119-597: Theophilos ( Greek : Θεόφιλος , romanized : Theóphilos , sometimes Latinized as Theophilus ; c. 812 – 20 January 842) was the Byzantine Emperor from 829 until his death in 842. He was the second emperor of the Amorian dynasty and the last emperor to support iconoclasm . Theophilos personally led the armies in his long war against the Arabs, beginning in 831. Theophilos
238-537: A Muslim captive escaped and informed the caliph where there was a section of the wall that had only a front facade. Al-Mu'tasim concentrated his bombardment on this section, and the wall was breached. Having heroically held for fifty-five days, the city fell to al-Mu'tasim on 12 or 15 August 838. In 838, in order to impress the Caliph of Baghdad , Theophilus had John the Grammarian distribute 36,000 nomismata to
357-577: A basis for coinages: anthropology , photography , telephony , isomer , biomechanics , cinematography , etc. Together with Latin words , they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary ; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin . Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian , which, by most accounts,
476-612: A center of Christian activity (see also below ), due to frequent imperial visits, and through the letters of the pagan scholar Libanius . Bishop Marcellus of Ancyra and Basil of Ancyra were active in the theological controversies of their day, and the city was the site of no fewer than three church synods in 314 , 358 and 375, the latter two in favor of Arianism . The city was visited by Emperor Constans I (r. 337–350) in 347 and 350, Julian (r. 361–363) during his Persian campaign in 362, and Julian's successor Jovian (r. 363–364) in winter 363/364 (he entered his consulship while in
595-558: A fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts . The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes , a limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in
714-560: A faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill . The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase ( majuscule ) and lowercase ( minuscule ) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs : three different accent marks ( acute , grave , and circumflex ), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on
833-540: A foreign language. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, " Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English ". Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near
952-461: A large market and trading center but it also functioned as a major administrative capital, where a high official ruled from the city's Praetorium, a large administrative palace or office. During the 3rd century, life in Ancyra, as in other Anatolian towns, seems to have become somewhat militarized in response to the invasions and instability of the town. The city is well known during the 4th century as
1071-573: A productive agricultural region in Anatolia. In the Ottoman period, Ankara was well known for producing grain, cotton, and fruits. The city has exported mohair (from the Angora goat ) and Angora wool (from the Angora rabbit ) internationally for centuries. In the 19th century, the city also exported substantial amounts of goat and cat skins, gum , wax , honey , berries, and madder root . It
1190-461: A short-lived state of her own. The town was reincorporated into the Roman Empire under Emperor Aurelian in 272. The tetrarchy , a system of multiple (up to four) emperors introduced by Diocletian (284–305), seems to have engaged in a substantial program of rebuilding and of road construction from Ancyra westwards to Germe and Dorylaeum (now Eskişehir ). In its heyday, Roman Ancyra was
1309-534: A tactical advantage in the hills, and the Bulgars were driven out by the army of Vlastimir . The war ended with the death of Theophilos, which released Vlastimir from his obligations to the Byzantine Empire. The health of Theophilos gradually failed, and he died on 20 January 842. His reputation as a judge endured, and in the literary composition Timarion Theophilos is featured as one of the judges in
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#17327724367481428-804: Is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States , Australia , Canada , South Africa , Chile , Brazil , Argentina , Russia , Ukraine , the United Kingdom , and throughout the European Union , especially in Germany . Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout
1547-773: Is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece , Cyprus , Italy (in Calabria and Salento ), southern Albania , and other regions of the Balkans , Caucasus , the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor , and the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system
1666-479: Is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts ; they include a large number of Greek toponyms . The form and meaning of many words have changed. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian , and Turkish . During
1785-668: Is decreasing, are the provinces with the highest net migration to Ankara. About one third of the Central Anatolia population of 15,608,868 people resides in Ankara. The literacy rate in the whole province for people who are 15 years old or older is 98.18% according to 2020 TÜİK data. Ankara Province also has the highest percentage of tertiary education graduates in Turkey with 29.08% of the population having either an undergraduate, master's or doctor's degree. Ankara has long been
