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45-533: The Devonshire Association (DA) is a learned society founded in 1862 by William Pengelly and modelled on the British Association , but concentrating on research subjects linked to Devon in the fields of science, literature and the arts. The first meeting was held in Exeter , England in 1862 with a membership of 69 and, except for 1942, meetings have been held annually in different locations around

90-735: A financial crisis in France. Today the academy is one of five academies comprising the Institut de France . Its members are elected for life. Currently, there are 150 full members, 300 corresponding members, and 120 foreign associates. They are divided into two scientific groups: the Mathematical and Physical sciences and their applications and the Chemical , Biological , Geological and Medical sciences and their applications. The academy currently has five missions that it pursues. These being

135-463: A formal dinner and an AGM , at which an honorary president takes office, invited from those "of standing and importance" in the county. Since 2006 the association has also held an annual President's Symposium on a topic of his or her choosing; the one in 2007, for instance concerned farming in Devon. A number of events take place throughout the year, including presentations, visits to notable places in

180-496: A particular subject or discipline, provided they pay their membership fees. Older and more academic/professional societies may offer associateships and/or fellowships to fellows who are appropriately qualified by honoris causa , or by submission of a portfolio of work or an original thesis. A benefit of membership may be discounts on the subscription rates for the publications of the society. Many of these societies award post-nominal letters to their memberships. The membership at

225-409: A supporter of the particle-theory of light, he looked for a way to disprove it. Poisson thought that he had found a flaw when he demonstrate that Fresnel's theory predicts that an on-axis bright spot would exist in the shadow of a circular obstacle, where there should be complete darkness according to the particle-theory of light. The Poisson spot is not easily observed in every-day situations and so it

270-451: A variety of themes and challenges dealing with African development and covering a large field spectrum. Specifically higher education in sciences, and research practices in basic and applied sciences that deal with various aspects relevant to development (renewable energy, infectious diseases, animal pathologies, food resources, access to safe water, agriculture, urban health, etc.). The Academic Standing Committees and Working Parties prepare

315-456: Is a learned society , founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert , to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research . It was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, and is one of the earliest Academies of Sciences . Currently headed by Patrick Flandrin (President of the academy), it is one of

360-576: Is now a journal series with seven titles. The publications can be found on site of the French National Library . In 1818 the French Academy of Sciences launched a competition to explain the properties of light. The civil engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel entered the competition by submitting a new wave theory of light . Siméon Denis Poisson , one of the members of the judging committee, studied Fresnel's theory in detail. Being

405-496: Is the one in which the Presidential address was given. Learned society Most learned societies are non-profit organizations , and many are professional associations . Their activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results, and publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some also act as professional bodies, regulating

450-804: The American Association for the Advancement of Science , specific to a given discipline, such as the Modern Language Association , or specific to a given area of study, such as the Royal Entomological Society . Most are either specific to a particular country (e.g. the Entomological Society of Israel ), though they generally include some members from other countries as well, often with local branches, or are international, such as

495-628: The Devon and Exeter Institution (1813), The Devonshire Association's aims were broader and more ambitious. By 1877, there were around 500 members and this number remained fairly constant until just before the Second World War . In 1932 the first of a number of local branches was established in Plymouth , and subject-based sections were formed, specialising in botany , buildings , entomology , geology , history , literature , folklore and

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540-969: The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions or the Regional Studies Association , in which case they often have national branches. But many are local, such as the Massachusetts Medical Society , the publishers of the internationally known The New England Journal of Medicine . Some learned societies (such as the Royal Society Te Apārangi ) have been rechartered by legislation to form quasi-autonomous non-governmental organizations . Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some qualification, or may be an honor conferred by election. Some societies offer membership to those who have an interest in

585-1219: The World Association in Economics is free of cost. Following the globalization and the development of information technology, certain scholarly societies—such as the Modern Language Association—have created virtual communities for their members. In addition to established academic associations, academic virtual communities have been so organized that, in some cases, they have become more important platforms for interaction and scientific collaborations among researchers and faculty than have traditional scholarly societies. Members of these online academic communities, grouped by areas of interests, use for their communication shared and dedicated listservs (for example JISCMail ), social networking services (like Facebook or LinkedIn ) and academic oriented social networks (like Humanities Commons, ResearchGate , Mendeley or Academia.edu ). French Academy of Sciences The French Academy of Sciences ( French : Académie des sciences , [akademi de sjɑ̃s] )

630-481: The sociology of science argue that learned societies are of key importance and their formation assists in the emergence and development of new disciplines or professions. In the form of professional associations, they can assist in the creation of pathways to leadership. The World Association in Economics provides help to the members of the WAE on the following issues: Societies can be very general in nature, such as

675-442: The 20th century, in 1987, when the academy decided against the practice and to begin filling vacancies with people with new disciplines. This reform was not only aimed at further diversifying the disciplines under the academy, but also to help combat the internal aging of the academy itself. The academy was expected to remain apolitical, and to avoid discussion of religious and social issues. On 20 January 1699, Louis   XIV gave

