192-1270: Collective intelligence Collective action Self-organized criticality Herd mentality Phase transition Agent-based modelling Synchronization Ant colony optimization Particle swarm optimization Swarm behaviour Social network analysis Small-world networks Centrality Motifs Graph theory Scaling Robustness Systems biology Dynamic networks Evolutionary computation Genetic algorithms Genetic programming Artificial life Machine learning Evolutionary developmental biology Artificial intelligence Evolutionary robotics Reaction–diffusion systems Partial differential equations Dissipative structures Percolation Cellular automata Spatial ecology Self-replication Conversation theory Entropy Feedback Goal-oriented Homeostasis Information theory Operationalization Second-order cybernetics Self-reference System dynamics Systems science Systems thinking Sensemaking Variety Ordinary differential equations Phase space Attractors Population dynamics Chaos Multistability Bifurcation Rational choice theory Bounded rationality Entropy
384-504: A factor analysis . Both studies showed support for a general collective intelligence factor c underlying differences in group performance with an initial eigenvalue accounting for 43% (44% in study 2) of the variance, whereas the next factor accounted for only 18% (20%). That fits the range normally found in research regarding a general individual intelligence factor g typically accounting for 40% to 50% percent of between-individual performance differences on cognitive tests. Afterwards,
576-405: A thermodynamic operation be isolated, and upon the event of isolation, no change occurs in it. A system in a relation of contact equilibrium with another system may thus also be regarded as being in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium. The thermodynamic formalism allows that a system may have contact with several other systems at once, which may or may not also have mutual contact,
768-503: A thermodynamic operation . In a macroscopic equilibrium, perfectly or almost perfectly balanced microscopic exchanges occur; this is the physical explanation of the notion of macroscopic equilibrium. A thermodynamic system in a state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium has a spatially uniform temperature. Its intensive properties , other than temperature, may be driven to spatial inhomogeneity by an unchanging long-range force field imposed on it by its surroundings. In systems that are at
960-753: A thermodynamic system , pressure and temperature tend to become uniform over time because the equilibrium state has higher probability (more possible combinations of microstates ) than any other state. Collective intelligence Collective intelligence ( CI ) is shared or group intelligence ( GI ) that emerges from the collaboration , collective efforts, and competition of many individuals and appears in consensus decision making . The term appears in sociobiology , political science and in context of mass peer review and crowdsourcing applications. It may involve consensus , social capital and formalisms such as voting systems , social media and other means of quantifying mass activity. Collective IQ
1152-491: A "collective consciousness" and Teilhard de Chardin as a thinker who has developed the philosophical implications of the group mind. Tom Atlee focuses primarily on humans and on work to upgrade what Howard Bloom calls "the group IQ". Atlee feels that collective intelligence can be encouraged "to overcome ' groupthink ' and individual cognitive bias in order to allow a collective to cooperate on one process – while achieving enhanced intellectual performance." George Pór defined
1344-439: A "public intelligence" that keeps public officials and corporate managers honest, turning the concept of "national intelligence" (previously concerned about spies and secrecy) on its head. According to Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams , collective intelligence is mass collaboration . In order for this concept to happen, four principles need to exist: A new scientific understanding of collective intelligence defines it as
1536-903: A "scholarly and rigorous treatment", and cited by Adkins as having written a "classic text", A.B. Pippard writes in that text: "Given long enough a supercooled vapour will eventually condense, ... . The time involved may be so enormous, however, perhaps 10 years or more, ... . For most purposes, provided the rapid change is not artificially stimulated, the systems may be regarded as being in equilibrium." Another author, A. Münster, writes in this context. He observes that thermonuclear processes often occur so slowly that they can be ignored in thermodynamics. He comments: "The concept 'absolute equilibrium' or 'equilibrium with respect to all imaginable processes', has therefore, no physical significance." He therefore states that: "... we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to specified processes and defined experimental conditions." According to L. Tisza : "... in
1728-532: A Greek mathematician, linked entropy with a mathematical definition of irreversibility, in terms of trajectories and integrability. In 1865, Clausius named the concept of "the differential of a quantity which depends on the configuration of the system", entropy ( Entropie ) after the Greek word for 'transformation'. He gave "transformational content" ( Verwandlungsinhalt ) as a synonym, paralleling his "thermal and ergonal content" ( Wärme- und Werkinhalt ) as
1920-447: A broader consideration of how to design "collectives" of self-interested adaptive agents to meet a system-wide goal. This was related to single-agent work on "reward shaping" and has been taken forward by numerous researchers in the game theory and engineering communities. Howard Bloom has discussed mass behavior – collective behavior from the level of quarks to the level of bacterial, plant, animal, and human societies. He stresses
2112-692: A central concept for the first law of thermodynamics . Finally, a comparison of both the representations of a work output in a Carnot cycle gives us: | Q H | T H − | Q C | T C = Q H T H + Q C T C = 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {\left\vert Q_{\mathsf {H}}\right\vert }{T_{\mathsf {H}}}}-{\frac {\left\vert Q_{\mathsf {C}}\right\vert }{T_{\mathsf {C}}}}={\frac {Q_{\mathsf {H}}}{T_{\mathsf {H}}}}+{\frac {Q_{\mathsf {C}}}{T_{\mathsf {C}}}}=0} Similarly to
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#17327722955522304-529: A cold one. If we consider a heat engine which is less effective than Carnot cycle (i.e., the work W {\textstyle W} produced by this engine is less than the maximum predicted by Carnot's theorem), its work output is capped by Carnot efficiency as: W < ( 1 − T C T H ) Q H {\displaystyle W<\left(1-{\frac {T_{\mathsf {C}}}{T_{\mathsf {H}}}}\right)Q_{\mathsf {H}}} Substitution of
2496-409: A common temperature, a total internal energy, and a total entropy. Amongst intensive variables, this is a unique property of temperature. It holds even in the presence of long-range forces. (That is, there is no "force" that can maintain temperature discrepancies.) For example, in a system in thermodynamic equilibrium in a vertical gravitational field, the pressure on the top wall is less than that on
2688-476: A constant temperature. However, it does require that each small locality change slowly enough to practically sustain its local Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of molecular velocities. A global non-equilibrium state can be stably stationary only if it is maintained by exchanges between the system and the outside. For example, a globally-stable stationary state could be maintained inside the glass of water by continuously adding finely powdered ice into it to compensate for
2880-419: A group (Group-IQ) parallel to an individual's intelligence quotient (IQ) even though the score is not a quotient per se. Mathematically, c and g are both variables summarizing positive correlations among different tasks supposing that performance on one task is comparable with performance on other similar tasks. c thus is a source of variance among groups and can only be considered as a group's standing on
3072-453: A group's general ability to perform a wide range of tasks. Definition, operationalization and statistical methods are similar to the psychometric approach of general individual intelligence . Hereby, an individual's performance on a given set of cognitive tasks is used to measure general cognitive ability indicated by the general intelligence factor g proposed by English psychologist Charles Spearman and extracted via factor analysis . In
3264-577: A human swarm challenge by CBS Interactive to predict the Kentucky Derby. The swarm correctly predicted the first four horses, in order, defying 542–1 odds and turning a $ 20 bet into $ 10,800. The value of parallel collective intelligence was demonstrated in medical applications by researchers at Stanford University School of Medicine and Unanimous AI in a set of published studies wherein groups of human doctors were connected by real-time swarming algorithms and tasked with diagnosing chest x-rays for
3456-676: A macroscopic perspective, in classical thermodynamics the entropy is interpreted as a state function of a thermodynamic system : that is, a property depending only on the current state of the system, independent of how that state came to be achieved. In any process, where the system gives up Δ E {\displaystyle \Delta E} of energy to the surrounding at the temperature T {\textstyle T} , its entropy falls by Δ S {\textstyle \Delta S} and at least T ⋅ Δ S {\textstyle T\cdot \Delta S} of that energy must be given up to
3648-408: A more complex task was solved by each group to determine whether c factor scores predict performance on tasks beyond the original test. Criterion tasks were playing checkers (draughts) against a standardized computer in the first and a complex architectural design task in the second study. In a regression analysis using both individual intelligence of group members and c to predict performance on
3840-461: A multiplier effect in group problem solving: "Three people working together in this augmented mode [would] seem to be more than three times as effective in solving a complex problem as is one augmented person working alone". In 1994, he coined the term 'collective IQ' as a measure of collective intelligence, to focus attention on the opportunity to significantly raise collective IQ in business and society. The idea of collective intelligence also forms
4032-424: A natural thermodynamic process . It is allowed in equilibrium thermodynamics just because the initial and final states are of thermodynamic equilibrium, even though during the process there is transient departure from thermodynamic equilibrium, when neither the system nor its surroundings are in well defined states of internal equilibrium. A natural process proceeds at a finite rate for the main part of its course. It
