Ahtna or Ahtena ( / ˈ ɑː t n ə / , from At Na " Copper River ") is the Na-Dené language of the Ahtna ethnic group of the Copper River area of Alaska . The language is also known as Copper River or Mednovskiy .
112-809: Glennallen / ɡ l ɛ ˈ n æ l ən / ( Ciisik’e Na’ in Ahtna ) is a census-designated place (CDP) in the Copper River Census Area in the Unorganized Borough of the U.S. state of Alaska . As of the 2020 census , the population of the CDP was 439, down from 483 in 2010. It is the most populated community in the census area. Glennallen is located at 62°06′33″N 145°32′47″W / 62.10917°N 145.54639°W / 62.10917; -145.54639 (62.109170, -145.54639; Sec. 23, T004N, R002W, Copper River Meridian), in
224-600: A boomtown atmosphere in Valdez , Fairbanks , and Anchorage . The first barrel of oil traveled through the pipeline in the summer of 1977, with full-scale production by the end of the year. Several notable incidents of oil leakage have occurred since, including those caused by sabotage, maintenance failures, and bullet holes. As of 2015, it had shipped over 17 billion barrels (2.7 × 10 m ) of oil. The pipeline has been shown capable of delivering over two million barrels of oil per day but nowadays usually operates at
336-679: A $ 100 million contract for more than 800 miles (1280 km) of pipeline. At the same time, TAPS placed a $ 30 million order for the first of the enormous pumps that would be needed to push the oil through the pipeline. In June 1969, as the SS Manhattan traveled through the Northwest Passage, TAPS formally applied to the Interior Department for a permit to build an oil pipeline across 800 miles (1,300 km) of public land—from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez. The application
448-532: A discovery well. On March 12, 1968, an Atlantic Richfield drilling crew hit paydirt. A discovery well began flowing at the rate of 1,152 barrels (183.2 m ) of oil per day. On June 25, ARCO announced that a second discovery well likewise was producing oil at a similar rate. Together, the two wells confirmed the existence of the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field . The new field contained more than 25 billion barrels (4.0 × 10 ^ m ) of oil, making it
560-466: A disjunct boundary. '+' indicates a morpheme boundary. ta into water # # d QUAL + + l CL + + dlok' laugh (lexical listing: verb theme) ta # d + l + dlok' {into water} # QUAL + CL + laugh "Water is gurgling." (surface form) In the Ahtna language the verb typically goes after the noun. In the Ahtna language, modifiers usually go after
672-486: A federal right-of-way for the pipeline and transportation highway was granted on January 3, 1974. The deal was signed by the oil companies on January 23, allowing work to start. Although the legal right-of-way was cleared by January 1974, cold weather, the need to hire workers, and construction of the Dalton Highway meant work on the pipeline itself did not begin until March. Between 1974 and July 28, 1977, when
784-527: A fraction of maximum capacity. If flow were to stop or throughput were too little, the line could freeze. The pipeline could be extended and used to transport oil produced from controversial proposed drilling projects in the nearby Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). Iñupiat people on the North Slope of Alaska had mined oil-saturated peat for possibly thousands of years, using it as fuel for heat and light. Whalers who stayed at Point Barrow saw
896-578: A legal dispute over pipeline tariffs generated a one-time payment of more than $ 1.5 billion from the oil companies. The Constitutional Budget reserve is run similar to the Permanent Fund, but money from it can be withdrawn to pay for the state's annual budget, unlike the Permanent Fund. Although the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System began pumping oil in 1977, it did not have a major immediate impact on global oil prices. This
1008-487: A port at Prudhoe Bay, and more—were deemed to pose more environmental risks than construction of a pipeline directly across Alaska. Opposition also was directed at the building of the construction and maintenance highway parallel to the pipeline. Although a clause in Alyeska's pipeline proposal called for removal of the pipeline at a certain point, no such provision was made for removal of the road. Sydney Howe, president of
1120-651: A solution to the problem, and President Richard Nixon began lobbying for the Trans-Alaska Pipeline as at least a part of the answer. Nixon supported the pipeline project even before the oil crisis. On September 10, 1973, he released a message stating that the pipeline was his priority for the remainder of the Congressional session that year. On November 8, after the embargo had been in place for three weeks, he reaffirmed that statement. Members of Congress, under pressure from their constituents, created
1232-588: A two pronged survey using bush aircraft , local Inupiat guides, and personnel from multiple agencies to locate reported seeps. Ebbley and Joesting reported on these initial forays in 1943. Starting in 1944, the U.S. Navy funded oil exploration near Umiat Mountain , on the Colville River in the foothills of the Brooks Range . Surveyors from the U.S. Geological Survey spread across the petroleum reserve and worked to determine its extent until 1953, when
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#17327904778331344-779: A water pipeline with the same diameter of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, which caribou were able to jump over. To those who argued that the pipeline would irrevocably alter Alaska wilderness, proponents pointed to the overgrown remnants of the Fairbanks Gold Rush , most of which had been erased 70 years later. Some pipeline opponents were satisfied by Alyeska's preliminary design, which incorporated underground and raised crossings for caribou and other big game, gravel and styrofoam insulation to prevent permafrost melting, automatic leak detection and shutoff, and other techniques. Other opponents, including fishermen who feared tanker leaks south of Valdez, maintained their disagreement with
1456-618: A word. The consonants in Kari's IPA phonology and practical orthography are shown in the following table . The vowels in Kari's practical orthography and phonology are as follows. There is some variation in pronunciation of words according to dialect. Possession is indicated by prefixes such as s- "my", u- or yu'- "his/her", ne- "our"; as in snaan "my mother", unaan (or yu'naan ) "his/her mother", nenaan "our mother". Verbs are primarily prefixing. There are often six or more prefixes before
