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53-478: Dykstra is a Frisian surname describes a person who lived by a dyke . The suffix "-stra" is derived from old Germanic -sater, meaning sitter or dweller . The name originates in the northern Netherlands province of Friesland . The name was originally spelled "Dijkstra". The name was "Americanized" to Dykstra after Frisian settlers arrived and settled in the United States. Many immigrants bearing

106-559: A Danish substrate . However, Frisian is still unintelligible to Dutch; a cloze test in 2005 revealed that Dutch respondents understood 31.9% of a West Frisian newspaper, 66.4% of an Afrikaans newspaper and 97.1% of a Dutch newspaper. Additional shared linguistic characteristics between Friesland and the Great Yarmouth area in England are likely to have resulted from the close trading relationship these areas maintained during

159-635: A correct word from long-term memory, how to score acceptable responses that are not the exact replacement, etc.) can be solved by the use of carefully designed multiple-choice cloze items. See sample test and practice activity from a pilot study in a rural Latin American community. Mostow and associates also showed how this approach is both practical and informative. In addition to the usage in testing, cloze deletion can be used in learning, particularly language learning , but also learning facts. This may be done manually – for example, by covering sections of

212-407: A given cloze test varies, depending on the broader goals behind the exercise. Assessment may depend on whether the exercise is objective (i.e. students are given a list of words to use in a cloze) or subjective (i.e. students are to fill in a cloze with words that would make a given sentence grammatically correct). I saw a man lay his jacket on a puddle for a woman crossing the street. I thought that

265-479: A large amount of synonyms will have a low word clozability score as the likelihood that the given word will be guessed correctly is reduced. Words that are specific and have a low amount of synonyms will have a high clozability score. Cloze deletion can also be applied to a graphic organizer , wherein a diagram, map, grid, or image is presented and contextual clues must be used to fill in some labels. In particular, when learning an image-heavy subject, such as anatomy,

318-405: A portion of text is masked and the participant is asked to fill in the masked portion of text. Cloze tests require the ability to understand the context and vocabulary in order to identify the correct language or part of speech that belongs in the deleted passages. This exercise is commonly administered for the assessment of native and second language learning and instruction. The word cloze

371-593: A text with paper, or highlighting sections of text with a highlighter, then covering the line with a colored ruler in the complementary color (say, a red ruler for a green highlighter) so the highlighted text disappears; this is popular in Japan, for instance . Cloze deletion can also be used as part of spaced repetition software. For example the SuperMemo and Anki applications feature semi-automated creation of cloze tests. Programming software to accept all synonyms of

424-446: A user of Anki may employ an image occlusion to occlude parts of an image. Glover, 1989 compared different forms of recall and their effectiveness after time passed for forgetting to occur. Glover referred to cloze tests as cued recall, which was found to be less effective than free recall testing (generic cue was given to pupil, the pupil was expected to recall all they knew), but more effective than recognition tests. Cloze test

477-510: A way to show that it was possible, and created a collective West Frisian identity and West Frisian standard of writing through his poetry. Later on, Johannes Hilarides would build off Gysbert Japiks' work by building on West Frisian orthography, particularly on its pronunciation; he also, unlike Japiks, set a standard of the West Frisian language that focused more heavily on how the common people used it as an everyday language. Perhaps

530-401: A word as valid correct answers to a cloze test is a challenge, as all potential synonyms must be considered. An important concept that applies during the automatic creation of cloze tests by software is word clozability. Word clozability is defined as: "How often do participants who know this word guess it correctly when it is clozed in a sentence that they haven't seen before?" Words that have

583-513: Is tsiis and tsjerke , whereas in Dutch it is kaas and kerk , and in High German the respective words are Käse and Kirche . Contrarily, this did not happen for chin and choose , which are kin and kieze . One rhyme demonstrates the palpable similarity between Frisian and English: "Butter, bread and green cheese is good English and good Frisian," which is pronounced more or less