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#17327722955524224-454: A non- Turing model of computation is used. This theory allows simple formal definition of collective intelligence as the property of social structure and seems to be working well for a wide spectrum of beings, from bacterial colonies up to human social structures. Collective intelligence considered as a specific computational process is providing a straightforward explanation of several social phenomena. For this model of collective intelligence,
4416-630: A non-uniform force field but is held stationary there by local forces, such as mechanical pressures, on its surface. Thermodynamic equilibrium is a primitive notion of the theory of thermodynamics. According to P.M. Morse : "It should be emphasized that the fact that there are thermodynamic states, ..., and the fact that there are thermodynamic variables which are uniquely specified by the equilibrium state ... are not conclusions deduced logically from some philosophical first principles. They are conclusions ineluctably drawn from more than two centuries of experiments." This means that thermodynamic equilibrium
4608-421: A particular kind of permeability, they have common values of the intensive variable that belongs to that particular kind of permeability. Examples of such intensive variables are temperature, pressure, chemical potential. A contact equilibrium may be regarded also as an exchange equilibrium. There is a zero balance of rate of transfer of some quantity between the two systems in contact equilibrium. For example, for
4800-610: A predictor of c was largely mediated by social sensitivity ( Sobel z = 1.93, P= 0.03) which is in vein with previous research showing that women score higher on social sensitivity tests. While a mediation , statistically speaking, clarifies the mechanism underlying the relationship between a dependent and an independent variable, Wolley agreed in an interview with the Harvard Business Review that these findings are saying that groups of women are smarter than groups of men. However, she relativizes this stating that
4992-439: A reversible path between the same two states. However, the heat transferred to or from the surroundings is different as well as its entropy change. We can calculate the change of entropy only by integrating the above formula. To obtain the absolute value of the entropy, we consider the third law of thermodynamics : perfect crystals at the absolute zero have an entropy S = 0 {\textstyle S=0} . From
5184-553: A similar result for groups working together online communicating only via text and confirmed the role of female proportion and social sensitivity in causing collective intelligence in both cases. Similarly to Wolley et al., they also measured social sensitivity with the RME which is actually meant to measure people's ability to detect mental states in other peoples' eyes. The online collaborating participants, however, did neither know nor see each other at all. The authors conclude that scores on
5376-633: A single organism. Wheeler saw this collaborative process at work in ants that acted like the cells of a single beast he called a superorganism . In 1912 Émile Durkheim identified society as the sole source of human logical thought. He argued in " The Elementary Forms of Religious Life " that society constitutes a higher intelligence because it transcends the individual over space and time. Other antecedents are Vladimir Vernadsky and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin 's concept of " noosphere " and H. G. Wells 's concept of " world brain ". Peter Russell, Elisabet Sahtouris , and Barbara Marx Hubbard (originator of
5568-404: A single phase in the absence of external forces, in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium, is homogeneous. This means that the material in any small volume element of the system can be interchanged with the material of any other geometrically congruent volume element of the system, and the effect is to leave the system thermodynamically unchanged. In general, a strong external force field makes
5760-495: A small portion of heat δ Q r e v {\textstyle \delta Q_{\mathsf {rev}}} transferred to the system during reversible process divided by the temperature T {\textstyle T} of the system during this heat transfer : d S = δ Q r e v T {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} S={\frac {\delta Q_{\mathsf {rev}}}{T}}} The reversible process
5952-574: A special term 'thermal equilibrium'. J.R. Waldram writes of "a definite thermodynamic state". He defines the term "thermal equilibrium" for a system "when its observables have ceased to change over time". But shortly below that definition he writes of a piece of glass that has not yet reached its " full thermodynamic equilibrium state". Considering equilibrium states, M. Bailyn writes: "Each intensive variable has its own type of equilibrium." He then defines thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, and material equilibrium. Accordingly, he writes: "If all
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6144-586: A state of non-equilibrium there are, by contrast, net flows of matter or energy. If such changes can be triggered to occur in a system in which they are not already occurring, the system is said to be in a "meta-stable equilibrium". Though not a widely named "law," it is an axiom of thermodynamics that there exist states of thermodynamic equilibrium. The second law of thermodynamics states that when an isolated body of material starts from an equilibrium state, in which portions of it are held at different states by more or less permeable or impermeable partitions, and
6336-430: A state of thermodynamic equilibrium , which essentially are state variables . State variables depend only on the equilibrium condition, not on the path evolution to that state. State variables can be functions of state, also called state functions , in a sense that one state variable is a mathematical function of other state variables. Often, if some properties of a system are determined, they are sufficient to determine
6528-557: A system or between systems. In a system that is in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, not only is there an absence of macroscopic change, but there is an “absence of any tendency toward change on a macroscopic scale.” Systems in mutual thermodynamic equilibrium are simultaneously in mutual thermal , mechanical , chemical , and radiative equilibria. Systems can be in one kind of mutual equilibrium, while not in others. In thermodynamic equilibrium, all kinds of equilibrium hold at once and indefinitely, until disturbed by
6720-418: A system — modeled at first classically, e.g. Newtonian particles constituting a gas, and later quantum-mechanically (photons, phonons , spins, etc.). The two approaches form a consistent, unified view of the same phenomenon as expressed in the second law of thermodynamics, which has found universal applicability to physical processes. Many thermodynamic properties are defined by physical variables that define
6912-418: A thermodynamic operation removes or makes the partitions more permeable, then it spontaneously reaches its own new state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium and this is accompanied by an increase in the sum of the entropies of the portions. Classical thermodynamics deals with states of dynamic equilibrium . The state of a system at thermodynamic equilibrium is the one for which some thermodynamic potential
7104-426: A thermodynamic system may also be regarded as another thermodynamic system. In this view, one may consider the system and its surroundings as two systems in mutual contact, with long-range forces also linking them. The enclosure of the system is the surface of contiguity or boundary between the two systems. In the thermodynamic formalism, that surface is regarded as having specific properties of permeability. For example,
7296-429: A violation of the second law of thermodynamics, since he does not possess information about variable X {\textstyle X} and its influence on the system. In other words, one must choose a complete set of macroscopic variables to describe the system, i.e. every independent parameter that may change during experiment. Entropy can also be defined for any Markov processes with reversible dynamics and
7488-474: A voting group is more likely than not to make a correct decision, the probability that the highest vote of the group is the correct decision increases with the number of members of the group. Many theorists have interpreted Aristotle 's statement in the Politics that "a feast to which many contribute is better than a dinner provided out of a single purse" to mean that just as many may bring different dishes to
7680-653: A wall permeable only to heat defines an empirical temperature. A contact equilibrium can exist for each chemical constituent of the system of interest. In a contact equilibrium, despite the possible exchange through the selectively permeable wall, the system of interest is changeless, as if it were in isolated thermodynamic equilibrium. This scheme follows the general rule that "... we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to specified processes and defined experimental conditions." Thermodynamic equilibrium for an open system means that, with respect to every relevant kind of selectively permeable wall, contact equilibrium exists when
7872-434: A wall permeable only to heat, the rates of diffusion of internal energy as heat between the two systems are equal and opposite. An adiabatic wall between the two systems is 'permeable' only to energy transferred as work; at mechanical equilibrium the rates of transfer of energy as work between them are equal and opposite. If the wall is a simple wall, then the rates of transfer of volume across it are also equal and opposite; and
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8064-421: A wide range of tasks. Definition, operationalization and statistical methods are derived from g . Similarly as g is highly interrelated with the concept of IQ , this measurement of collective intelligence can be interpreted as intelligence quotient for groups (Group-IQ) even though the score is not a quotient per se. Causes for c and predictive validity are investigated as well. Writers who have influenced
8256-489: A word that meant the same thing to everybody: nothing". Any method involving the notion of entropy, the very existence of which depends on the second law of thermodynamics, will doubtless seem to many far-fetched, and may repel beginners as obscure and difficult of comprehension. Willard Gibbs , Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids The concept of entropy is described by two principal approaches,