1568-611: Is an 800-mile (1,287 km) long, 48-inch (1.22 m) diameter pipeline that conveys oil from Prudhoe Bay , on Alaska's North Slope , south to Valdez , on the shores of Prince William Sound in southcentral Alaska. The crude oil pipeline is privately owned by the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company . Oil was first discovered in Prudhoe Bay in 1968 and the 800 miles of 48" steel pipe was ordered from Japan in 1969 (U.S. steel manufacturers did not have
1680-556: Is an oil transportation system spanning Alaska, including the trans-Alaska crude-oil pipeline , 12 pump stations , several hundred miles of feeder pipelines, and the Valdez Marine Terminal. TAPS is one of the world's largest pipeline systems. The core pipeline itself, which is commonly called the Alaska pipeline , trans-Alaska pipeline , or Alyeska pipeline , (or The pipeline as referred to by Alaskan residents),
1792-410: Is known to be rough and the area is known for mosquitos. Ahtna language The Ahtna language consists of four different dialects: Upper, Central, Lower, and Western. Three of the four are still spoken today. Ahtna is closely related to Dena'ina . The similar name Atnah occurs in the journals of Simon Fraser and other early European diarists in what is now British Columbia as a reference to
1904-627: Is land and 0.8 square miles (2.1 km) of it (0.66%) is water. Glennallen features a dry-summer subarctic climate ( Köppen climate classification : Dsc ) The city is located in the continental climate zone, with long, cold winters, and relatively warm summers. In earlier times, the Ahtna Alaska Natives roamed the Copper River Valley in search of fish and game, both of which are usually plentiful there. Ahtna now live in several communities around Glennallen. In 1899,
2016-680: Is owned and operated by Copper Basin District, Inc. The Gulkana Airport is located 4.3 miles northeast. The 17 miles (27 km) road to Lake Louise State Recreation Area is west of Glenallen on the Glenn Highway. North of town on the Richardson Highway is the Dry Creek State Recreation Site , a 360 acres (150 ha) park with a large campground, trails, and fishing for trout. The access road
2128-440: Is partly because it took several years to reach full production and partly because U.S. production outside Alaska declined until the mid-1980s. The Iranian Revolution and OPEC price increases triggered the 1979 energy crisis despite TAPS production increases. Oil prices remained high until the late 1980s, when a stable international situation, the removal of price controls, and the peak of production at Prudhoe Bay contributed to
2240-592: Is provided by Copper Valley Electric Assoc. There are two schools in the community, attended by 158 students. ( Glennallen Elementary School and Glennallen High School [1] ) The schools are part of the Copper River School District . Prince William Sound Community College is located in Glennallen at mile 188 of the Glenn Highway. There are no local hospitals, however there are 2 health clinics including Cross Road Medical Center, and
2352-635: Is the supply hub of the Copper River region. Local businesses serve area residents and tourism from the Glenn Highway traffic, supplies and services, schools and medical care. State highway maintenance and federal offices are in Glennallen. RV parks, lodging, fuel and other services cater to independent travelers. The National Park Service's Wrangell-St. Elias Visitor Center and the Copper River Princess Wilderness Lodge were completed in 2002 at Copper Center. Offices for
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#17327904778332464-621: The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries announced an oil embargo against the United States in retaliation for its support of Israel during the Yom Kippur War . Because the United States imported approximately 35 percent of its oil from foreign sources, the embargo had a major effect. The price of gasoline shot upward, gasoline shortages were common, and rationing was considered. Most Americans began demanding
2576-605: The Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act , which removed all legal barriers from construction of the pipeline, provided financial incentives, and granted a right-of-way for its construction. The act was drafted, rushed through committee, and approved by the House on November 12, 1973, by a vote of 361–14–60. The next day, the Senate passed it, 80–5–15. Nixon signed it into law on November 16, and
2688-603: The Tsilhqot'in people, another Northern Athapaskan group. Ahtna is classified as belonging to the Northern Athabaskan languages , a subgrouping of the Athabaskan languages . Ahtna is one of the eleven Athabaskan languages native to Alaska. The Ahtna language comes from the proto-Athabaskan language , believed to have evolved 5,000 to 10,000 years ago when humans migrated from Eurasia to North America over
2800-608: The U.S. Army built a pack trail for summer use between the port of Valdez and Eagle , which passed through the Copper River Valley. In the early 20th century, the trail was widened and became the Richardson Highway . During World War II , the United States built a series of military bases in Alaska, primarily for the purpose of supplying aircraft and other war materiel to Russia by way of Alaska and
2912-607: The United States Department of Agriculture set aside 16,000,000 acres (64,750 km ) of Southeast Alaska as the Tongass National Forest . Tlingit natives who lived in the area protested that the land was theirs and had been unfairly taken. In 1935, Congress passed a law allowing the Tlingits to sue for recompense, and the resulting case dragged on until 1968, when a $ 7.5 million settlement
3024-682: The United States Department of the Interior to begin geological and engineering studies of a proposed oil pipeline route from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez, across Alaska. Even before the first feasibility studies began, the oil companies had chosen the approximate route of the pipeline. Because TAPS hoped to begin laying pipe by September 1969, substantial orders were placed for steel pipeline 48 inches (122 cm) in diameter. No American company manufactured pipe of that specification, so three Japanese companies— Sumitomo Metal Industries , Nippon Steel Corporation and Nippon Kokan Kabushiki Kaisha—received