1904-630: Is famous for the Monumentum Ancyranum ( Temple of Augustus and Rome ) which contains the official record of the Acts of Augustus , known as the Res Gestae Divi Augusti , an inscription cut in marble on the walls of this temple. The ruins of Ancyra still furnish today valuable bas-reliefs , inscriptions and other architectural fragments. Two other Galatian tribal centers, Tavium near Yozgat , and Pessinus (Balhisar) to
2023-466: Is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary , Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . The phonology , morphology , syntax , and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to
2142-814: Is sometimes called aljamiado , as when Romance languages are written in the Arabic alphabet. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Greek: Transcription of the example text into Latin alphabet : Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: Proto-Greek Mycenaean Ancient Koine Medieval Modern Ancyra Ankara
2261-526: Is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey , and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora . Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary . Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around
2380-763: Is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek . In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia ( άνω τελεία ). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , 'whatever') from ότι ( óti , 'that'). Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon , or bi-directional text,
2499-650: Is the Greek alphabet , which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Coptic , Gothic , and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with
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#17327724367482618-507: Is the capital city of Turkey . Located in the central part of Anatolia , the city has a population of 5.1 million in its urban center and 5.8 million in Ankara Province . Ankara is Turkey's second-largest city after Istanbul by population, first by urban area (4,130 km ), and third by metro area (25,632 km ). Serving as the capital of the ancient Celtic state of Galatia (280–64 BC), and later of
2737-600: The Angora Vilayet (1867–1922). The historical center of Ankara is a rocky hill rising 150 m (500 ft) over the left bank of the Ankara River , a tributary of the Sakarya River . The hill remains crowned by the ruins of Ankara Castle . Although few of its outworks have survived, there are well-preserved examples of Roman and Ottoman architecture throughout the city, the most remarkable being
2856-428: The Angora cat . The area is also known for its pears, honey and Muscat grapes. Although situated in one of the driest regions of Turkey and surrounded mostly by steppe vegetation (except for the forested areas on the southern periphery), Ankara can be considered a green city in terms of green areas per inhabitant, at 72 square meters (775 square feet) per head. The orthography of the name Ankara has varied over
2975-505: The Battle of Ankara in 1402 and took the city, but in 1403 Angora was again under Ottoman control. The Levant Company maintained a factory in the town from 1639 to 1768. In the 19th century, its population was estimated at 20,000 to 60,000. It was sacked by Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha in 1832. From 1867 to 1922, the city served as the capital of the Angora Vilayet , which included most of ancient Galatia. Prior to World War I ,
3094-587: The East Roman capital, emperors in the 4th and 5th centuries would retire from the humid summer weather on the Bosporus to the drier mountain atmosphere of Ancyra. Theodosius II (408–450) kept his court in Ancyra in the summers. Laws issued in Ancyra testify to the time they spent there. The Metropolis of Ancyra continued to be a residential see of the Eastern Orthodox Church until
3213-495: The Eastern Mediterranean , in what are today Southern Italy , Turkey , Cyprus , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , Egypt , and Libya ; in the area of the Black Sea , in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan ; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia , Monoikos , and Mainake . It
3332-847: The Hittites , in the 10th century BC by the Phrygians , and later by the Lydians , Persians , Greeks , Galatians , Romans , Byzantines , and Turks (the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm , the Ottoman Empire and finally republican Türkiye ). The oldest settlements in and around the city center of Ankara belonged to the Hattic civilization which existed during the Bronze Age and was gradually absorbed c. 2000 – 1700 BC by
3451-492: The Indo-European Hittites . The city grew significantly in size and importance under the Phrygians starting around 1000 BC, and experienced a large expansion following the mass migration from Gordion , (the capital of Phrygia ), after an earthquake which severely damaged that city around that time. In Phrygian tradition, King Midas was venerated as the founder of Ancyra, but Pausanias mentions that
3570-516: The Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ), but little definitive evidence has been found. In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan , and Greek has a central position in it. Linear B , attested as early as