8448-510: A working body of the engine during isothermal expansion: W = T H − T C T H ⋅ Q H = ( 1 − T C T H ) Q H {\displaystyle W={\frac {T_{\mathsf {H}}-T_{\mathsf {C}}}{T_{\mathsf {H}}}}\cdot Q_{\mathsf {H}}=\left(1-{\frac {T_{\mathsf {C}}}{T_{\mathsf {H}}}}\right)Q_{\mathsf {H}}} To derive
8640-493: Is quasistatic (i.e., it occurs without any dissipation, deviating only infinitesimally from the thermodynamic equilibrium), and it may conserve total entropy. For example, in the Carnot cycle , while the heat flow from a hot reservoir to a cold reservoir represents the increase in the entropy in a cold reservoir, the work output, if reversibly and perfectly stored, represents the decrease in the entropy which could be used to operate
8832-407: Is a density matrix , t r {\displaystyle \mathrm {tr} } is a trace operator and ln {\displaystyle \ln } is a matrix logarithm . Density matrix formalism is not required if the system occurs to be in a thermal equilibrium so long as the basis states are chosen to be eigenstates of Hamiltonian . For most practical purposes it can be taken as
9024-562: Is a logarithmic measure for the system with a number of states, each with a probability p i {\textstyle p_{i}} of being occupied (usually given by the Boltzmann distribution ): S = − k B ∑ i p i ln p i {\displaystyle S=-k_{\mathsf {B}}\sum _{i}{p_{i}\ln {p_{i}}}} where k B {\textstyle k_{\mathsf {B}}}
9216-576: Is a scientific concept that is most commonly associated with a state of disorder, randomness, or uncertainty. The term and the concept are used in diverse fields, from classical thermodynamics , where it was first recognized, to the microscopic description of nature in statistical physics , and to the principles of information theory . It has found far-ranging applications in chemistry and physics , in biological systems and their relation to life, in cosmology , economics , sociology , weather science , climate change , and information systems including
9408-428: Is a ToM test for adults that shows sufficient test-retest reliability and constantly differentiates control groups from individuals with functional autism or Asperger Syndrome . It is one of the most widely accepted and well-validated tests for ToM within adults. ToM can be regarded as an associated subset of skills and abilities within the broader concept of emotional intelligence . The proportion of females as
9600-406: Is a function of state makes it useful. In the Carnot cycle , the working fluid returns to the same state that it had at the start of the cycle, hence the change or line integral of any state function, such as entropy, over this reversible cycle is zero. The entropy change d S {\textstyle \mathrm {d} S} of a system excluding its surroundings can be well-defined as
9792-430: Is a measure of collective intelligence, although it is often used interchangeably with the term collective intelligence. Collective intelligence has also been attributed to bacteria and animals. It can be understood as an emergent property from the synergies among: Or it can be more narrowly understood as an emergent property between people and ways of processing information. This notion of collective intelligence
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#17327722955529984-456: Is a temperature difference between reservoirs. Originally, Carnot did not distinguish between heats Q H {\textstyle Q_{\mathsf {H}}} and Q C {\textstyle Q_{\mathsf {C}}} , as he assumed caloric theory to be valid and hence that the total heat in the system was conserved. But in fact, the magnitude of heat Q H {\textstyle Q_{\mathsf {H}}}
10176-458: Is another potential parallel to individual intelligence where more intelligent people are found to acquire new material quicker. Individual intelligence can be used to predict plenty of life outcomes from school attainment and career success to health outcomes and even mortality. Whether collective intelligence is able to predict other outcomes besides group performance on mental tasks has still to be investigated. Gladwell (2008) showed that
10368-537: Is any other state of a given system. This is partly, but not entirely, because all flows within and through the system are zero. R. Haase's presentation of thermodynamics does not start with a restriction to thermodynamic equilibrium because he intends to allow for non-equilibrium thermodynamics. He considers an arbitrary system with time invariant properties. He tests it for thermodynamic equilibrium by cutting it off from all external influences, except external force fields. If after insulation, nothing changes, he says that
10560-541: Is between the system of interest and a system in the surroundings, brought into contact with the system of interest, the contact being through a special kind of wall; for the rest, the whole joint system is isolated. Walls of this special kind were also considered by C. Carathéodory , and are mentioned by other writers also. They are selectively permeable. They may be permeable only to mechanical work, or only to heat, or only to some particular chemical substance. Each contact equilibrium defines an intensive parameter; for example,
10752-440: Is conversational turn-taking. Research further suggest that collectively intelligent groups communicate more in general as well as more equally; same applies for participation and is shown for face-to-face as well as online groups communicating only via writing. Bottom-up processes include group composition, namely the characteristics of group members which are aggregated to the team level. An example of such bottom-up processes
10944-418: Is defined by a rigid volume in space. It may lie within external fields of force, determined by external factors of far greater extent than the system itself, so that events within the system cannot in an appreciable amount affect the external fields of force. The system can be in thermodynamic equilibrium only if the external force fields are uniform, and are determining its uniform acceleration, or if it lies in
11136-483: Is essential for the strict meaning of thermodynamic equilibrium. A student textbook by F.H. Crawford has a section headed "Thermodynamic Equilibrium". It distinguishes several drivers of flows, and then says: "These are examples of the apparently universal tendency of isolated systems toward a state of complete mechanical, thermal, chemical, and electrical—or, in a single word, thermodynamic—equilibrium. " A monograph on classical thermodynamics by H.A. Buchdahl considers
11328-545: Is greater than the magnitude of heat Q C {\textstyle Q_{\mathsf {C}}} . Through the efforts of Clausius and Kelvin , the work W {\textstyle W} done by a reversible heat engine was found to be the product of the Carnot efficiency (i.e., the efficiency of all reversible heat engines with the same pair of thermal reservoirs) and the heat Q H {\textstyle Q_{\mathsf {H}}} absorbed by
11520-404: Is interlinked with knowledge-based culture and sustained by collective idea sharing, and thus contributes to a better understanding of diverse society. Similar to the g factor ( g ) for general individual intelligence, a new scientific understanding of collective intelligence aims to extract a general collective intelligence factor c factor for groups indicating a group's ability to perform
11712-469: Is just moderately correlated with the intelligence of individual group members. According to Woolley et al.'s results, neither team cohesion nor motivation or satisfaction is correlated with c . However, they claim that three factors were found as significant correlates: the variance in the number of speaking turns, group members' average social sensitivity and the proportion of females. All three had similar predictive power for c , but only social sensitivity
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#173277229555211904-413: Is known that a work W > 0 {\textstyle W>0} produced by an engine over a cycle equals to a net heat Q Σ = | Q H | − | Q C | {\textstyle Q_{\Sigma }=\left\vert Q_{\mathsf {H}}\right\vert -\left\vert Q_{\mathsf {C}}\right\vert } absorbed over a cycle. Thus, with
12096-544: Is minimized (in the absence of an applied voltage), or for which the entropy ( S ) is maximized, for specified conditions. One such potential is the Helmholtz free energy ( A ), for a closed system at constant volume and temperature (controlled by a heat bath): Another potential, the Gibbs free energy ( G ), is minimized at thermodynamic equilibrium in a closed system at constant temperature and pressure, both controlled by
12288-408: Is more than just the aggregation of the individual IQs or the influence of the group member with the highest IQ. Engel et al. (2014) replicated Woolley et al.'s findings applying an accelerated battery of tasks with a first factor in the factor analysis explaining 49% of the between-group variance in performance with the following factors explaining less than half of this amount. Moreover, they found
12480-422: Is nearly zero. This may explain why Woolley et al. found that the group's individual intelligence scores were not predictive of performance. In addition, low effort on tasks in human subjects research may inflate evidence for a supposed collective intelligence factor based on similarity of performance across tasks, because a team's low effort on one research task may generalize to low effort across many tasks. It
12672-412: Is no equilibrated neighborhood, the concept of temperature doesn't hold, and the temperature becomes undefined. This local equilibrium may apply only to a certain subset of particles in the system. For example, LTE is usually applied only to massive particles . In a radiating gas, the photons being emitted and absorbed by the gas do not need to be in a thermodynamic equilibrium with each other or with
12864-430: Is not to be defined solely in terms of other theoretical concepts of thermodynamics. M. Bailyn proposes a fundamental law of thermodynamics that defines and postulates the existence of states of thermodynamic equilibrium. Textbook definitions of thermodynamic equilibrium are often stated carefully, with some reservation or other. For example, A. Münster writes: "An isolated system is in thermodynamic equilibrium when, in
13056-419: Is notable that such a phenomenon is present merely because of the low stakes setting of laboratory research for research participants and not because it reflects how teams operate in organizations. Noteworthy is also that the involved researchers among the confirming findings widely overlap with each other and with the authors participating in the original first study around Anita Woolley. On 3 May 2022,