3136-702: The United States District Court for the District of Columbia , ordered the Interior Department to not issue a construction permit for a section of the project that crossed one of the claims. Less than two weeks later, Hart heard arguments from conservation groups that the TAPS project violated the Mineral Leasing Act and the National Environmental Policy Act , which had gone into effect at the start of
3248-846: The Wilderness Society , Friends of the Earth , and the Environmental Defense Fund in their Spring 1970 lawsuit to stop the project. The injunction against the project forced Alyeska to do further research throughout the summer of 1970. The collected material was turned over to the Interior Department in October 1970, and a draft environmental impact statement was published in January 1971. The 294-page statement drew massive criticism, generating more than 12,000 pages of testimony and evidence in Congressional debates by
3360-574: The 1950 U.S. Census as an unincorporated village. It was made a census-designated place (CDP) in 1980. As of the census of 2000, there were 554 people, 204 households, and 136 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 4.9 inhabitants per square mile (1.9/km). There were 269 housing units at an average density of 0.9/km (2.4/sq mi). The racial makeup of the CDP was 85.20% White , 0.18% Black or African American , 5.05% Native American or Alaska Native , 0.18% Asian , 1.44% Pacific Islander , and 7.94% from two or more races . 0.54% of
3472-698: The 1970s and recorded a pronunciation guide of the Mentasta dialect. In 2012 a facing-bilingual collection of poetry in Ahtna and English, The Indian Prophet , was published by poet John Smelcer . In a revitalization program, the Ya Ne Dah Ah School in Sutton, Alaska teaches the Ahtna language as a part of its curriculum. As of 2010, a digital archiving project of Ahtna was underway. There are four main dialect divisions and eight bands (tribal unions): The comparison of some animal names in
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3584-535: The Alaska Legislature and governor Jay Hammond proposed the creation of an Alaska Permanent Fund —a long-term savings account for the state. This measure required a constitutional amendment, which was duly passed in November 1976. The amendment requires at least 25 percent of mineral extraction revenue to be deposited in the Permanent Fund. On February 28, 1977, the first deposit—$ 734,000—was put into
3696-542: The Alaska Pipeline, engineers faced a wide range of difficulties, stemming mainly from the extreme cold and the difficult, isolated terrain. The construction of the pipeline was one of the first large-scale projects to deal with problems caused by permafrost , and special construction techniques had to be developed to cope with the frozen ground. The project attracted tens of thousands of workers to Alaska due to high wages, long work hours, and paid-for housing, causing
3808-401: The Alaska economy during the construction effort and the years afterward. In addition, the taxes paid by those companies altered the tax structure of the state. By 1982, five years after the pipeline started transporting oil, 86.5 percent of Alaska revenue came directly from the petroleum industry. The series of taxes levied on oil production in Alaska has changed several times since 1977, but
3920-454: The Bering land bridge ( Beringia ), when it was dried up and exposed creating a natural land bridge. Many indigenous Native American languages are to have derived from this proto-Athabaskan language. Ahtna and other Athabaskan languages, like Navajo, have many similarities, due to their common ancestry. The Ahtna language has changed very much and very often, and it is still changing today. Within
4032-559: The Bureau of Land Management, Alaska State Troopers, and the Dept. of Fish and Game are located here. There are several small farms in the area. Four residents hold commercial fishing permits. Glennallen is home to Ahtna, Incorporated . The Glenn/Tok Cutoff and Richardson Highways provide year-round road access to other areas of the state. Brenwick's Airport provides public air access, and scheduled services are available. The 2,070' turf airstrip
4144-671: The Chitina Recording District and Game Management Unit 13 . It lies along the Glenn Highway at its junction with the Richardson Highway , 189 road miles (304 km) east of Anchorage . It is just outside the western boundary of Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve . According to the United States Census Bureau , the CDP has a total area of 114.9 square miles (298 km), of which, 114.1 square miles (296 km) of it
4256-491: The Conservation Foundation, warned: "The oil might last for fifty years. A road would remain forever." This argument relied upon the slow growth of plants and animals in far northern Alaska due to the harsh conditions and short growing season. In testimony, an environmentalist argued that arctic trees, though only a few feet tall, had been seedlings "when George Washington was inaugurated". The portion of
4368-911: The Copper River Basin and the Wrangell Mountains. The Ahtna Region is bordered by the Nutzotin river in the Northeast and the Alaska Range in the North. The Talkeetna Mountains are to the Chugach Mountains are to the South. The Upper Ahtna live on the upper portion of the Copper River, The Middle or Central Ahtna live slightly down river from there, The Lower Ahtna live near the mouth of the Copper River, which opens into
4480-668: The Copper River Native Association. Both clinics provide urgent/emergent care during normal business hours. Fire services are provided by the GlennRich Volunteer Fire Department, and paramedic-level Emergency Medical Services is provided by Copper River EMS. Law Enforcement is provided by the Alaska State Troopers who have a post in Glennallen. Emergency Services are accessed using the 911 system. Glennallen
4592-603: The Glennallen Heights subdivision. Most residences have individual septic tank systems, but permafrost and high water tables cause drainage failures. Refuse collection services and the Class II permitted landfill are operated by Copper Basin Sanitation in Glennallen. Copper Valley Electric purchases power from the state-owned Solomon Gulch Hydro Facility, and owns diesel plants in Glennallen and Valdez. Electricity