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636-426: Is about 75% of the inhabitants of Friesland. An increasing number of native Dutch speakers in the province are learning Frisian as a second language. In Germany , there are about 2,000 speakers of Saterland Frisian in the marshy Saterland region of Lower Saxony . Saterland Frisian has resisted encroachment from Low German and Standard German , but Saterland Frisian still remains seriously endangered because of

689-603: Is called Frysk in West Frisian, Fräisk in Saterland Frisian, and Friisk , fresk , freesk , frasch , fräisch , and freesch in the varieties of North Frisian. The situation in the Dutch province of Groningen and the German region of East Frisia is similar: The local Low German/Low Saxon dialects of Gronings and East Frisian Low Saxon still bear some Frisian elements due to East Frisian substrate . Frisian

742-488: Is considered as vulnerable to being endangered. Moreover, for all advances in integrating Frisian in daily life, there is still a lack of education and media awareness of the Frisian language, perhaps reflecting its rural origins and its lack of prestige Therefore, in a sociological sense it is considered more a dialect than a standard language, even though linguistically it is a separate language. For L2 speakers , both

795-474: Is derived from closure in Gestalt theory . The exercise was first described by Wilson L. Taylor in 1953. Words may be deleted from the text in question either mechanically (every nth word) or selectively, depending on exactly what aspect it is intended to test for. The methodology is the subject of extensive academic literature; nonetheless, teachers commonly devise ad hoc tests. A language teacher may give

848-527: Is it keninkryk en de krêft en de hearlikheid oant yn ivichheid. "Amen" Our Father, which art in Heaven Hallowed be thy Name. Thy Kingdom come. Thy will be done, in earth as it is in Heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, As we forgive them that trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation; But deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom,

901-496: Is now Belgium , to the river Weser , in northern Germany . At that time, the Frisian language was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast. Today this region is sometimes referred to as Great Frisia or Frisia Magna, and many of the areas within it still treasure their Frisian heritage, even though in most places the Frisian languages have been lost. Frisian is the language most closely related to English and Scots , but after at least five hundred years of being subject to

954-481: Is often used as an evaluation task in natural language processing (NLP) to assess the performance of the trained language models . The tasks have a few different variants, like predicting the answer for the blank with and without providing the right options, predicting the ending sentence of a story or passage, etc. Since the design of the BERT encoder, it is also used in pre-training language models, in which case it

1007-582: Is one of the two official languages in the Netherlands, the other being Dutch . ISO 639-1 code fy and ISO 639-2 code fry were assigned to "Frisian", but that was changed in November 2005 to " Western Frisian ". According to the ISO 639 Registration Authority the "previous usage of [this] code has been for Western Frisian, although [the] language name was 'Frisian ' ". The new ISO 639 code stq

1060-521: Is preceded by "the"; therefore, a noun , an adjective or an adverb must follow. However, a conjunction follows the blank; the sentence would not be grammatically correct if anything other than a noun were in the blank. The words "milk and eggs" are important for deciding which noun to put in the blank; "supermarket" is a possible answer; depending on the student, however, the first blank could be store , supermarket , shop , shops , market , or grocer while umbrella , brolly or raincoat could fit

1113-536: Is used for the Saterland Frisian language , a variety of Eastern Frisian (not to be confused with East Frisian Low Saxon , a West Low German dialect). The new ISO 639 code frr is used for the North Frisian language variants spoken in parts of Schleswig-Holstein . The Ried fan de Fryske Beweging is an organization which works for the preservation of the West Frisian language and culture in

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1166-472: The Dutch province of Friesland . The Fryske Academy also plays a large role, since its foundation in 1938, to conduct research on Frisian language, history, and society, including attempts at forming a larger dictionary. Recent attempts have allowed Frisian be used somewhat more in some of the domains of education, media and public administration. Nevertheless, Saterland Frisian and most dialects of North Frisian are seriously endangered and West Frisian