13248-509: Is now known as heat) falls through a temperature difference, work or motive power can be produced from the actions of its fall from a hot to cold body. He used an analogy with how water falls in a water wheel . That was an early insight into the second law of thermodynamics . Carnot based his views of heat partially on the early 18th-century "Newtonian hypothesis" that both heat and light were types of indestructible forms of matter, which are attracted and repelled by other matter, and partially on
13440-406: Is one with a fixed volume, number of molecules, and internal energy, called a microcanonical ensemble . The most general interpretation of entropy is as a measure of the extent of uncertainty about a system. The equilibrium state of a system maximizes the entropy because it does not reflect all information about the initial conditions, except for the conserved variables. This uncertainty is not of
13632-412: Is referred to as "symbiotic intelligence" by Norman Lee Johnson. The concept is used in sociology , business , computer science and mass communications: it also appears in science fiction . Pierre Lévy defines collective intelligence as, "It is a form of universally distributed intelligence, constantly enhanced, coordinated in real time, and resulting in the effective mobilization of skills. I'll add
13824-551: Is rooted in scientific community metaphor . The term group intelligence is sometimes used interchangeably with the term collective intelligence. Anita Woolley presents Collective intelligence as a measure of group intelligence and group creativity. The idea is that a measure of collective intelligence covers a broad range of features of the group, mainly group composition and group interaction. The features of composition that lead to increased levels of collective intelligence in groups include criteria such as higher numbers of women in
14016-576: Is that energy may not flow to and from an isolated system, but energy flow to and from a closed system is possible. Nevertheless, for both closed and isolated systems, and indeed, also in open systems, irreversible thermodynamics processes may occur. According to the Clausius equality , for a reversible cyclic thermodynamic process: ∮ δ Q r e v T = 0 {\displaystyle \oint {\frac {\delta Q_{\mathsf {rev}}}{T}}=0} which means
14208-566: Is the Boltzmann constant and the summation is performed over all possible microstates of the system. In case states are defined in a continuous manner, the summation is replaced by an integral over all possible states, or equivalently we can consider the expected value of the logarithm of the probability that a microstate is occupied: S = − k B ⟨ ln p ⟩ {\displaystyle S=-k_{\mathsf {B}}\left\langle \ln {p}\right\rangle } This definition assumes
14400-471: Is the average social sensitivity or the average and maximum intelligence scores of group members. Furthermore, collective intelligence was found to be related to a group's cognitive diversity including thinking styles and perspectives. Groups that are moderately diverse in cognitive style have higher collective intelligence than those who are very similar in cognitive style or very different. Consequently, groups where members are too similar to each other lack
14592-404: Is the number of microstates whose energy equals to the one of the system. Usually, this assumption is justified for an isolated system in a thermodynamic equilibrium. Then in case of an isolated system the previous formula reduces to: S = k B ln Ω {\displaystyle S=k_{\mathsf {B}}\ln {\Omega }} In thermodynamics, such a system
14784-410: Is the unique stable stationary state that is approached or eventually reached as the system interacts with its surroundings over a long time. The above-mentioned potentials are mathematically constructed to be the thermodynamic quantities that are minimized under the particular conditions in the specified surroundings. The various types of equilibriums are achieved as follows: Often the surroundings of
14976-531: Is thereby radically different from a fictive quasi-static 'process' that proceeds infinitely slowly throughout its course, and is fictively 'reversible'. Classical thermodynamics allows that even though a process may take a very long time to settle to thermodynamic equilibrium, if the main part of its course is at a finite rate, then it is considered to be natural, and to be subject to the second law of thermodynamics, and thereby irreversible. Engineered machines and artificial devices and manipulations are permitted within
15168-566: Is zero too, since the inversion of a heat transfer direction means a sign inversion for the heat transferred during isothermal stages: − Q H T H − Q C T C = Δ S r , H + Δ S r , C = 0 {\displaystyle -{\frac {Q_{\mathsf {H}}}{T_{\mathsf {H}}}}-{\frac {Q_{\mathsf {C}}}{T_{\mathsf {C}}}}=\Delta S_{\mathsf {r,H}}+\Delta S_{\mathsf {r,C}}=0} Here we denote
15360-574: The c factor compared to other groups in a given relevant population. The concept is in contrast to competing hypotheses including other correlational structures to explain group intelligence, such as a composition out of several equally important but independent factors as found in individual personality research . Besides, this scientific idea also aims to explore the causes affecting collective intelligence, such as group size, collaboration tools or group members' interpersonal skills. The MIT Center for Collective Intelligence , for instance, announced
15552-433: The detailed balance property. In Boltzmann's 1896 Lectures on Gas Theory , he showed that this expression gives a measure of entropy for systems of atoms and molecules in the gas phase, thus providing a measure for the entropy of classical thermodynamics. Entropy arises directly from the Carnot cycle . It can also be described as the reversible heat divided by temperature. Entropy is a fundamental function of state. In
15744-494: The " genetic algorithms ", concepts pioneered by John Holland . Bloom traced the evolution of collective intelligence to our bacterial ancestors 1 billion years ago and demonstrated how a multi-species intelligence has worked since the beginning of life. Ant societies exhibit more intelligence, in terms of technology, than any other animal except for humans and co-operate in keeping livestock, for example aphids for "milking". Leaf cutters care for fungi and carry leaves to feed
15936-413: The "equilibrium of a thermodynamic system", without actually writing the phrase "thermodynamic equilibrium". Referring to systems closed to exchange of matter, Buchdahl writes: "If a system is in a terminal condition which is properly static, it will be said to be in equilibrium ." Buchdahl's monograph also discusses amorphous glass, for the purposes of thermodynamic description. It states: "More precisely,
16128-481: The "minus first" law of thermodynamics. One textbook calls it the "zeroth law", remarking that the authors think this more befitting that title than its more customary definition , which apparently was suggested by Fowler .) Such states are a principal concern in what is known as classical or equilibrium thermodynamics, for they are the only states of the system that are regarded as well defined in that subject. A system in contact equilibrium with another system can by
16320-526: The Carnot efficiency Kelvin had to evaluate the ratio of the work output to the heat absorbed during the isothermal expansion with the help of the Carnot–Clapeyron equation, which contained an unknown function called the Carnot function. The possibility that the Carnot function could be the temperature as measured from a zero point of temperature was suggested by Joule in a letter to Kelvin. This allowed Kelvin to establish his absolute temperature scale. It
16512-557: The French mathematician Lazare Carnot proposed that in any machine, the accelerations and shocks of the moving parts represent losses of moment of activity ; in any natural process there exists an inherent tendency towards the dissipation of useful energy. In 1824, building on that work, Lazare's son, Sadi Carnot , published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire , which posited that in all heat-engines, whenever " caloric " (what
16704-587: The RME must be related to a broader set of abilities of social reasoning than only drawing inferences from other people's eye expressions. A collective intelligence factor c in the sense of Woolley et al. was further found in groups of MBA students working together over the course of a semester, in online gaming groups as well as in groups from different cultures and groups in different contexts in terms of short-term versus long-term groups. None of these investigations considered team members' individual intelligence scores as control variables. Note as well that
16896-743: The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RME) and correlated .26 with c . Hereby, participants are asked to detect thinking or feeling expressed in other peoples' eyes presented on pictures and assessed in a multiple choice format. The test aims to measure peoples' theory of mind (ToM) , also called 'mentalizing' or 'mind reading', which refers to the ability to attribute mental states, such as beliefs, desires or intents, to other people and in how far people understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions or perspectives different from their own ones. RME
17088-538: The actual important thing is the high social sensitivity of group members. It is theorized that the collective intelligence factor c is an emergent property resulting from bottom-up as well as top-down processes. Hereby, bottom-up processes cover aggregated group-member characteristics. Top-down processes cover group structures and norms that influence a group's way of collaborating and coordinating. Top-down processes cover group interaction, such as structures, processes, and norms. An example of such top-down processes
17280-403: The authors of "Quantifying collective intelligence in human groups", who include Riedl and Woolley from the original 2010 paper on Collective Intelligence, issued a correction to the article after mathematically impossible findings reported in the article were noted publicly by researcher Marcus Credé. Among the corrections is an admission that the average variance extracted (AVE)--that is to say,
17472-541: The basis states to be picked in a way that there is no information on their relative phases. In a general case the expression is: S = − k B t r ( ρ ^ × ln ρ ^ ) {\displaystyle S=-k_{\mathsf {B}}\ \mathrm {tr} {\left({\hat {\rho }}\times \ln {\hat {\rho }}\right)}} where ρ ^ {\textstyle {\hat {\rho }}}
