken over by the Bank of Communications ; the DAB only kept in branches in Beijing and Hankou from its previous Chinese network. The DAB's operations in Japan restarted in 1919, but the Yokohama branch was destroyed in the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake . Following the normalization of relationships between China and Germany in

3538-464: Was abandoned, confirmed by a speech given by Zhou Enlai in 1958. In 1965, the PRC published the List of Commonly Used Characters for Printing  [ zh ] (hereafter Characters for Printing ), which included standard printed forms for 6196 characters, including all of the forms from the 1956 scheme. A second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977, but was poorly received by

3599-648: Was launched by the War Committee in London in 1916, who formed the Chinese Labour Corps. A recruiting base was established in Weihaiwei (then a British colony) on 31 October 1916. The Chinese Labour Corps comprised Chinese men who came mostly from Shantung, and to a lesser extent from Liaoning , Kirin , Kiangsu , Hopeh , Honan , Anhui and Kansu provinces. Most travelled to Europe via

3660-604: Was one of multiple incidents at the time involving armed Chinese firing on foreign vessels. Although no Chinese troops saw combat in the theaters of World War I, 2,300 Chinese troops were sent to Vladivostok in August 1918 to protect Chinese interests during the Siberian intervention . The Chinese army fought against both Bolsheviks and Cossacks . This conflict is considered part of the Russian Civil War . After

3721-716: Was ultimately retracted officially in 1986, well after they had largely ceased to be used due to their unpopularity and the confusion they caused. In August 2009, China began collecting public comments for a revised list of simplified characters; the resulting List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters lists 8,105 characters, including a few revised forms, and was implemented for official use by China's State Council on 5 June 2013. In Chinese, simplified characters are referred to by their official name 简化字 ; jiǎnhuàzì , or colloquially as 简体字 ; jiǎntǐzì . The latter term refers broadly to all character variants featuring simplifications of character form or structure,

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