1219-468: The Dutch system of homophony between plural and linking suffixes when speaking West Frisian, by using the West Frisian plural as a linking morpheme. Speakers who had West Frisian as their first language often maintained the West Frisian system of no homophony when speaking West Frisian. Saterland and North Frisian are officially recognised and protected as minority languages in Germany, and West Frisian

1272-671: The Dykstra surname arrived in the United States between 1840 and 1900, well before the United States experienced "waves of immigration." Most Dykstras were farmers and all belonged to the Dutch Reformed, and later the Christian Reformed Church . Large waves of emigrants also migrated to Brazil, namely to the town of Carambei . The Dykstra/Dijkstra family was integral to the settlement of the area and for

1325-555: The Middle Frisian period (c.1550-c.1820) in the 16th century is based on the fairly abrupt halt in the use of Frisian as a written language. Up until the 15th century, Frisian was a language widely spoken and written, but from 1500 onwards it became an almost exclusively oral language, mainly used in rural areas. This was in part due to the occupation of its stronghold, the Dutch province of Friesland (Fryslân), in 1498, by Albert III, Duke of Saxony , who replaced West Frisian as

1378-655: The West Frisian language. The compiled literary work of the Halbertsma brothers (Joost, Tjalling , and Eeltje ), Rimen en Teltsjes , is regarded as the standard Frisian literary work. This had begun the effort to continuously preserve the West Frisian language, which continues unto this day. It was however not until the first half of the 20th century that the West Frisian revival movement began to gain strength, not only through its language, but also through its culture and history, supporting singing and acting in West Frisian in order to facilitate West Frisian speaking. It

1431-473: The blank, as well as foolish or cheesy . Using those answers, a teacher may ask students to reflect on the opinions drawn from the given cloze. Recent research using eye-tracking has posited that cloze/gapfill items where a selection of words are given as options may be testing different kinds of reading skills depending on the language abilities of the participants taking the test. Lower ability test takers are suggested to be more likely to be concentrating on

1484-470: The centuries-long Hanseatic League of the Late Middle Ages . There are three main groups of Frisian varieties: West Frisian , Saterland Frisian , and North Frisian . Some linguists consider these three varieties, despite their mutual unintelligibility , to be dialects of one single Frisian language, whereas others consider them to be a number of separate languages equal to or greater than

1537-536: The centuries. Old Frisian , however, was very similar to Old English . Historically, both English and Frisian are marked by the loss of the Germanic nasal in words like us ( ús ; uns in German), soft ( sêft ; sanft ) or goose ( goes ; Gans ): see Anglo-Frisian nasal spirant law . Also, when followed by some vowels, the Germanic k softened to a ch sound; for example, the Frisian for cheese and church

1590-447: The dominant language in judicial, administrative and religious affairs. In this period the great Frisian poet Gysbert Japiks (1603–66), a schoolteacher and cantor from the city of Bolsward , who largely fathered modern West Frisian literature and orthography, was really an exception to the rule. His example was not followed until the 19th century, when entire generations of West Frisian authors and poets appeared. This coincided with

1643-469: The earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century, there are a few examples of runic inscriptions from the region which are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language. These runic writings however usually do not amount to more than single- or few-word inscriptions, and cannot be said to constitute literature as such. The transition from the Old Frisian to

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1696-545: The fact that dialects within those branches may not be mutually intelligible. The three branches are: West Frisian , which is by far the most spoken of the three and is an official language in the Dutch province of Friesland , where it is spoken on the mainland and on two of the West Frisian Islands : Terschelling and Schiermonnikoog . It is also spoken in four villages in the Westerkwartier of

1749-410: The following passage to students: Today, I went to the ___________ and bought some milk and eggs. I knew it was going to rain, but I forgot to take my ________, and ended up getting wet on the way. Students would then be required to fill in the blanks with words that would best complete the passage. The context in language and content terms is essential in most, if not all, cloze tests. The first blank