17664-502: The biological adaptations that have turned most of this earth's living beings into components of what he calls "a learning machine". In 1986 Bloom combined the concepts of apoptosis , parallel distributed processing , group selection , and the superorganism to produce a theory of how collective intelligence works. Later he showed how the collective intelligences of competing bacterial colonies and human societies can be explained in terms of computer-generated " complex adaptive systems " and
17856-477: The body remains sufficiently nearly in thermodynamic equilibrium during the process. A. Münster carefully extends his definition of thermodynamic equilibrium for isolated systems by introducing a concept of contact equilibrium . This specifies particular processes that are allowed when considering thermodynamic equilibrium for non-isolated systems, with special concern for open systems, which may gain or lose matter from or to their surroundings. A contact equilibrium
18048-404: The bottom wall, but the temperature is the same everywhere. A thermodynamic operation may occur as an event restricted to the walls that are within the surroundings, directly affecting neither the walls of contact of the system of interest with its surroundings, nor its interior, and occurring within a definitely limited time. For example, an immovable adiabatic wall may be placed or removed within
18240-476: The categorization of intelligence in fluid and crystallized intelligence or the hierarchical model of intelligence differences . Further supplementing explanations and conceptualizations for the factor structure of the Genomes of collective intelligence besides a general ' c factor', though, are missing yet. Other scholars explain team performance by aggregating team members' general intelligence to
18432-428: The collective intelligence phenomenon as "the capacity of human communities to evolve towards higher order complexity and harmony, through such innovation mechanisms as differentiation and integration, competition and collaboration." Atlee and Pór state that "collective intelligence also involves achieving a single focus of attention and standard of metrics which provide an appropriate threshold of action". Their approach
18624-410: The concept, providing an explanation and a deeper understanding of its nature. The interpretation of entropy in statistical mechanics is the measure of uncertainty, disorder, or mixedupness in the phrase of Gibbs , which remains about a system after its observable macroscopic properties, such as temperature, pressure and volume, have been taken into account. For a given set of macroscopic variables,
18816-411: The conditions for all three types of equilibrium are satisfied, the system is said to be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium". P.M. Morse writes that thermodynamics is concerned with " states of thermodynamic equilibrium ". He also uses the phrase "thermal equilibrium" while discussing transfer of energy as heat between a body and a heat reservoir in its surroundings, though not explicitly defining
19008-413: The contacts having respectively different permeabilities. If these systems are all jointly isolated from the rest of the world those of them that are in contact then reach respective contact equilibria with one another. If several systems are free of adiabatic walls between each other, but are jointly isolated from the rest of the world, then they reach a state of multiple contact equilibrium, and they have
19200-402: The contemporary views of Count Rumford , who showed in 1789 that heat could be created by friction, as when cannon bores are machined. Carnot reasoned that if the body of the working substance, such as a body of steam, is returned to its original state at the end of a complete engine cycle , "no change occurs in the condition of the working body". The first law of thermodynamics , deduced from
19392-416: The criterion for equilibrium is circular. Operationally, a system is in an equilibrium state if its properties are consistently described by thermodynamic theory! " J.A. Beattie and I. Oppenheim write: "Insistence on a strict interpretation of the definition of equilibrium would rule out the application of thermodynamics to practically all states of real systems." Another author, cited by Callen as giving
19584-512: The criterion tasks, c had a significant effect, but average and maximum individual intelligence had not. While average (r=0.15, P=0.04) and maximum intelligence (r=0.19, P=0.008) of individual group members were moderately correlated with c , c was still a much better predictor of the criterion tasks. According to Woolley et al., this supports the existence of a collective intelligence factor c, because it demonstrates an effect over and beyond group members' individual intelligence and thus that c
19776-532: The data indicate that results may be driven in part by low-effort responding. For instance, Woolley et al.'s data indicates that at least one team scored a 0 on a task in which they were given 10 minutes to come up with as many uses for a brick as possible. Similarly, Woolley et al.'s data show that at least one team had an average score of 8 out of 50 on the WPT. Scholars have noted that the probability of this occurring with study participants who are putting forth effort
19968-440: The derivation of internal energy, this equality implies existence of a state function S {\textstyle S} with a change of d S = δ Q / T {\textstyle \mathrm {d} S=\delta Q/T} and which is conserved over an entire cycle. Clausius called this state function entropy . In addition, the total change of entropy in both thermal reservoirs over Carnot cycle
20160-450: The description of devices operating near the limit of de Broglie waves , e.g. photovoltaic cells , have to be consistent with quantum statistics . The thermodynamic definition of entropy was developed in the early 1850s by Rudolf Clausius and essentially describes how to measure the entropy of an isolated system in thermodynamic equilibrium with its parts. Clausius created the term entropy as an extensive thermodynamic variable that
20352-469: The detection of The Genome of Collective Intelligence as one of its main goals aiming to develop a "taxonomy of organizational building blocks, or genes, that can be combined and recombined to harness the intelligence of crowds". Individual intelligence is shown to be genetically and environmentally influenced. Analogously, collective intelligence research aims to explore reasons why certain groups perform more intelligently than other groups given that c
20544-712: The development over time or the question of improving intelligence. Whereas it is controversial whether human intelligence can be enhanced via training, a group's collective intelligence potentially offers simpler opportunities for improvement by exchanging team members or implementing structures and technologies. Moreover, social sensitivity was found to be, at least temporarily, improvable by reading literary fiction as well as watching drama movies. In how far such training ultimately improves collective intelligence through social sensitivity remains an open question. There are further more advanced concepts and factor models attempting to explain individual cognitive ability including
20736-482: The dimension of energy divided by temperature, and the unit joule per kelvin (J/K) in the International System of Units (SI). To find the entropy difference between any two states of the system, the integral must be evaluated for some reversible path between the initial and final states. Since an entropy is a state function, the entropy change of the system for an irreversible path is the same as for
20928-540: The discussion of phenomena near absolute zero. The absolute predictions of the classical theory become particularly vague because the occurrence of frozen-in nonequilibrium states is very common." The most general kind of thermodynamic equilibrium of a system is through contact with the surroundings that allows simultaneous passages of all chemical substances and all kinds of energy. A system in thermodynamic equilibrium may move with uniform acceleration through space but must not change its shape or size while doing so; thus it
21120-446: The entropy change for a thermal reservoir by Δ S r , i = − Q i / T i {\textstyle \Delta S_{{\mathsf {r}},i}=-Q_{i}/T_{i}} , where i {\textstyle i} is either H {\textstyle {\mathsf {H}}} for a hot reservoir or C {\textstyle {\mathsf {C}}} for
21312-409: The entropy measures the degree to which the probability of the system is spread out over different possible microstates . In contrast to the macrostate, which characterizes plainly observable average quantities, a microstate specifies all molecular details about the system including the position and momentum of every molecule. The more such states are available to the system with appreciable probability,
21504-401: The equilibrium refers to an isolated system. Like Münster, Partington also refers to the mixture of oxygen and hydrogen. He adds a proviso that "In a true equilibrium state, the smallest change of any external condition which influences the state will produce a small change of state ..." This proviso means that thermodynamic equilibrium must be stable against small perturbations; this requirement
21696-824: The everyday subjective kind, but rather the uncertainty inherent to the experimental method and interpretative model. The interpretative model has a central role in determining entropy. The qualifier "for a given set of macroscopic variables" above has deep implications when two observers use different sets of macroscopic variables. For example, consider observer A using variables U {\textstyle U} , V {\textstyle V} , W {\textstyle W} and observer B using variables U {\textstyle U} , V {\textstyle V} , W {\textstyle W} , X {\textstyle X} . If observer B changes variable X {\textstyle X} , then observer A will see
21888-535: The evidence for collective intelligence—was only 19.6% from their Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Notable is that an AVE of at least 50% is generally required to demonstrate evidence for convergent validity of a single factor, with greater than 70% generally indicating good evidence for the factor. Therefore, the evidence for collective intelligence referred to as "robust" in Riedl et al. is in fact quite weak or nonexistent, as their primary evidence does not meet or near even
22080-414: The extent of human interactions. A broader definition was provided by Geoff Mulgan in a series of lectures and reports from 2006 onwards and in the book Big Mind which proposed a framework for analysing any thinking system, including both human and machine intelligence, in terms of functional elements (observation, prediction, creativity, judgement etc.), learning loops and forms of organisation. The aim