3689-851: The Netherworld . Theophilos strengthened the Walls of Constantinople , built the fortress of Sarkel on the Don river in Khazar territories, created the Cherson , Paphlagonia and Chaldia themes , and built a hospital, which continued to exist until the twilight of the Byzantine Empire. By his marriage with Theodora , Theophilos had seven children: two sons and five daughters: Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : Ελληνικά , romanized : Elliniká , [eliniˈka] ; Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνική , romanized : Hellēnikḗ )
Theophilos (emperor) - Misplaced Pages Continue
3808-515: The Republic of Venice sent a fleet of 60 galleys (each carrying 200 men) to assist the Byzantines in driving the Arabs from Crotone , but it failed. During this campaign Al-Mu'tasim discovered that some of his top generals were plotting against him. Many of these leading commanders were arrested and some executed before he arrived home. Al-Afshin seems not to have been involved in this, but he
3927-595: The Roman province with the same name (25 BC–7th century), Ankara has various Hattian , Hittite , Lydian , Phrygian , Galatian , Greek , Persian , Roman , Byzantine , and Ottoman archeological sites . Ankara was historically known as Ancyra and Angora. The Ottomans made the city the capital first of the Anatolia Eyalet (1393 – late 15th century) and then the Angora Eyalet (1827–1864) and
4046-550: The Trewartha climate classification , the city is classified as humid continental ( Dc ). Due to its elevation and inland location, Ankara has cold and snowy winters, and hot and dry summers. Rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn. The city lies in USDA Hardiness zone 7b, and its annual average precipitation is fairly low at 414 millimeters (16 in), nevertheless precipitation can be observed throughout
4165-465: The large-scale invasion of Anatolia by Caliph Harun al-Rashid in the next year. Arab sources report that Harun and his successor al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) took the city, but this information is later invention. In 838, however, during the Amorium campaign , the armies of Caliph al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842) converged and met at the city; abandoned by its inhabitants, Ancara was razed to the ground, before
4284-492: The nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive ). The verbal system has lost the infinitive , the synthetically -formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood . Many have been replaced by periphrastic ( analytical ) forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual , and plural in
4403-760: The 20 BC Temple of Augustus and Rome that boasts the Monumentum Ancyranum , the inscription recording the Res Gestae Divi Augusti . On 23 April 1920, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey was established in Ankara, which became the headquarters of the Turkish National Movement during the Turkish War of Independence . Ankara became the new Turkish capital upon the establishment of
4522-641: The 20th century, with about 40,000 faithful, mostly Turkish-speaking, but that situation ended as a result of the 1923 Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations . The earlier Armenian genocide put an end to the residential eparchy of Ancyra of the Armenian Catholic Church , which had been established in 1850. It is also a titular metropolis of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople . Both
4641-470: The 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier. The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language . Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages . The Greek language is conventionally divided into
4760-669: The Ancient Byzantine Metropolitan archbishopric and the 'modern' Armenian eparchy are now listed by the Catholic Church as titular sees , with separate apostolic successions . After the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuk Turks overran much of Anatolia. By 1073, the Turkish settlers had reached the vicinity of Ancyra, and the city was captured shortly after, at the latest by the time of
4879-597: The Arab armies went on to besiege and destroy Amorium reaching as far as Smyrna . In 859, Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867) came to the city during a campaign against the Arabs, and ordered its fortifications restored. In 872, the city was menaced, but not taken, by the Paulicians under Chrysocheir . The last Arab raid to reach the city was undertaken in 931, by the Abbasid governor of Tarsus , Thamal al-Dulafi , but
Theophilos (emperor) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4998-485: The Byzantines were defeated and lost several fortresses. In 831 Theophilos retaliated by leading a large army into Cilicia and capturing Tarsus . The Emperor returned to Constantinople in triumph, but in the autumn he was defeated in Cappadocia . Another defeat in the same province in 833 forced Theophilos to sue for peace (Theophilos offered 100,000 gold dinars and the return of 7,000 prisoners), which he obtained
5117-662: The East. Theophilos had given asylum to a number of refugees from the east in 834, including Nasr, a Persian . He baptized one of the refugees, Theophobos , who married the Emperor's aunt Irene and became one of his generals. As relations with the Abbasids deteriorated, Theophilos prepared for a new war. In 837 Theophilos led a vast army of 70,000 men towards Mesopotamia and captured Melitene and Arsamosata . The Emperor also took and destroyed Sozopetra , which some sources claim as
5236-486: The Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet , with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit
5355-425: The Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than
5474-495: The Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary ), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet. Greek has been written in
5593-629: The Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow
5712-446: The Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey , though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community
5831-438: The Republic on 29 October 1923, succeeding in this role as the former Turkish capital Istanbul following the fall of the Ottoman Empire . The government is a prominent employer, but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city located at the center of Turkey's road and railway networks. The city gave its name to the Angora wool shorn from Angora rabbits , the long-haired Angora goat (the source of mohair ), and
5950-420: The Roman town. It has now been covered and diverted, but it formed the northern boundary of the old town during the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman periods. Çankaya, the rim of the majestic hill to the south of the present city center, stood well outside the Roman city, but may have been a summer resort. In the 19th century, the remains of at least one Roman villa or large house were still standing not far from where
6069-447: The Seljuks of Rum retook it. After the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, in which the Mongols defeated the Seljuks, most of Anatolia became part of the dominion of the Mongols. Taking advantage of Seljuk decline, a semi-religious cast of craftsmen and trade people named Ahiler chose Angora as their independent city-state in 1290. Orhan , the second Bey of the Ottoman Empire , captured the city in 1356. Timur defeated Bayezid I at
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#17327724367486188-419: The Serbs independence; Vlastimir acknowledged nominal overlordship of the Emperor. The annexation of western Macedonia by the Bulgars changed the political situation. Malamir or his successor may have seen a threat in the Serb consolidation and opted to subjugate them in the midst of the conquest of Slav lands. Another cause might have been that the Byzantines wanted to divert attention so that they could cope with
6307-463: The Slavic uprising in the Peloponnese , meaning they sent the Serbs to instigate the war. It is thought that the rapid extension of Bulgars over Slavs prompted the Serbs to unite into a state. Khan Presian I (r. 836–852) invaded Serbian territory in 839 (see Bulgarian–Serbian Wars ). The invasion led to a three-year war, in which Vlastimir was victorious; Presian was heavily defeated, made no territorial gains, and lost many of his men. The Serbs had
6426-405: The Turkish Republic. Ankara is the center of the state-owned and private Turkish defence and aerospace companies, where the industrial plants and headquarters of the Turkish Aerospace Industries , MKE , ASELSAN , HAVELSAN , ROKETSAN , FNSS , Nurol Makina , and numerous other firms are located. Exports to foreign countries from these defense and aerospace firms have steadily increased in
6545-404: The acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography . After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system),
6664-405: The ages. It has been identified with the Hittite cult center Ankuwaš , although this remains a matter of debate. In classical antiquity and during the medieval period, the city was known as Ánkyra ( Ἄγκυρα , lit " anchor ") in Greek and Ancyra in Latin ; the Galatian Celtic name was probably a similar variant. Following its annexation by the Seljuk Turks in 1073,
6783-402: The ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of
6902-417: The birthplace of Caliph al-Mu'tasim . Theophilos returned to Constantinople in triumph. Eager for revenge, Al-Mu'tasim assembled a vast army and launched a two-pronged invasion of Anatolia in 838. Theophilos decided to strike one division of the caliph's army before they could combine. On 21 July 838 at the Battle of Anzen in Dazimon, Theophilos personally led a Byzantine army of 25,000 to 40,000 men against
7021-416: The capital of the new Bucellarian Theme . The city was captured at least temporarily by the Umayyad prince Maslama ibn Hisham in 739/40, the last of the Umayyads' territorial gains from the Byzantine Empire. Ancyra was attacked without success by Abbasid forces in 776 and in 798/99. In 805, Emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811) strengthened its fortifications, a fact which probably saved it from sack during
7140-406: The chains"), was captured for the first time by the Arabs of the Rashidun Caliphate , under Muawiyah , the future founder of the Umayyad Caliphate . At about the same time, the themes were established in Anatolia, and Ancyra became capital of the Opsician Theme , which was the largest and most important theme until it was split up under Emperor Constantine V (r. 741–775); Ancyra then became
7259-420: The church of St. Clement can be found today in a building just off Işıklar Caddesi in the Ulus district. Quite possibly this marks the site where Clement was originally buried. Four years later, a doctor of the town named Plato and his brother Antiochus also became celebrated martyrs under Galerius. Theodotus of Ancyra is also venerated as a saint. However, the persecution proved unsuccessful and in 314 Ancyra