720-580: The Company its first rules. The academy received the name of Royal Academy of Sciences and was installed in the Louvre in Paris. Following this reform, the academy began publishing a volume each year with information on all the work done by its members and obituaries for members who had died. This reform also codified the method by which members of the academy could receive pensions for their work. The academy

765-464: The King was recognized until its abolishment in 1793. Membership in the academy the exceeded 100 officially-recognised full members only in 1976, 310 years after the academy's inception in 1666. The membership increase came with a large-scale reorganization in 1976. Under this reorganization, 130 resident members, 160 correspondents, and 80 foreign associates could be elected. A vacancy opens only upon

810-477: The Third class, into a new Second class concerned with literature and a new Third class devoted to the fine arts. Still this relationship between the academy and the government was not a one-way affair, as members expected to receive their payment of an honorarium. Although the academy still exists today, after World War I, the reputation and status of the academy was largely questioned. One factor behind its decline

855-501: The academy was funded by and accountable to the Ministry of Public Instruction . The academy came to control French patent laws in the course of the eighteenth century, acting as the liaison of artisans' knowledge to the public domain. As a result, academicians dominated technological activities in France. The academy proceedings were published under the name Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences (1835–1965). The Comptes rendus

900-482: The academy was in 1944. Removal from the academy was often for not performing to standards, not performing at all, leaving the country, or political reasons. In some rare occasions, a member has been elected twice and subsequently removed twice. This is the case for Marie-Adolphe Carnot . The most direct involvement of the government in the affairs of the institute came in the initial nomination of members in 1795, but as its members nominated constituted only one third of

945-448: The academy with his hands-on vivisection experiments, could not get his study into its own category. Despite Magendie being one of the leading innovators of his time, it was still a battle for him to become an official member of the academy, a feat he would later accomplish in 1821. He further improved the reverence of the academy when he and anatomist Charles Bell produced the widely known " Bell-Magendie Law ". From 1795 until 1914,

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990-591: The activities of their members in the public interest or the collective interest of the membership. Some of the oldest learned societies are the Académie des Jeux floraux (founded 1323), Sodalitas Litterarum Vistulana (founded 1488), Accademia della Crusca (founded 1583), Accademia dei Lincei (founded 1603), Académie Française (founded 1635), German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina (founded 1652), Royal Society (founded 1660) and French Academy of Sciences (founded 1666). Scholars in

1035-736: The advice notes, policy statements and the Academic Reports. Some have a statutory remit, such as the Select Committee, the Committee for International Affairs and the Committee for Scientists' Rights, some are created ad hoc by the academy and approved formally by vote in a members-only session. Today the academies standing committees and working parties include: Each year, the Academy of Sciences distributes about 80 prizes. These include: The following are incomplete lists of

1080-637: The applications of chemical, natural, biological, and medical sciences. On 8 August 1793, the National Convention abolished all the academies. On 22 August 1795, a National Institute of Sciences and Arts was put in place, bringing together the old academies of the sciences, literature and arts, among them the Académie française and the Académie des sciences. Also in 1795, The academy determined these 10 titles (first 4 in Division 1 and

1125-564: The county every year since. James Hine, a Plymouth architect and the association's president in 1897, was the last remaining founding member of the association at the time of his death in 1914. The only time the association has met outside of Devon was when it held its annual meeting in Launceston as Hine was too ill to travel. Although similar in format to older groups such as the Plymouth Institution (inaugurated in 1812) and

1170-510: The county, and training courses on various aspects of the association's work. The DA also makes grants to support Devon-related research projects. The President for 2010–11 was Roger Thorne, JP, CEng, MICE, FSA who was succeeded by Professor Nicholas Orme , MA, DPhil, DLitt, FSA, FRHistS in 2011. The association's 150th anniversary in 2012 was marked by a major conference in Torquay, the home town of its founder, William Pengelly. The year shown

1215-403: The death of members, as they serve for life. During elections, half of the vacancies are reserved for people less than 55 years old. This was created as an attempt to encourage younger members to join the academy. The reorganization also divided the academy into 2 divisions: One division, Division 1, covers the applications of mathematics and physical sciences, the other, Division 2, covers

1260-530: The dialect of Devon. By 1952 membership had risen to 1,100 and to over 1,800 by the centenary in 1963. In 2009 membership stood at 1,306. The DA is a registered charity . Annually, it publishes its Report and Transactions which includes reports from the sections and branches, and peer reviewed research papers. The association's three-day annual conference takes place in June, at a different Devon venue each year. At this event local visits are organised, along with

1305-442: The encouraging of the scientific life, promoting the teaching of science, transmitting knowledge between scientific communities, fostering international collaborations, and ensuring a dual role of expertise and advise. The French Academy of Science originally focused its development efforts into creating a true co-development Euro-African program beginning in 1997. Since then they have broadened their scope of action to other regions of

1350-401: The first world war, the French Academy of Science was the most prevalent organization of French science. Almost all the old members of the previously abolished Académie were formally re-elected and retook their ancient seats. Among the exceptions was Dominique, comte de Cassini , who refused to take his seat. Membership in the academy was not restricted to scientists: in 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte

1395-492: The five Academies of the Institut de France . The Academy of Sciences traces its origin to Colbert's plan to create a general academy. He chose a small group of scholars who met on 22 December 1666 in the King's library, near the present-day Bibliothèque Nationale , and thereafter held twice-weekly working meetings there in the two rooms assigned to the group. The first 30 years of the academy's existence were relatively informal, since no statutes had as yet been laid down for

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1440-566: The government refused to accept the result of academy elections. The academies control by the government was apparent in 1803, when Bonaparte decided on a general reorganization. His principal concern was not the First class but the Second, which included political scientists who were potential critics of his government. Bonaparte abolished the second class completely and, after a few expulsions, redistributed its remaining members, together with those of

1485-418: The institution. In contrast to its British counterpart , the academy was founded as an organ of government. In Paris, there were not many membership openings, to fill positions there were contentious elections. The election process was at least a 6-stage process with rules and regulations that allowed for chosen candidates to canvas other members and for current members to consider postponing certain stages of

1530-457: The membership and most of these had previously been elected as members of the respective academies under the old regime, few objections were raised. Moreover, these nominated members were then completely free to nominate the remaining members of the institute. Members expected to remain such for life, but interference occurred in a few cases where the government suddenly terminated membership for political reasons. The other main interference came when

1575-535: The others in Division 2) to be their newly accepted branches of scientific study: The last two sections are bundled since there were many good candidates fit to be elected for those practices, and the competition was stiff. Some individuals like Francois Magendie had made stellar advancements in their selected fields of study, that warranted a possible addition of new fields. However, even someone like Magendie that had made breakthroughs in Physiology and impressed

1620-414: The process if the need would arise. Elections in the early days of the academy were important activities, and as such made up a large part of the proceedings at the academy, with many meetings being held regarding the election to fill a single vacancy within the academy. That is not to say that discussion of candidates and the election process as a whole was relegated to the meetings. Members that belonged to

1665-447: The vacancy's respective field would continue discussion of potential candidates for the vacancy in private. Being elected into the academy did not necessarily guarantee being a full member, in some cases, one would enter the academy as an associate or correspondent before being appointed as a full member of the academy. The election process was originally only to replace members from a specific section. For example, if someone whose study

1710-449: The wave-nature of light. For three centuries women were not allowed as members of the academy. This meant that many women scientists were excluded, including two-time Nobel Prize winner Marie Curie , Nobel winner Irène Joliot-Curie , mathematician Sophie Germain , and many other deserving women scientists. The first woman admitted as a correspondent member was a student of Curie's, Marguerite Perey , in 1962. The first female full member

1755-518: The world. The standing committee COPED is in charge of the international development projects undertaken by the French Academy of Science and their associates. The current president of COPED is Pierre Auger , the vice president is Michel Delseny , and the honorary president is Francois Gros . All of which are current members of the French Academy of Science. COPED has hosted several workshops or colloquia in Paris, involving representatives from African academies, universities or research centers, addressing

1800-464: Was Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat in 1979. Membership in the academy is highly geared towards representing common French populace demographics . French population increases and changes in the early 21st century led to the academy expanding reference population sizes by reform in the early 2002. The overwhelming majority of members leave the academy posthumously, with a few exceptions of removals, transfers, and resignations. The last member to be removed from

1845-520: Was elected a member of the academy and three years later a president in connection with his Egyptian expedition , which had a scientific component. In 1816, the again renamed "Royal Academy of Sciences" became autonomous, while forming part of the Institute of France ; the head of State became its patron. In the Second Republic , the name returned to Académie des sciences. During this period,

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1890-439: Was mathematics was either removed or resigned from his position, the following election process nominated only those whose focus was also mathematics in order to fill that discipline's vacancy. That led to some periods of time in which no specialists for specific fields of study could be found, which left positions in those fields vacant since they could not be filled with people in other disciplines. The needed reform came late in

1935-452: Was only natural for Poisson to interpret it as an absurd result and that it should disprove Fresnel's theory. However, the head of the committee, Dominique-François-Jean Arago , and who incidentally later became Prime Minister of France, decided to perform the experiment in more detail. He molded a 2-mm metallic disk to a glass plate with wax. To everyone's surprise he succeeded in observing the predicted spot, which convinced most scientists of

1980-443: Was originally organized by the royal reform hierarchically into the following groups: Pensionaires, Pupils, Honoraires, and Associés. The reform also added new groups not previously recognized, such as Vétéran. Some of these role's member limits were expanded and some roles even removed or combined throughout the course of academy's history. The Honoraires group establish by this reform in 1699 whose members were directly appointed by

2025-463: Was the development from a meritocracy to gerontocracy : a shift from those with demonstrated scientific ability leading the academy to instead favoring those with seniority. It became known as a sort of "hall of fame" that lost control, real and symbolic, of the professional scientific diversity in France at the time. Another factor was that in the span of five years, 1909 to 1914, funding to science faculties considerably dropped, eventually leading to

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