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4704-482: The Glennallen area, the water is often of poor quality. Glennallen Heights utilizes two wells to serve a piped system, and a local private business delivers water by truck to fill home water tanks. The majority of downtown is connected to a piped sewage system operated by The Glennallen Improvement Corp. The sewage system serves 52 homes and businesses, and is being expanded to the Alaska Bible College and
4816-814: The Gulf of Alaska, and the Western Ahtna live to the West of the River. The Ahtna people live on and near traditional villages. There are eight villages within the Ahtna Region: Cantwell, Chistochina, Chitina, Copper Center, Gakona, Gulkana, Mentasta and Tazlina. They are all recognized federally. There are 15 elderly speakers out of a population of 500, and the language is facing extinction. The subsistence and fishing-rights activist Katie John (1915–2013) of Mentasta helped develop an Ahtna alphabet in
4928-418: The House and Senate committees with oversight of the project, Hickel was given the authority to lift the land freeze and give the go-ahead to TAPS. TAPS began issuing letters of intent to contractors for construction of the "haul road", a highway running the length of the pipeline route to be used for construction. Heavy equipment was prepared, and crews prepared to go to work after Hickel gave permission and
5040-627: The Interior Rogers Morton allowed 45 days of comment after the release, and conservationists created a 1,300-page document opposing the impact statement. This document failed to sway Judge Hart, who lifted the injunction on the project on August 15, 1972. The environmental groups that had filed the injunction appealed the decision, and on October 6, 1972, the U.S. District Court of Appeals in Washington, D.C., partially reversed Hart's decision. The appeals court said that although
5152-495: The Minerals Leasing Act did not cover the pipeline's requirements, Alyeska and the oil companies began lobbying Congress to either amend the act or create a new law that would permit a larger right-of-way. The Senate Interior Committee began the first hearings on a series of bills to that effect on March 9, 1973. Environmental opposition switched from contesting the pipeline on NEPA grounds to fighting an amendment to
5264-591: The Navy suspended funding for the project. The USGS found several oil fields, most notably the Alpine and Umiat Oil Field , but none were cost-effective to develop. Four years after the Navy suspended its survey, Richfield Oil Corporation (later Atlantic Richfield and ARCO) drilled an enormously successful oil well near the Swanson River in southern Alaska, near Kenai . The resulting Swanson River Oil Field
5376-574: The Permanent Fund. That deposit and subsequent ones were invested entirely in bonds, but debates quickly arose about the style of investments and what they should be used for. In 1980, the Alaska Legislature created the Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation to manage the investments of the Permanent Fund, and it passed the Permanent Fund Dividend program, which provided for annual payments to Alaskans from
5488-462: The Richardson Highway. Another project was the Glenn Highway , which connected Anchorage, Alaska's largest city, with the Richardson Highway, and thus with the rest of Alaska, Canada, and the then-48 United States. Construction for the Glenn Highway began at a camp on the Richardson Highway in the Copper River Valley named Glennallen after two U.S. Army explorers of the late 19th century: Capt. Edwin Forbes Glenn and Lt. Henry T. Allen . The highway
5600-464: The Russian Far East as part of the Lend-lease program. This made it difficult for the Germans to the west and the Japanese to the south of Russia to interfere with the supply operation. As part of this operation, highways were built to supply the bases. The major highway project of this effort was the Alaska Highway from Dawson Creek , British Columbia , Canada to the existing Richardson Highway at Delta Junction, Alaska and thus to Fairbanks via
5712-566: The Sagavanirktok River forced workers to come up with solutions for unforeseen problems. Faulty welds and accusations of poor quality control caused a Congressional investigation that ultimately revealed little. More than $ 8 billion was spent to build the 800 miles (1,300 km) of pipeline, the Valdez Marine Terminal, and 12 pump stations. The construction effort also had a human toll. Thirty-two Alyeska and contract employees died from causes directly related to construction. That figure does not include common carrier casualties. Construction of
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#17327904778335824-409: The Senate. The amendment declared that the pipeline project fulfilled all aspects of NEPA and modified the Mineral Leasing Act to allow the larger right-of-way for the Alaska pipeline. Upon reconsideration , the vote was tied at 49–49 and required the vote of vice president Spiro Agnew , who supported the amendment; a similar amendment was passed in the House on August 2. On October 17, 1973,
5936-401: The Trans-Alaska Pipeline. Hearings in both the U.S. Senate and the House continued through the summer of 1973 on both new bills and amendments to the Mineral Leasing Act. On July 13, an amendment calling for more study of the project—the Mondale-Bayh Amendment—was defeated. This was followed by another victory for pipeline proponents when an amendment by Alaska Sen. Mike Gravel was passed by
6048-435: The United States. These reserves were areas thought to be rich in oil and set aside for future drilling by the U.S. Navy. Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 was sited in Alaska's far north, just south of Barrow, and encompassed 23,000,000 acres (93,078 km ). The first explorations of NPR-4 were undertaken by the U.S. Geological Survey from 1923 to 1925 and focused on mapping, identifying and characterizing coal resources in
6160-418: The area's remoteness and harsh climate. It was estimated that between 200,000,000 barrels (32,000,000 m ) and 500,000,000 barrels (79,000,000 m ) of oil would have to be recovered to make a North Slope oil field commercially viable. In 1967, Atlantic Richfield (ARCO) began detailed survey work in the Prudhoe Bay area. By January 1968, reports began circulating that natural gas had been discovered by