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#17327724367487378-405: The citizens of Baghdad. In 839 or 840, he initiated diplomatic contact with the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba . The name of his ambassador is somewhat garbled in the Arabic accounts of Ibn Hayyan , but it seems to have been the admiral Krateros. He was accompanied on his return by the Córdoban poet al-Ghazal , who signed a pact of friendship with Theophilos directed against the Abbasids. Around 841,
7497-426: The city again was not captured. Early Christian martyrs of Ancyra, about whom little is known, included Proklos and Hilarios who were natives of the otherwise unknown nearby village of Kallippi, and suffered repression under the emperor Trajan (98–117). In the 280s we hear of Philumenos, a Christian corn merchant from southern Anatolia, being captured and martyred in Ankara, and Eustathius. As in other Roman towns,
7616-484: The city as his summer residence, and some information about the ecclesiastical affairs of the city during the early 5th century is found in the works of Palladius of Galatia and Nilus of Ancyra. In 479, the rebel Marcian attacked the city, without being able to capture it. In 610/11, Comentiolus , brother of Emperor Phocas (r. 602–610), launched his own unsuccessful rebellion in the city against Heraclius (r. 610–641). Ten years later, in 620 or more likely 622, it
7735-419: The city became known in many European languages as Angora ; it was also known in Ottoman Turkish as Engürü ( انگورو ). The form "Angora" is preserved in the names of breeds of many different kinds of animals, and in the names of several locations in the US (see Angora ). The region's history can be traced back to the Bronze Age Hattic civilization , which was succeeded in the 2nd millennium BC by
7854-414: The city for a short period. After his death at Babylon in 323 BC and the subsequent division of his empire among his generals, Ankara, and its environs fell into the share of Antigonus . Another important expansion took place under the Greeks of Pontos who came there around 300 BC and developed the city as a trading center for the commerce of goods between the Black Sea ports and Crimea to
7973-477: The city was actually far older, which accords with present archeological knowledge. Phrygian rule was succeeded first by Lydian and later by Persian rule, though the strongly Phrygian character of the peasantry remained, as evidenced by the gravestones of the much later Roman period. Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians' defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great who conquered the city in 333 BC. Alexander came from Gordion to Ankara and stayed in
8092-435: The city). After Jovian's death soon after, Valentinian I (r. 364–375) was acclaimed emperor at Ancyra, and in the next year his brother Valens (r. 364–378) used Ancyra as his base against the usurper Procopius . When the province of Galatia was divided sometime in 396/99, Ancyra remained the civil capital of Galatia I, as well as its ecclesiastical center ( metropolitan see ). Emperor Arcadius (r. 383–408) frequently used
8211-426: The city. Ankara is also famous for its pears. Another renowned natural product of Ankara is its indigenous type of honey ( Ankara Balı ) which is known for its light color and is mostly produced by the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo in the Gazi district, and by other facilities in the Elmadağ, Çubuk and Beypazarı districts. Çubuk-1 and Çubuk-2 dams on the Çubuk Brook in Ankara were among the first dams constructed in
8330-504: The core piece of land in central Anatolia. In response, the leader of the Turkish nationalist movement, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , established the headquarters of his resistance movement in Angora in 1920. After the Turkish War of Independence was won and the Treaty of Sèvres was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) , the Turkish nationalists replaced the Ottoman Empire with the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923. A few days earlier, Angora had officially replaced Constantinople as
8449-484: The countryside into the city to seek a better standard of living. As a result, many illegal houses called gecekondu were built around the city, causing the unplanned and uncontrolled urban landscape of Ankara, as not enough planned housing could be built fast enough. Although precariously built, the vast majority of them have electricity, running water and modern household amenities. Nevertheless, many of these gecekondus have been replaced by huge public housing projects in
8568-404: The early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek , used today for all official purposes and in education . The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of
8687-535: The end of the 4th century, St. Jerome , a native of Dalmatia, observed that the language spoken around Ankara was very similar to that being spoken in the northwest of the Roman world near Trier . The city was subsequently passed under the control of the Roman Empire . In 25 BC, Emperor Augustus raised it to the status of a polis and made it the capital city of the Roman province of Galatia . Ankara
8806-567: The epics of Homer , ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute
8925-762: The expiration of the 20-year peace treaty between the Empire and Bulgaria, Theophilos ravaged the Bulgarian frontier. The Bulgarians retaliated, and under the leadership of Isbul they reached Adrianople . At this time, if not earlier, the Bulgarians annexed Philippopolis and its environs. Khan Malamir died in 836. The peace between the Serbs , Byzantine foederati , and the Bulgars lasted until 839. Vlastimir of Serbia united several tribes, and Theophilos granted