22272-432: The field of collective intelligence research is quite young and published empirical evidence is relatively rare yet. However, various proposals and working papers are in progress or already completed but (supposedly) still in a scholarly peer reviewing publication process. Next to predicting a group's performance on more complex criterion tasks as shown in the original experiments, the collective intelligence factor c
22464-455: The following indispensable characteristic to this definition: The basis and goal of collective intelligence is mutual recognition and enrichment of individuals rather than the cult of fetishized or hypostatized communities." According to researchers Pierre Lévy and Derrick de Kerckhove , it refers to capacity of networked ICTs (Information communication technologies) to enhance the collective pool of social knowledge by simultaneously expanding
22656-440: The formal definition of IQS (IQ Social) was proposed and was defined as "the probability function over the time and domain of N-element inferences which are reflecting inference activity of the social structure". While IQS seems to be computationally hard, modeling of social structure in terms of a computational process as described above gives a chance for approximation. Prospective applications are optimization of companies through
22848-435: The framework for contemporary democratic theories often referred to as epistemic democracy . Epistemic democratic theories refer to the capacity of the populace, either through deliberation or aggregation of knowledge, to track the truth and relies on mechanisms to synthesize and apply collective intelligence. Collective intelligence was introduced into the machine learning community in the late 20th century, and matured into
23040-536: The fundamental definition of entropy since all other formulae for S {\textstyle S} can be derived from it, but not vice versa. In what has been called the fundamental postulate in statistical mechanics , among system microstates of the same energy (i.e., degenerate microstates ) each microstate is assumed to be populated with equal probability p i = 1 / Ω {\textstyle p_{i}=1/\Omega } , where Ω {\textstyle \Omega }
23232-462: The fungi. David Skrbina cites the concept of a 'group mind' as being derived from Plato's concept of panpsychism (that mind or consciousness is omnipresent and exists in all matter). He develops the concept of a 'group mind' as articulated by Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan and Fechner 's arguments for a collective consciousness of mankind. He cites Durkheim as the most notable advocate of
23424-516: The future. Yet tasks, hereby, refer to mental or intellectual tasks performed by small groups even though the concept is hoped to be transferable to other performances and any groups or crowds reaching from families to companies and even whole cities. Since individuals' g factor scores are highly correlated with full-scale IQ scores, which are in turn regarded as good estimates of g , this measurement of collective intelligence can also be seen as an intelligence indicator or quotient respectively for
23616-429: The glass may be regarded as being in equilibrium so long as experimental tests show that 'slow' transitions are in effect reversible." It is not customary to make this proviso part of the definition of thermodynamic equilibrium, but the converse is usually assumed: that if a body in thermodynamic equilibrium is subject to a sufficiently slow process, that process may be considered to be sufficiently nearly reversible, and
23808-435: The greater the entropy. In statistical mechanics, entropy is a measure of the number of ways a system can be arranged, often taken to be a measure of "disorder" (the higher the entropy, the higher the disorder). This definition describes the entropy as being proportional to the natural logarithm of the number of possible microscopic configurations of the individual atoms and molecules of the system ( microstates ) that could cause
24000-483: The group as well as increased diversity of the group. Atlee and Pór suggest that the field of collective intelligence should primarily be seen as a human enterprise in which mind-sets, a willingness to share and an openness to the value of distributed intelligence for the common good are paramount, though group theory and artificial intelligence have something to offer. Individuals who respect collective intelligence are confident of their own abilities and recognize that
24192-437: The heat Q C {\textstyle Q_{\mathsf {C}}} is transferred from a working gas to a cold reservoir at the constant temperature T C {\textstyle T_{\mathsf {C}}} during isothermal compression stage. According to Carnot's theorem , a heat engine with two thermal reservoirs can produce a work W {\textstyle W} if and only if there
24384-437: The heat engine in reverse, returning to the initial state; thus the total entropy change may still be zero at all times if the entire process is reversible. In contrast, irreversible process increases the total entropy of the system and surroundings. Any process that happens quickly enough to deviate from the thermal equilibrium cannot be reversible, the total entropy increases, and the potential for maximum work to be done during
24576-433: The heat-friction experiments of James Joule in 1843, expresses the concept of energy and its conservation in all processes; the first law, however, is unsuitable to separately quantify the effects of friction and dissipation . In the 1850s and 1860s, German physicist Rudolf Clausius objected to the supposition that no change occurs in the working body, and gave that change a mathematical interpretation, by questioning
24768-422: The hint that at each stage of the cycle the difference between a work and a net heat would be conserved, rather than a net heat itself. Which means there exists a state function U {\textstyle U} with a change of d U = δ Q − d W {\textstyle \mathrm {d} U=\delta Q-\mathrm {d} W} . It is called an internal energy and forms
24960-521: The idea of collective intelligence include Francis Galton , Douglas Hofstadter (1979), Peter Russell (1983), Tom Atlee (1993), Pierre Lévy (1994), Howard Bloom (1995), Francis Heylighen (1995), Douglas Engelbart , Louis Rosenberg, Cliff Joslyn , Ron Dembo , Gottfried Mayer-Kress (2003), and Geoff Mulgan . The concept (although not so named) originated in 1785 with the Marquis de Condorcet , whose "jury theorem" states that if each member of
25152-488: The intensive variables become uniform, thermodynamic equilibrium is said to exist." He is not here considering the presence of an external force field. J.G. Kirkwood and I. Oppenheim define thermodynamic equilibrium as follows: "A system is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium if, during the time period allotted for experimentation, (a) its intensive properties are independent of time and (b) no current of matter or energy exists in its interior or at its boundaries with
25344-508: The line integral ∫ L δ Q r e v / T {\textstyle \int _{L}{\delta Q_{\mathsf {rev}}/T}} is path-independent . Thus we can define a state function S {\textstyle S} , called entropy : d S = δ Q r e v T {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} S={\frac {\delta Q_{\mathsf {rev}}}{T}}} Therefore, thermodynamic entropy has
25536-421: The link between the microscopic interactions, which fluctuate about an average configuration, to the macroscopically observable behavior, in form of a simple logarithmic law, with a proportionality constant , the Boltzmann constant , that has become one of the defining universal constants for the modern International System of Units (SI). In his 1803 paper Fundamental Principles of Equilibrium and Movement ,
25728-531: The lowest thresholds of acceptable evidence for a latent factor. Curiously, despite this and several other factual inaccuracies found throughout the article, the paper has not been retracted, and these inaccuracies were apparently not originally detected by the author team, peer reviewers, or editors of the journal. In 2001, Tadeusz (Tad) Szuba from the AGH University in Poland proposed a formal model for
25920-405: The macroscopic perspective of classical thermodynamics , and the microscopic description central to statistical mechanics . The classical approach defines entropy in terms of macroscopically measurable physical properties, such as bulk mass, volume, pressure, and temperature. The statistical definition of entropy defines it in terms of the statistics of the motions of the microscopic constituents of
26112-561: The marginal intelligence added by each new individual participating in the collective action , thus using metrics to avoid the hazards of group think and stupidity . Thermodynamic equilibrium Thermodynamic equilibrium is an axiomatic concept of thermodynamics . It is an internal state of a single thermodynamic system , or a relation between several thermodynamic systems connected by more or less permeable or impermeable walls . In thermodynamic equilibrium, there are no net macroscopic flows of matter nor of energy within
26304-423: The massive particles of the gas for LTE to exist. In some cases, it is not considered necessary for free electrons to be in equilibrium with the much more massive atoms or molecules for LTE to exist. As an example, LTE will exist in a glass of water that contains a melting ice cube . The temperature inside the glass can be defined at any point, but it is colder near the ice cube than far away from it. If energies of
26496-403: The maximization of their IQS, and the analysis of drug resistance against collective intelligence of bacterial colonies. One measure sometimes applied, especially by more artificial intelligence focused theorists, is a "collective intelligence quotient" (or "cooperation quotient") – which can be normalized from the "individual" intelligence quotient (IQ) – thus making it possible to determine
26688-889: The melting, and continuously draining off the meltwater. Natural transport phenomena may lead a system from local to global thermodynamic equilibrium. Going back to our example, the diffusion of heat will lead our glass of water toward global thermodynamic equilibrium, a state in which the temperature of the glass is completely homogeneous. Careful and well informed writers about thermodynamics, in their accounts of thermodynamic equilibrium, often enough make provisos or reservations to their statements. Some writers leave such reservations merely implied or more or less unstated. For example, one widely cited writer, H. B. Callen writes in this context: "In actuality, few systems are in absolute and true equilibrium." He refers to radioactive processes and remarks that they may take "cosmic times to complete, [and] generally can be ignored". He adds "In practice,