6272-446: The beginning of time. Alaska historian Terrence Cole Since the completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System in 1977, the government of the state of Alaska has been reliant on taxes paid by oil producers and shippers. Prior to 1976, Alaska's personal income tax rate was 14.5 percent—the highest in the United States. The gross state product was $ 8 billion, and Alaskans earned $ 5 billion in personal income. Thirty years after
6384-482: The capacity at that time). However, construction was delayed for nearly 5 years due to legal and environmental issues. The eight oil companies that owned the rights to the oil hired Bechtel for the pipeline design and construction and Fluor for the 12 pump stations and the Valdez Terminal. Preconstruction work during 1973 and 1974 was critical and included the building of camps to house workers, construction of roads and bridges where none existed, and carefully laying out
6496-658: The city of 15,000 people. Trouble was incited sometimes by prostitutes' pimps , who engaged in turf fights . In 1976, police responded to a shootout between warring pimps who wielded automatic firearms . By and large, however, the biggest police issue was the number of drunken brawls and fighting. On the pipeline itself, thievery was a major problem. Poor accounting and record keeping allowed large numbers of tools and large amounts of equipment to be stolen. The Los Angeles Times reported in 1975 that as many as 200 of Alyeska's 1,200 yellow-painted trucks were missing from Alaska and "scattered from Miami to Mexico City". Alyeska denied
6608-417: The community of Tok , 135 miles east on the Alaska Highway. This enhanced Glennallen as a commercial center. Also, in 1956, a Jesuit school, Copper Valley School, was opened. This facility increased the population considerably by bringing to the region a number of staff and students from Holy Cross Mission in western Alaska. In 1961 "Glenallen" was officially renamed "Glennallen" by the US Postal Service, adding
6720-686: The demand, a Fairbanks high school ran in two shifts: one in the morning and the other in the afternoon in order to teach students who also worked eight hours per day. More wages and more people meant higher demand for goods and services. Waiting in line became a fact of life in Fairbanks, and the Fairbanks McDonald's became No. 2 in the world for sales—behind only the recently opened Stockholm store. Alyeska and its contractors bought in bulk from local stores, causing shortages of everything from cars to tractor parts, water softener salt, batteries and ladders. The large sums of money being made and spent caused an upsurge in crime and illicit activity in towns along
6832-420: The disruption caused by the pipeline would scare away the whales and caribou that are relied upon for food. In both the courts and Congress, Alyeska and the oil companies fought for the pipeline's construction amidst opposition concerning the pipeline's EIS (environmental impact statement). The arguments continued through 1971. Objections about the caribou herds were countered by observations of Davidson Ditch ,
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#17327904778336944-400: The end of March. Criticisms of the project included its effect on the Alaska tundra , possible pollution, harm to animals, geographic features, and the lack of much engineering information from Alyeska. One element of opposition the report quelled was the discussion of alternatives. All the proposed alternatives—extension of the Alaska Railroad, an alternative route through Canada, establishing
7056-472: The environmental debate with the biggest symbolic impact took place when discussing the pipeline's impact on caribou herds. Environmentalists proposed that the pipeline would have an effect on caribou similar to the effect of the U.S. transcontinental railroad on the American bison population of North America. Pipeline critics said the pipeline would block traditional migration routes, making caribou populations smaller and making them easier to hunt. This idea
7168-422: The extra 'n'. Glennallen's economy grew with the construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System from 1975–1977 and the continuing service needs of the pipeline. The economy of the area was negatively impacted by the construction of the George Parks Highway , which connected Anchorage to Denali National Park and Fairbanks along the Alaska Railroad route, bypassing Glennallen. Glennallen first appeared on
7280-447: The fall of 1969, the Department of the Interior and TAPS set about bypassing the land freeze by obtaining waivers from the various native villages that had claims to a portion of the proposed right of way. By the end of September, all the relevant villages had waived their right-of-way claims, and Secretary of the Interior Wally Hickel asked Congress to lift the land freeze for the entire TAPS project. After several months of questioning by
7392-422: The field, the Boeing RC-1 . General Dynamics proposed a line of tanker submarines for travel beneath the Arctic ice cap , and another group proposed extending the Alaska Railroad to Prudhoe Bay. To test this, in 1969 Humble Oil and Refining Company sent a specially fitted oil tanker, the SS Manhattan , to test the feasibility of transporting oil via ice-breaking tankers to market. The Manhattan
7504-422: The first barrel of oil reached Valdez, tens of thousands of people worked on the pipeline. Thousands of workers came to Alaska, attracted by the prospect of high-paying jobs at a time when most of the rest of the United States was undergoing a recession. Construction workers endured long hours, cold temperatures, and brutal conditions. Difficult terrain, particularly in Atigun Pass , Keystone Canyon , and near
7616-522: The high salaries paid to pipeline workers, who were eager to spend their money. The high salaries caused a corresponding demand for higher wages among non-pipeline workers in Alaska. Non-pipeline businesses often could not keep up with the demand for higher wages, and job turnover was high. Yellow cab in Fairbanks had a turnover rate of 800 percent; a nearby restaurant had a turnover rate of more than 1,000 percent. Many positions were filled by high school students promoted above their experience level. To meet
7728-418: The impact statement followed the guidelines set by the National Environmental Policy Act, it did not follow the Minerals Leasing Act , which allowed for a smaller pipeline right of way than was required for the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. The oil companies and Alyeska appealed this decision to the U.S. Supreme Court, but in April 1973, the court declined to hear the case. With the appeals court having decided that