9044-418: The fact that it was the junction point where the roads in northern Anatolia running north–south and east–west intersected, giving it major strategic importance for Rome's eastern frontier. The great imperial road running east passed through Ankara and a succession of emperors and their armies came this way. They were not the only ones to use the Roman highway network, which was equally convenient for invaders. In
9163-452: The following periods: In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia : the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki , the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa , meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in
9282-441: The form of tower blocks such as Elvankent, Eryaman and Güzelkent ; and also as mass housing compounds for military and civil service accommodation. Although many gecekondus still remain, they too are gradually being replaced by mass housing compounds, as empty land plots in the city of Ankara for new construction projects are becoming impossible to find. Çorum and Yozgat, which are located in Central Anatolia and whose population
9401-525: The government had moved there, Ankara had about 35,000 residents. By 1927 there were 44,553 residents and by 1950 the population had grown to 286,781. After 1930, the city officially became known in Western languages as Ankara. By the late 1930s, the English name "Angora" was no longer in popular use. Ankara continued to grow rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century and eventually outranked İzmir as Turkey's second-largest city, after Istanbul . Ankara's urban population reached 4,587,558 in 2014, while
9520-475: The grammarian, and was a great admirer of music and art. On 2 October 829, Theophilos succeeded his father as sole emperor. Theophilos continued in his predecessors' iconoclasm , though without his father's more conciliatory tone, issuing an edict in 832 forbidding the veneration of icons . He also saw himself as the champion of justice, which he served most ostentatiously by executing his father's co-conspirators against Leo V immediately after his accession. At
9639-718: The headquarters of the Tectosages tribe. Other centers were Pessinus , today's Ballıhisar, for the Trocmi tribe, and Tavium , to the east of Ankara, for the Tolistobogii tribe. The city was then known as Ancyra . The Celtic element was probably relatively small in numbers; a warrior aristocracy which ruled over Phrygian -speaking peasants. However, the Celtic language continued to be spoken in Galatia for many centuries. At
9758-439: The infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn
9877-467: The late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary , which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A , has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language). The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek , is the earliest known form of Greek. Another similar system used to write
9996-640: The membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages . Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë . It is also an official minority language in the regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , Greek
10115-441: The modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and
10234-399: The new Turkish capital city, on 13 October 1923, and Republican officials declared that the city's name is Ankara. After Ankara became the capital of the newly founded Republic of Turkey, new development divided the city into an old section, called Ulus , and a new section, called Yenişehir . Ancient buildings reflecting Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark
10353-585: The next year, after the death of Al-Ma'mun. During the respite from the war against the Abbasids, Theophilos arranged for the abduction of the Byzantine captives settled north of the Danube by Krum of Bulgaria . The rescue operation was carried out with success in c. 836, and the peace between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire was quickly restored. However, it proved impossible to maintain peace in
10472-553: The north; Konya in the south and Kırıkkale in the east. Ankara and its province are located in the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey. The Çubuk Brook flows through the city center of Ankara. It is connected in the western suburbs of the city to the Ankara River , which is a tributary of the Sakarya River . Ankara has a cold semi-arid climate under the Köppen climate classification ( BSk ), while under
10591-506: The north; Assyria, Cyprus, and Lebanon to the south; and Georgia, Armenia and Persia to the east. By that time the city also took its name Ἄγκυρα ( Ánkyra , meaning anchor in Greek ) which, in slightly modified form, provides the modern name of Ankara . In 278 BC, the city, along with the rest of central Anatolia, was occupied by a Celtic group, the Galatians , who were the first to make Ankara one of their main tribal centers,
10710-399: The noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language . Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks
10829-470: The objects of study of the discipline of Classics . During antiquity , Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world . It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . It