1802-462: The influence of Dutch , modern Frisian in some aspects bears a greater similarity to Dutch than to English; one must also take into account the centuries-long drift of English away from Frisian. Thus the two languages have become less mutually intelligible over time, partly due to the influence which Dutch and Low German have had on Frisian, and partly due to the vast influence some languages (in particular Norman French ) have had on English throughout

1855-411: The information contained in the words immediately surrounding the gap, while higher ability test takers are thought to be able to use a wider context window , which is also true for more capable large language models , such as ChatGPT , in contrast to less able older models. A number of the methodological problems pointed out by researchers regarding the open-ended type cloze item (readers must supply

1908-596: The introduction of modern farming practices. Many Dykstras settled in Michigan , Illinois , Iowa , California , New York , and New Jersey . Many eventually grew away from farming and settled in cities like Grand Rapids, Michigan , Holland, Michigan , and Chicago , Illinois. They became a very successful bunch in businesses such as medicine, dentistry, waste management, banking, and architecture. Frisian languages There are three different branches of Frisian, which are usually called Frisian languages , despite

1961-549: The introduction of the so-called newer breaking system, a prominent grammatical feature in almost all West Frisian dialects, with the notable exception of Southwest Frisian. Therefore, the Modern West Frisian period is considered to have begun at this point in time, around 1820. The revival of the West Frisian Language was led by the poet Gysbert Japiks , who had begun to write in the language as

2014-616: The language has become less important for cultural preservation purposes. It is especially written West Frisian that seems to have trouble surviving, with only 30% of the West Frisian population competent in it; it went out of use in the 16th century and continues to be barely taught today. Frisian languages belong to the West Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages , the most widespread language family in Europe and

2067-628: The language of government with Dutch. Afterwards this practice was continued under the Habsburg rulers of the Netherlands (the German Emperor Charles V and his son, the Spanish King Philip II ), and even when the Netherlands became independent, in 1585, West Frisian did not regain its former status. The reason for this was the rise of Holland as the dominant part of the Netherlands, and its language, Dutch, as

2120-486: The most important figure in the spreading of the West Frisian language was minister Joost. H. Halbertsma (1789–1869), who translated many works into the West Frisian language, such as the New Testament He had however, like Hilarides, focused mostly on the vernacular of the West Frisian language, where he focused on translating texts, plays and songs for the lower and middle classes in order to teach and expand

2173-673: The municipality of Saterland in the Lower Saxon district of Cloppenburg . Surrounded by bogs , the four Saterlandic villages lie just outside the borders of East Frisia , in the Oldenburg Münsterland region. In East Frisia proper, East Frisian Low Saxon is spoken today, which is not a Frisian language, but a variant of Low German/Low Saxon . Depending upon their location, the six Frisian languages have been heavily influenced by and bear similarities to Dutch and Low German/Low Saxon , and in addition North Frisian has

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2226-691: The neighbouring province of Groningen . North Frisian , the second branch, is spoken in the northernmost German district of Nordfriesland in the state of Schleswig-Holstein : on the North Frisian mainland, and on the North Frisian Islands of Sylt , Föhr , Amrum , and the Halligs . It is also spoken on the islands of Heligoland ( deät Lun ) and Düne ( de Halem ), in the North Sea . The third Frisian branch, East Frisian , has only one remaining variant, Sater Frisian , spoken in

2279-551: The number of main branches discussed here. Indeed, the insular varieties of West Frisian are not intelligible to the mainland, and by that standard are additional languages, and North Frisian is also divided into several strongly diverse dialects, which are not all mutually intelligible among themselves. West Frisian is strongly influenced by Dutch. The other Frisian languages, meanwhile, have been influenced by Low German and German. Stadsfries and West Frisian Dutch are not Frisian, but Dutch dialects influenced by West Frisian. Frisian