7840-431: The interest earned by the fund. After two years of legal arguments about who should be eligible for payments, the first checks were distributed to Alaskans. After peaking at more than $ 40 billion in 2007, the fund's value declined to approximately $ 26 billion as of summer 2009. In addition to the Permanent Fund, the state also maintains the Constitutional Budget Reserve , a separate savings account established in 1990 after
7952-418: The largest in North America and the 18th largest in the world. The problem soon became how to develop the oil field and ship product to U.S. markets. Pipeline systems represent a high initial cost but lower operating costs, but no pipeline of the necessary length had yet been constructed. Several other solutions were offered. Boeing proposed a series of gigantic 12-engine tanker aircraft to transport oil from
8064-493: The leasing act or a new bill. By the spring and summer of 1973, these opposition groups attempted to persuade Congress to endorse a Trans-Canada oil pipeline or a railroad. They believed the "leave it in the ground" argument was doomed to fail, and the best way to oppose the pipeline would be to propose an ineffective alternative which could be easily defeated. The problem with this approach was that any such alternative would cover more ground and be more damaging environmentally than
8176-529: The legal injunction against pipeline construction. In October 1971, President Richard Nixon signed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). Under the act, Native groups would renounce their land claims in exchange for $ 962.5 million and 148.5 million acres (601,000 km ) in federal land. The money and land were split up among village and regional corporations, which then distributed shares of stock to Natives in
8288-403: The maximum tax rate on profits is 50 percent. The rate fluctuates based on the cost of oil, with lower prices incurring lower tax rates. The state also claims 12.5 percent of all oil produced in the state. This "royalty oil" is not taxed but is sold back to the oil companies, generating additional revenue. At a local level, the pipeline owners pay property taxes on the portions of the pipeline and
8400-413: The median income for a family was $ 40,909. Males had a median income of $ 29,375 versus $ 28,125 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $ 17,084. About 4.6% of families and 8.04% of the population were below the poverty line , including 12.8% of those under age 18 and 3.1% of those age 65 or over. Many but not all year-round homes are fully plumbed. Although many residents have private wells in
8512-589: The noun they modify. Examples of this include the name of the deity or trickster figure Saghani Ggaay , where saghani is the noun " raven " and ggaay the adjective "little, small" or in the term nen ten "permafrost", a combination of nen "land, ground" and ten "frozen". This word order is also seen in place names such as Dghelaay Ce'e " Denali /Mount McKinley", literally "Biggest Mountain", and Ben Ce'e "Lake Susitna", literally "Big Lake". Trans-Alaska Pipeline System The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System ( TAPS )
8624-444: The other fields on the North Slope since 1977 is worth more than all the fish ever caught, all the furs ever trapped, all the trees chopped down; throw in all the copper, whalebone, natural gas, tin, silver, platinum, and anything else ever extracted from Alaska too. The balance sheet of Alaskan history is simple: One Prudhoe Bay is worth more in real dollars than everything that has been dug out, cut down, caught or killed in Alaska since
8736-454: The overall form remains mostly the same. Alaska receives royalties from oil production on state land. The state also has a property tax on oil production structures and transportation (pipeline) property—the only state property tax in Alaska. There is a special corporate income tax on petroleum companies, and the state taxes the amount of petroleum produced. This production tax is levied on the cost of oil at Pump Station 1. To calculate this tax,
8848-511: The past century more than one hundred words have made their way into the Ahtna vocabulary mostly due to influence from English. Contact with Russians influenced the Ahtna language with many Russian loanwords being introduced. With contact from English speakers, especially recently, English words have also been introduced. Some words are also borrowed from the Alaskan Tlingit and Alutiiq native languages. The Ahtna region consists of
8960-415: The pipeline began operating, the state had no personal income tax, the gross state product was $ 39 billion, and Alaskans earned $ 25 billion in personal income. Alaska moved from the most heavily taxed state to the most tax-free state. The difference was the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System and the taxes and revenue it brought to Alaska. Alyeska and the oil companies injected billions of dollars into
9072-415: The pipeline caused a massive economic boom in towns up and down the pipeline route. Prior to construction, most residents in towns like Fairbanks—still recovering from the devastating 1967 Fairbanks Flood —strongly supported the pipeline. By 1976, after the town's residents had endured a spike in crime, overstressed public infrastructure, and an influx of people unfamiliar with Alaska customs, 56 percent said
9184-494: The pipeline facilities that lay within districts that impose a property tax. This property tax is based on the pipeline's value (as assessed by the state) and the local property tax rate. In the Fairbanks North Star Borough , for example, pipeline owners paid $ 9.2 million in property taxes—approximately 10 percent of all property taxes paid in the borough. The enormous amount of public revenue created by
9296-585: The pipeline had changed Fairbanks for the worse. The boom was even greater in Valdez, where the population jumped from 1,350 in 1974 to 6,512 by the summer of 1975 and 8,253 in 1976. This increase in population caused many adverse effects. Home prices skyrocketed—a home that sold for $ 40,000 in 1974 was purchased for $ 80,000 in 1975. In Valdez, lots of land that sold for $ 400 in the late 1960s went for $ 4,000 in 1973, $ 8,000 in 1974, and $ 10,000 in 1975. Home and apartment rentals were correspondingly squeezed upward by