10948-409: The old section. The new section, now centered on Kızılay Square , has the trappings of a more modern city: wide streets, hotels, theaters, shopping malls, and high-rises. Government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section. Ankara has experienced a phenomenal growth since it was made Turkey's capital in 1923, when it was "a small town of no importance". In 1924, the year after
11067-706: The older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian , South Slavic ( Macedonian / Bulgarian ) and Eastern Romance languages ( Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian ). Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics , physics , astronomy , democracy , philosophy , athletics , theatre, rhetoric , baptism , evangelist , etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as
11186-527: The past decades. The IDEF in Ankara is one of the largest international expositions of the global arms industry . A number of the global automotive companies also have production facilities in Ankara, such as the German bus and truck manufacturer MAN SE . Ankara hosts the OSTIM Industrial Zone , Turkey's largest industrial park . A large percentage of the complicated employment in Ankara
11305-456: The population of Ankara Province reached 5,150,072 in 2015. The Presidential Palace of Türkiye is situated in Ankara. This building serves as the main residence of the president. Geographically, Ankara is located in the middle of the Kızılırmak and Sakarya rivers, and the Sakarya River forms its border with Eskişehir in the west. Ankara shares its borders with Bolu and Çankırı in
11424-526: The population of the Ankara Province was 5,782,285. When Ankara became the capital of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, it was designated as a planned city for 500,000 future inhabitants. During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the city grew in a planned and orderly pace. However, from the 1950s onward, the city grew much faster than envisioned, because unemployment and poverty forced people to migrate from
11543-590: The rebellion of Nikephoros Melissenos in 1081. In 1101, when the Crusade under Raymond IV of Toulouse arrived, the city had been under Danishmend control for some time. The Crusaders captured the city, and handed it over to the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118). Byzantine rule did not last long, and the city was captured by the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum at some unknown point; in 1127, it returned to Danishmend control until 1143, when
11662-584: The reign of Diocletian marked the culmination of the persecution of the Christians. In 303, Ancyra was one of the towns where the co-emperors Diocletian and his deputy Galerius launched their anti-Christian persecution. In Ancyra, their first target was the 38-year-old Bishop of the town, whose name was Clement. Clement's life describes how he was taken to Rome, then sent back, and forced to undergo many interrogations and hardship before he, and his brother, and various companions were put to death. The remains of
11781-584: The second half of the 3rd century, Ancyra was invaded in rapid succession by the Goths coming from the west (who rode far into the heart of Cappadocia , taking slaves and pillaging) and later by the Arabs . For about a decade, the town was one of the western outposts of one of Palmyrean empress Zenobia in the Syrian Desert , who took advantage of a period of weakness and disorder in the Roman Empire to set up
11900-437: The stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks ( rough and smooth breathing ), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis , used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of
12019-526: The time of his accession, Theophilos was obliged to wage wars against the Arabs on two fronts. Sicily was once again invaded by the Arabs, who took Palermo after a year-long siege in 831, established the Emirate of Sicily , and gradually continued to expand across the island. The defence after the invasion of Anatolia by Al-Ma'mun the Abbasid Caliph in 830 was led by the Emperor himself, but
12138-682: The town had a British consulate and a population of around 28,000, roughly 1 ⁄ 3 of whom were Christian. Following the Ottoman defeat in World War I , the Ottoman capital Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and much of Anatolia was occupied by the Allies, who planned to share these lands between Armenia , France , Greece , Italy and the United Kingdom, leaving for the Turks
12257-404: The troops commanded by al-Afshin . Afshin withstood the Byzantine attack, counter-attacked, and won the battle. The Byzantine survivors fell back in disorder and did not interfere in the caliph's continuing campaign. Al-Mu'tasim took Ancyra , and al-Afshin joined him there. The full Abbasid army advanced against Amorium , the cradle of the dynasty. Initially there was determined resistance. Then
12376-400: The west, near Sivrihisar, continued to be reasonably important settlements in the Roman period, but it was Ancyra that grew into a grand metropolis. An estimated 200,000 people lived in Ancyra in good times during the Roman Empire, a far greater number than was to be the case from after the fall of the Roman Empire until the early 20th century. The small Ankara River ran through the center of