2332-546: The power, and the glory, For ever and ever. Amen. Onze Vader die in de hemelen zijt, Uw naam worde geheiligd; Uw Koninkrijk kome; Uw wil geschiede, gelijk in de hemel alzo ook op de aarde. Geef ons heden ons dagelijks brood; en vergeef ons onze schulden, gelijk ook wij vergeven onze schuldenaren; en leid ons niet in verzoeking, maar verlos ons van de boze. Want van U is het Koninkrijk "en de kracht en de heerlijkheid in der eeuwigheid. Amen. NB: * See also West Frisian language#Sample text . ** Which

2385-535: The quality and amount of time Frisian is taught in the classroom is low, concluding that Frisian lessons do not contribute meaningfully to the linguistic and cultural development of the students. Moreover, Frisian runs the risk of dissolving into Dutch, especially in Friesland , where both languages are used. In the Early Middle Ages the Frisian lands stretched from the area around Bruges , in what

2438-484: The same in both languages (West Frisian: "Bûter, brea en griene tsiis is goed Ingelsk en goed Frysk.") One major difference between Old Frisian and modern Frisian is that in the Old Frisian period ( c.  1150  – c.  1550 ) grammatical cases still existed. Some of the texts that are preserved from this period are from the 12th or 13th, but most are from the 14th and 15th centuries. Generally, all these texts are restricted to legalistic writings. Although

2491-536: The second. A possible completed passage would be: Today, I went to the supermarket and bought some milk and eggs. I knew it was going to rain, but I forgot to take my umbrella and ended up getting wet on the way. Besides use for testing linguistic fluency, a cloze test may also be used for testing factual knowledge, for example: ________ is the anaerobic catabolism of glucose. Possible answers would then include lactic acid fermentation , anaerobic glycolysis , and anaerobic respiration . The definition of success in

2544-643: The small size of the speech community and of the lack of institutional support to help preserve and spread the language. In the North Frisia ( Nordfriesland ) region of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein , there were 10,000 North Frisian speakers. Although many of these live on the mainland, most are found on the islands, notably Sylt , Föhr , Amrum , and Heligoland . The local corresponding North Frisian dialects are still in use. West Frisian-Dutch bilinguals are split into two categories: Speakers who had Dutch as their first language tended to maintain

2597-632: The world. Its closest living genealogical relatives are the Anglic languages , i.e. English and Scots ( Anglo-Frisian languages ); together with the also closely related Low Saxon dialects the two groups make up the group of North Sea Germanic languages . Us Heit, dy't yn de himelen is jins namme wurde hillige. Jins keninkryk komme. Jins wollen barre, allyk yn 'e himel sa ek op ierde. Jou ús hjoed ús deistich brea. En ferjou ús ús skulden, allyk ek wy ferjouwe ús skuldners. En lied ús net yn fersiking, mar ferlos ús fan 'e kweade. Want Jowes

2650-489: Was changed to "who", in earth to "on earth," and them that to "those who" in the 1928 version of the Church of England prayer book and used in other later Anglican prayer books too. The words given here are those of the 1662 book. NB: These are not always literal translations of each other. Cloze test A cloze test (also cloze deletion test or occlusion test ) is an exercise, test, or assessment in which

2703-470: Was not until 1960 that Dutch began to dominate West Frisian in Friesland; with many non-Frisian immigrants into Friesland, the language gradually began to diminish, and survives now only due to the constant effort of scholars and organisations. In recent years, it has been the province of Friesland, rather than the language itself, that has become a more important part of the West Frisian identity; as such,

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2756-528: Was spoken there at one time, only to have been gradually replaced by Low Saxon since the Middle Ages. This local language is now, like Frisian, under threat by standard Dutch and German. Most Frisian speakers live in the Netherlands , primarily in the province of Friesland , which since 1997 officially uses its West Frisian name of Fryslân, where the number of native speakers is about 400,000, which

2809-409: Was very ______. Given the above passage, students' answers may then vary depending on their vocabulary skills and their personal opinions. However, the placement of the blank at the end of the sentence restricts the possible words that may complete the sentence; following an adverb and finishing the sentence, the word is most likely an adjective. Romantic, chivalrous or gallant may, for example, occupy

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