9408-591: The pipeline project before 1970, the introduction of the National Environmental Policy Act allowed them legal grounds to halt the project. Arctic engineers had raised concerns about the way plans for a subterranean pipeline showed ignorance of Arctic engineering and permafrost in particular. A clause in NEPA requiring a study of alternatives and another clause requiring an environmental impact statement turned those concerns into tools used by
9520-427: The pipeline provoked debates about what to do with the windfall. The record $ 900 million created by the Prudhoe Bay oil lease sale took place at a time when the entire state budget was less than $ 118 million, yet the entire amount created by the sale was used up by 1975. Taxes on the pipeline and oil carried by it promised to bring even more money into state coffers. To ensure that oil revenue wasn't spent as it came in,
9632-433: The pipeline right of way to avoid difficult river crossings and animal habitats. Construction of the pipeline system took place between 1975 and 1977. It was important for the United States to have a domestic source of oil to offset the high rise in foreign oil and the Alaska Pipeline fulfilled that obligation. Building oil pipelines in the 1950s and 60s was not difficult in the contiguous United States . However, in building
9744-513: The pipeline route. This was exacerbated by the fact that police officers and state troopers resigned in large groups to become pipeline security guards at wages far in excess of those available in public-sector jobs. Fairbanks' Second Avenue became a notorious hangout for prostitutes , and dozens of bars operated throughout town. In 1975, the Fairbanks Police Department estimated between 40 and 175 prostitutes were working in
9856-403: The plan. All the arguments both for and against the pipeline were incorporated into the 3,500-page, 9-volume final environmental impact statement, which was released on March 20, 1972. Although Alaska Sen. Ted Stevens felt the statement "was not written by a proponent," it maintained the general approval for pipeline construction that was demonstrated in the draft statement. U.S. Secretary of
9968-414: The population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Of the 204 households, 36.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.4% were married couples living together, 6.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.3% were non-families. 27.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size
10080-412: The problem and said only 20–30 trucks were missing. The theft problem was typified by pipeliners' practice of mailing empty boxes to pipeline camps. The boxes then would be filled with items and shipped out. After Alyeska ruled that all packages had to be sealed in the presence of a security guard, the number of packages being sent from camps dropped by 75 percent. The wealth generated by Prudhoe Bay and
10192-517: The proposed route and plan. Max Brewer , an arctic expert in charge of the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory at Barrow, concluded that the plan to bury most of the pipeline was completely unfeasible because of the abundance of permafrost along the route. In a report, Brewer said the hot oil conveyed by the pipeline would melt the underlying permafrost, causing the pipeline to fail as its support turned to mud. This report
10304-400: The region or village. The shares paid dividends based on both the settlement and corporation profits. To pipeline developers, the most important aspect of ANCSA was the clause dictating that no Native allotments could be selected in the path of the pipeline. Another objection of the natives was the potential for the pipeline to disrupt a traditional way of life. Many natives were worried that
10416-762: The rising prices and the demand from pipeline workers. Two-room log cabins with no plumbing rented for $ 500 per month. One two-bedroom home in Fairbanks housed 45 pipeline workers who shared beds on a rotating schedule for $ 40 per week. In Valdez, an apartment that rented for $ 286 per month in December 1974 cost $ 520 per month in March 1975 and $ 1,600 per month—plus two mandatory roommates—in April 1975. Hotel rooms were sold out as far away as Glenallen, 115 miles (185 km) north of Valdez. The skyrocketing prices were driven by
10528-621: The seepages in 1836. Similar seepages were found at the Canning River in 1919 by Ernest de Koven Leffingwell . Following the First World War , as the United States Navy converted its ships from coal to fuel oil , a stable supply of oil became important to the U.S. government. Accordingly, President Warren G. Harding established by executive order a series of Naval Petroleum Reserves (NPR-1 through -4) across
10640-450: The snow melted. Before Hickel could act, however, several Alaska Native and conservation groups asked a judge in Washington, D.C., to issue an injunction against the project. Several of the native villages that had waived claims on the right of way reneged because TAPS had not chosen any Native contractors for the project and the contractors chosen were not likely to hire Native workers. On April 1, 1970, Judge George Luzerne Hart, Jr. , of
10752-412: The state takes the market value of the oil, subtracts transportation costs (tanker and pipeline tariffs), subtracts production costs, then multiplies the resulting amount per barrel of oil produced each month. The state then takes a percentage of the dollar figure produced. Under the latest taxation system, introduced by former governor Sarah Palin in 2007 and passed by the Alaska Legislature that year,
10864-463: The stem and then one or more suffixes. (1a) displays a surface form in Ahtna spelling while (1b) is the verb theme. Three prefixes are present that have to be listed with the stem to make up the form. Anything adjacent in a verb theme can be separated by morphemes in the forms surface. Verb themes display what elements should be listed in a dictionary for a speaker to be able to reconstruct the verb. '#' displays an important word-internal boundary known as
10976-601: The substance the Iñupiat called pitch and recognized it as petroleum. Charles Brower, a whaler who settled at Barrow and operated trading posts along the Arctic coast, directed geologist Alfred Hulse Brooks to oil seepages at Cape Simpson and Fish Creek in the far north of Alaska, east of the village of Barrow . Brooks' report confirmed the observations of Thomas Simpson, an officer of the Hudson's Bay Company who first observed