12495-551: The whole world from the British Ocean to the barbarian nations", can still be seen, built into the eastern side of the inner circuit of the walls of Ankara Castle. The Column of Julian which was erected in honor of the emperor's visit to the city in 362 still stands today. In 375, Arian bishops met at Ancyra and deposed several bishops, among them St. Gregory of Nyssa . In the late 4th century, Ancyra became something of an imperial holiday resort . After Constantinople became
12614-514: The year. Monthly mean temperatures range from 0.9 °C (33.6 °F) in January to 24.3 °C (75.7 °F) in July, with an annual mean of 12.6 °C (54.7 °F). Ankara's overall temperature regime is very similar to New York City . Ankara had a population of 75,000 in 1927. There were 74,632 male residents and 48,882 female residents in Ankara according to the 1935 census. As of 2022,
12733-478: The Çankaya Presidential Residence stands today. To the west, the Roman city extended until the area of the Gençlik Park and Railway Station, while on the southern side of the hill, it may have extended downward as far as the site presently occupied by Hacettepe University . It was thus a sizeable city by any standards and much larger than the Roman towns of Gaul or Britannia . Ancyra's importance rested on
12852-574: Was a distinct dialect of Greek itself. Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses , with some being exclusive between them. Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated. Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian ) or
12971-568: Was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms , for most of their history. Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish ) and the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English ). Because of
13090-557: Was also used in Ancient Greek. Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script , especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics . The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe
13209-605: Was captured by the Sassanid Persians during the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628 . Although the city returned to Byzantine hands after the end of the war, the Persian presence left traces in the city's archeology, and likely began the process of its transformation from a late antique city to a medieval fortified settlement. In 654, the city, also known in Arabic sources as Qalat as-Salasil ("fortress of
13328-540: Was connected to Istanbul by railway before the First World War , continuing to export mohair, wool, berries, and grain. The Central Anatolia Region is one of the primary locations of grape and wine production in Turkey , and Ankara is particularly famous for its Kalecik Karası and Muscat grapes ; and its Kavaklıdere wine , which is produced in the Kavaklıdere neighborhood within the Çankaya district of
13447-569: Was detected in other intrigues and died in prison in the spring of 841. Caliph al-Mu'tasim fell sick in October 841 and died on 5 January 842. It is said that Theophilos, even though fighting the Arabs built a Baghdad-style palace in Bryas near Chalcedon . Even as far as in the normal streets of Ghuangzhou during the era of Tang , the Arab-style kaftan was in fashion. In 836, following
13566-460: Was involved in the complex theological disputes over the nature of Christ, and a form of Arianism seems to have originated there. In 362–363, Emperor Julian passed through Ancyra on his way to an ill-fated campaign against the Persians, and according to Christian sources, engaged in a persecution of various holy men. The stone base for a statue, with an inscription describing Julian as "Lord of
13685-461: Was probably tottering in Ancyra in Clement's day, it may still have been the majority religion. Twenty years later, Christianity and monotheism had taken its place. Ancyra quickly turned into a Christian city, with a life dominated by monks and priests and theological disputes. The town council or senate gave way to the bishop as the main local figurehead. During the middle of the 4th century, Ancyra
13804-630: Was the center of an important council of the early church ; its 25 disciplinary canons constitute one of the most important documents in the early history of the administration of the Sacrament of Penance . The synod also considered ecclesiastical policy for the reconstruction of the Christian Church after the persecutions, and in particular the treatment of lapsi —Christians who had given in to forced paganism (sacrifices) to avoid martyrdom during these persecutions. Though paganism
13923-465: Was the son of Emperor Michael II and his wife Thekla , and the godson of Emperor Leo V the Armenian . Michael II crowned Theophilos co-emperor in 821. The date is almost universally given as 12 May 821 ( Whitsunday ), although this is not really corroborated by any source (another possible date is 24 March, Easter ). Unlike his father, Theophilos received an extensive education from John Hylilas ,
14042-580: Was under the control of the Frankish Empire ). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios . Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications. The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy . The Yevanic dialect
14161-673: Was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet . In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado , some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet . The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina . This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant ( Lebanon , Palestine, and Syria ). This usage
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