26880-585: The molecules located near a given point are observed, they will be distributed according to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for a certain temperature. If the energies of the molecules located near another point are observed, they will be distributed according to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for another temperature. Local thermodynamic equilibrium does not require either local or global stationarity. In other words, each small locality need not have
27072-421: The name of U , but preferring the term entropy as a close parallel of the word energy , as he found the concepts nearly "analogous in their physical significance". This term was formed by replacing the root of ἔργον ('ergon', 'work') by that of τροπή ('tropy', 'transformation'). In more detail, Clausius explained his choice of "entropy" as a name as follows: I prefer going to the ancient languages for
27264-470: The name of that property as entropy . The word was adopted into the English language in 1868. Later, scientists such as Ludwig Boltzmann , Josiah Willard Gibbs , and James Clerk Maxwell gave entropy a statistical basis. In 1877, Boltzmann visualized a probabilistic way to measure the entropy of an ensemble of ideal gas particles, in which he defined entropy as proportional to the natural logarithm of
27456-464: The names of important scientific quantities, so that they may mean the same thing in all living tongues. I propose, therefore, to call S the entropy of a body, after the Greek word "transformation". I have designedly coined the word entropy to be similar to energy, for these two quantities are so analogous in their physical significance, that an analogy of denominations seems to me helpful. Leon Cooper added that in this way "he succeeded in coining
27648-476: The nature of the inherent loss of usable heat when work is done, e.g., heat produced by friction. He described his observations as a dissipative use of energy, resulting in a transformation-content ( Verwandlungsinhalt in German), of a thermodynamic system or working body of chemical species during a change of state . That was in contrast to earlier views, based on the theories of Isaac Newton , that heat
27840-491: The number of microstates such a gas could occupy. The proportionality constant in this definition, called the Boltzmann constant , has become one of the defining universal constants for the modern International System of Units (SI). Henceforth, the essential problem in statistical thermodynamics has been to determine the distribution of a given amount of energy E over N identical systems. Constantin Carathéodory ,
28032-626: The observed macroscopic state ( macrostate ) of the system. The constant of proportionality is the Boltzmann constant . The Boltzmann constant, and therefore entropy, have dimensions of energy divided by temperature, which has a unit of joules per kelvin (J⋅K) in the International System of Units (or kg⋅m⋅s⋅K in terms of base units). The entropy of a substance is usually given as an intensive property — either entropy per unit mass (SI unit: J⋅K⋅kg) or entropy per unit amount of substance (SI unit: J⋅K⋅mol). Specifically, entropy
28224-580: The phenomenon of collective intelligence. It is assumed to be an unconscious, random, parallel, and distributed computational process, run in mathematical logic by the social structure. In this model, beings and information are modeled as abstract information molecules carrying expressions of mathematical logic. They are quasi-randomly displacing due to their interaction with their environments with their intended displacements. Their interaction in abstract computational space creates multi-thread inference process which we perceive as collective intelligence. Thus,
28416-534: The positive effects of group cohesion , motivation and satisfaction on group performance. Some scholars have noted that the evidence for collective intelligence in the body of work by Wolley et al. is weak and may contain errors or misunderstandings of the data. For example, Woolley et al. stated in their findings that the maximum individual score on the Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT; an individual intelligence test used in their research)
28608-467: The presence of pneumonia. When working together as "human swarms," the groups of experienced radiologists demonstrated a 33% reduction in diagnostic errors as compared to traditional methods. Woolley, Chabris, Pentland, Hashmi, & Malone (2010), the originators of this scientific understanding of collective intelligence, found a single statistical factor for collective intelligence in their research across 192 groups with people randomly recruited from
28800-428: The pressures on either side of it are equal. If the adiabatic wall is more complicated, with a sort of leverage, having an area-ratio, then the pressures of the two systems in exchange equilibrium are in the inverse ratio of the volume exchange ratio; this keeps the zero balance of rates of transfer as work. A radiative exchange can occur between two otherwise separate systems. Radiative exchange equilibrium prevails when
28992-496: The process is lost. The concept of entropy arose from Rudolf Clausius 's study of the Carnot cycle which is a thermodynamic cycle performed by a Carnot heat engine as a reversible heat engine. In a Carnot cycle the heat Q H {\textstyle Q_{\mathsf {H}}} is transferred from a hot reservoir to a working gas at the constant temperature T H {\textstyle T_{\mathsf {H}}} during isothermal expansion stage and
29184-478: The public. In Woolley et al.'s two initial studies, groups worked together on different tasks from the McGrath Task Circumplex , a well-established taxonomy of group tasks. Tasks were chosen from all four quadrants of the circumplex and included visual puzzles, brainstorming, making collective moral judgments, and negotiating over limited resources. The results in these tasks were taken to conduct
29376-507: The relationship between individual IQ and success works only to a certain point and that additional IQ points over an estimate of IQ 120 do not translate into real life advantages. If a similar border exists for Group-IQ or if advantages are linear and infinite, has still to be explored. Similarly, demand for further research on possible connections of individual and collective intelligence exists within plenty of other potentially transferable logics of individual intelligence, such as, for instance,
29568-499: The respective intensive parameters of the system and surroundings are equal. This definition does not consider the most general kind of thermodynamic equilibrium, which is through unselective contacts. This definition does not simply state that no current of matter or energy exists in the interior or at the boundaries; but it is compatible with the following definition, which does so state. M. Zemansky also distinguishes mechanical, chemical, and thermal equilibrium. He then writes: "When
29760-442: The same vein as g serves to display between-individual performance differences on cognitive tasks, collective intelligence research aims to find a parallel intelligence factor for groups ' c factor' (also called 'collective intelligence factor' ( CI ) ) displaying between-group differences on task performance. The collective intelligence score then is used to predict how this same group will perform on any other similar task in
29952-835: The serialized process has been found to introduce substantial noise that distorts the collective output of the group. In one significant study of serialized collective intelligence, it was found that the first vote contributed to a serialized voting system can distort the final result by 34%. To address the problems of serialized aggregation of input among large-scale groups, recent advancements collective intelligence have worked to replace serialized votes, polls, and markets, with parallel systems such as " human swarms " modeled after synchronous swarms in nature. Based on natural process of Swarm Intelligence , these artificial swarms of networked humans enable participants to work together in parallel to answer questions and make predictions as an emergent collective intelligence. In one high-profile example,
30144-757: The sign convention for a heat Q {\textstyle Q} transferred in a thermodynamic process ( Q > 0 {\textstyle Q>0} for an absorption and Q < 0 {\textstyle Q<0} for a dissipation) we get: W − Q Σ = W − | Q H | + | Q C | = W − Q H − Q C = 0 {\displaystyle W-Q_{\Sigma }=W-\left\vert Q_{\mathsf {H}}\right\vert +\left\vert Q_{\mathsf {C}}\right\vert =W-Q_{\mathsf {H}}-Q_{\mathsf {C}}=0} Since this equality holds over an entire Carnot cycle, it gave Clausius
30336-400: The state of the system and thus other properties' values. For example, temperature and pressure of a given quantity of gas determine its state, and thus also its volume via the ideal gas law . A system composed of a pure substance of a single phase at a particular uniform temperature and pressure is determined, and is thus a particular state, and has a particular volume. The fact that entropy
30528-536: The study of any classical thermodynamic heat engine: other cycles, such as an Otto , Diesel or Brayton cycle , could be analyzed from the same standpoint. Notably, any machine or cyclic process converting heat into work (i.e., heat engine) that is claimed to produce an efficiency greater than the one of Carnot is not viable — due to violation of the second law of thermodynamics . For further analysis of sufficiently discrete systems, such as an assembly of particles, statistical thermodynamics must be used. Additionally,
30720-511: The surface of contiguity may be supposed to be permeable only to heat, allowing energy to transfer only as heat. Then the two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium when the long-range forces are unchanging in time and the transfer of energy as heat between them has slowed and eventually stopped permanently; this is an example of a contact equilibrium. Other kinds of contact equilibrium are defined by other kinds of specific permeability. When two systems are in contact equilibrium with respect to
30912-593: The surrounding subsystems are so much larger than the system that the process can affect the intensive variables only of the surrounding subsystems, and they are then called reservoirs for relevant intensive variables. It can be useful to distinguish between global and local thermodynamic equilibrium. In thermodynamics, exchanges within a system and between the system and the outside are controlled by intensive parameters. As an example, temperature controls heat exchanges . Global thermodynamic equilibrium (GTE) means that those intensive parameters are homogeneous throughout