11088-429: The three Athabaskan languages: Athabaskan languages are primarily prefixing. Many prefixes are presented together. There is limited suffixation and often one word has as much meaning as an English language sentence. Verbs are very complex therefore creating many different meanings or analysis of verbs. Some verbs include syntactic principles in addition to and/or replacement of morphological principles when constructing
11200-613: The western portion of the reserve and petroleum exploration in the eastern and northern portions of the reserve. These surveys were primarily pedestrian in nature; no drilling or remote sensing techniques were available at the time. These surveys named many of the geographic features of the areas explored, including the Philip Smith Mountains and quadrangle. The petroleum reserve lay dormant until World War II provided an impetus to explore new oil prospects. The first renewed efforts to identify strategic oil assets were
11312-470: The year. Hart issued an injunction against the project, preventing the Interior Department from issuing a construction permit and halting the project in its tracks. After the Department of the Interior was stopped from issuing a construction permit, the unincorporated TAPS consortium was reorganized into the new incorporated Alyeska Pipeline Service Company . Former Humble Oil manager Edward L. Patton
11424-411: Was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.31. The age distribution was 31.8% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 27.4% from 25 to 44, 26.2% from 45 to 64, and 5.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 110.0 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $ 38,846, and
11536-477: Was Alaska's first major commercially producing oil field, and it spurred the exploration and development of many others. By 1965, five oil and 11 natural gas fields had been developed. This success and the previous Navy exploration of its petroleum reserve led petroleum engineers to the conclusion that the area of Alaska north of the Brooks Range surely held large amounts of oil and gas. The problems came from
11648-520: Was completed in 1945. Glennallen developed as a small community around the site of the camp. It became a commercial center for motor traffic along the Glenn and Richardson highways. It is one of the few communities in the region that was not built on the site of a Native village. During the 1950s and 1960s, another highway, the Tok Cut-Off , was constructed from a point 15 miles north of Glennallen to
11760-622: Was escorted back through the Northwest Passage by a Canadian Coast Guard icebreaker, the CCGS John A. Macdonald . Although the Manhattan transited the Northwest Passage again in the summer of 1970, the concept was considered too risky. In February 1969, before the SS Manhattan had even sailed from its East Coast starting point, the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS), an unincorporated joint group created by ARCO, British Petroleum , and Humble Oil in October 1968, asked for permission from
11872-409: Was exploited in anti-pipeline advertising, most notably when a picture of a forklift carrying several legally shot caribou was emblazoned with the slogan, "There is more than one way to get caribou across the Alaska Pipeline". The use of caribou as an example of the pipeline's environmental effects reached a peak in the spring of 1971, when the draft environmental statement was being debated. In 1902,
11984-610: Was fitted with an ice-breaking bow, powerful engines, and hardened propellers before successfully traveling the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Beaufort Sea. During the voyage, the ship suffered damage to several of its cargo holds, which flooded with seawater. Wind-blown ice forced the Manhattan to change its intended route from the M'Clure Strait to the smaller Prince of Wales Strait . It
12096-470: Was flatly rejected. The Alaska Federation of Natives , which had been created in 1966, hired former United States Supreme Court justice Arthur Goldberg , who suggested that a settlement should include 40 million acres (160,000 km ) of land and a payment of $ 500 million. The issue remained at a standstill until Alyeska began lobbying in favor of a Native claims act in Congress in order to lift
12208-443: Was for a 100-foot (30.5 m) wide right of way to build a subterranean 48-inch (122-centimeter) pipeline including 11 pumping stations. Another right of way was requested to build a construction and maintenance highway paralleling the pipeline. A document of just 20 pages contained all of the information TAPS had collected about the route up to that stage in its surveying. The Interior Department responded by sending personnel to analyze
12320-562: Was passed along to the appropriate committees of the U.S. House and Senate , which had to approve the right-of-way proposal because it asked for more land than authorized in the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 and because it would break a development freeze imposed in 1966 by former Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall . Udall imposed the freeze on any projects involving land claimed by Alaska Natives in hopes that an overarching Native claims settlement would result. In
12432-647: Was put in charge of the new company and began to lobby strongly in favor of an Alaska Native claims settlement to resolve the disputes over the pipeline right of way. Opposition to construction of the pipeline primarily came from two sources: Alaska Native groups and conservationists . Alaska Natives were upset that the pipeline would cross the land traditionally claimed by a variety of native groups, but no economic benefits would accrue to them directly. Conservationists were angry at what they saw as an incursion into America's last wilderness. Although conservation groups and environmental organizations had voiced opposition to
12544-481: Was reached. Following the Native lawsuit to halt work on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, this precedent was frequently mentioned in debate, causing pressure to resolve the situation more quickly than the 33 years it had taken for the Tlingits to be satisfied. Between 1968 and 1971, a succession of bills were introduced into the U.S. Congress to compensate statewide Native claims. The earliest bill offered $ 7 million, but this
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