31104-406: The surroundings. The allowance of such operations and devices in the surroundings but not in the system is the reason why Kelvin in one of his statements of the second law of thermodynamics spoke of "inanimate" agency ; a system in thermodynamic equilibrium is inanimate. Otherwise, a thermodynamic operation may directly affect a wall of the system. It is often convenient to suppose that some of
31296-405: The surroundings. Consequent upon such an operation restricted to the surroundings, the system may be for a time driven away from its own initial internal state of thermodynamic equilibrium. Then, according to the second law of thermodynamics, the whole undergoes changes and eventually reaches a new and final equilibrium with the surroundings. Following Planck, this consequent train of events is called
31488-468: The surroundings." He distinguishes such thermodynamic equilibrium from thermal equilibrium, in which only thermal contact is mediating transfer of energy. Another textbook author, J.R. Partington , writes: "(i) An equilibrium state is one which is independent of time ." But, referring to systems "which are only apparently in equilibrium", he adds : "Such systems are in states of ″false equilibrium.″" Partington's statement does not explicitly state that
31680-633: The surroundings." It is evident that they are not restricting the definition to isolated or to closed systems. They do not discuss the possibility of changes that occur with "glacial slowness", and proceed beyond the time period allotted for experimentation. They note that for two systems in contact, there exists a small subclass of intensive properties such that if all those of that small subclass are respectively equal, then all respective intensive properties are equal. States of thermodynamic equilibrium may be defined by this subclass, provided some other conditions are satisfied. A thermodynamic system consisting of
31872-408: The surroundings: where T denotes the absolute thermodynamic temperature, P the pressure, S the entropy, V the volume, and U the internal energy of the system. In other words, Δ G = 0 {\displaystyle \Delta G=0} is a necessary condition for chemical equilibrium under these conditions (in the absence of an applied voltage). Thermodynamic equilibrium
32064-421: The system must be isolated; Callen does not spell out what he means by the words "intrinsic factors". Another textbook writer, C.J. Adkins, explicitly allows thermodynamic equilibrium to occur in a system which is not isolated. His system is, however, closed with respect to transfer of matter. He writes: "In general, the approach to thermodynamic equilibrium will involve both thermal and work-like interactions with
32256-410: The system was in equilibrium . In a section headed "Thermodynamic equilibrium", H.B. Callen defines equilibrium states in a paragraph. He points out that they "are determined by intrinsic factors" within the system. They are "terminal states", towards which the systems evolve, over time, which may occur with "glacial slowness". This statement does not explicitly say that for thermodynamic equilibrium,
32448-454: The system will be in neither global nor local equilibrium. For example, it takes a certain number of collisions for a particle to equilibrate to its surroundings. If the average distance it has moved during these collisions removes it from the neighborhood it is equilibrating to, it will never equilibrate, and there will be no LTE. Temperature is, by definition, proportional to the average internal energy of an equilibrated neighborhood. Since there
32640-405: The system's surroundings as a heat. Otherwise, this process cannot go forward. In classical thermodynamics, the entropy of a system is defined if and only if it is in a thermodynamic equilibrium (though a chemical equilibrium is not required: for example, the entropy of a mixture of two moles of hydrogen and one mole of oxygen in standard conditions is well-defined). The statistical definition
32832-419: The system, no changes of state are occurring at a measurable rate." There are two reservations stated here; the system is isolated; any changes of state are immeasurably slow. He discusses the second proviso by giving an account of a mixture oxygen and hydrogen at room temperature in the absence of a catalyst. Münster points out that a thermodynamic equilibrium state is described by fewer macroscopic variables than
33024-487: The table, so in a deliberation many may contribute different pieces of information to generate a better decision. Recent scholarship, however, suggests that this was probably not what Aristotle meant but is a modern interpretation based on what we now know about team intelligence. A precursor of the concept is found in entomologist William Morton Wheeler 's observation in 1910 that seemingly independent individuals can cooperate so closely as to become indistinguishable from
33216-474: The team level instead of building an own overall collective intelligence measure. Devine and Philips (2001) showed in a meta-analysis that mean cognitive ability predicts team performance in laboratory settings (0.37) as well as field settings (0.14) – note that this is only a small effect. Suggesting a strong dependence on the relevant tasks, other scholars showed that tasks requiring a high degree of communication and cooperation are found to be most influenced by
33408-506: The team member with the lowest cognitive ability. Tasks in which selecting the best team member is the most successful strategy, are shown to be most influenced by the member with the highest cognitive ability. Since Woolley et al.'s results do not show any influence of group satisfaction, group cohesiveness , or motivation, they, at least implicitly, challenge these concepts regarding the importance for group performance in general and thus contrast meta-analytically proven evidence concerning
33600-464: The term entropy from a Greek word for transformation . Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann explained entropy as the measure of the number of possible microscopic arrangements or states of individual atoms and molecules of a system that comply with the macroscopic condition of the system. He thereby introduced the concept of statistical disorder and probability distributions into a new field of thermodynamics, called statistical mechanics , and found
33792-444: The term "conscious evolution") are inspired by the visions of a noosphere – a transcendent, rapidly evolving collective intelligence – an informational cortex of the planet. The notion has more recently been examined by the philosopher Pierre Lévy. In a 1962 research report, Douglas Engelbart linked collective intelligence to organizational effectiveness, and predicted that pro-actively 'augmenting human intellect' would yield
33984-451: The transmission of information in telecommunication . Entropy is central to the second law of thermodynamics , which states that the entropy of an isolated system left to spontaneous evolution cannot decrease with time. As a result, isolated systems evolve toward thermodynamic equilibrium , where the entropy is highest. A consequence of the second law of thermodynamics is that certain processes are irreversible . The thermodynamic concept
34176-425: The two systems have the same temperature. The A collection of matter may be entirely isolated from its surroundings. If it has been left undisturbed for an indefinitely long time, classical thermodynamics postulates that it is in a state in which no changes occur within it, and there are no flows within it. This is a thermodynamic state of internal equilibrium. (This postulate is sometimes, but not often, called
34368-795: The variety of perspectives and skills needed to perform well. On the other hand, groups whose members are too different seem to have difficulties to communicate and coordinate effectively. For most of human history, collective intelligence was confined to small tribal groups in which opinions were aggregated through real-time parallel interactions among members. In modern times, mass communication, mass media, and networking technologies have enabled collective intelligence to span massive groups, distributed across continents and time-zones. To accommodate this shift in scale, collective intelligence in large-scale groups been dominated by serialized polling processes such as aggregating up-votes, likes, and ratings over time. While modern systems benefit from larger group size,
34560-409: The way people are learning to participate in knowledge cultures outside formal learning settings. Henry Jenkins criticizes schools which promote 'autonomous problem solvers and self-contained learners' while remaining hostile to learning through the means of collective intelligence. Both Pierre Lévy and Henry Jenkins support the claim that collective intelligence is important for democratization , as it
34752-684: The whole is indeed greater than the sum of any individual parts. Maximizing collective intelligence relies on the ability of an organization to accept and develop "The Golden Suggestion", which is any potentially useful input from any member. Groupthink often hampers collective intelligence by limiting input to a select few individuals or filtering potential Golden Suggestions without fully developing them to implementation. Robert David Steele Vivas in The New Craft of Intelligence portrayed all citizens as "intelligence minutemen", drawing only on legal and ethical sources of information, able to create
34944-471: The whole system, while local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) means that those intensive parameters are varying in space and time, but are varying so slowly that, for any point, one can assume thermodynamic equilibrium in some neighborhood about that point. If the description of the system requires variations in the intensive parameters that are too large, the very assumptions upon which the definitions of these intensive parameters are based will break down, and
35136-769: The work W {\textstyle W} as the net heat into the inequality above gives us: Q H T H + Q C T C < 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {Q_{\mathsf {H}}}{T_{\mathsf {H}}}}+{\frac {Q_{\mathsf {C}}}{T_{\mathsf {C}}}}<0} or in terms of the entropy change Δ S r , i {\textstyle \Delta S_{{\mathsf {r}},i}} : Δ S r , H + Δ S r , C > 0 {\displaystyle \Delta S_{\mathsf {r,H}}+\Delta S_{\mathsf {r,C}}>0} A Carnot cycle and an entropy as shown above prove to be useful in
35328-466: Was 39, but also that the maximum averaged team score on the same test was also a 39. This indicates that their sample seemingly had a team composed entirely of people who, individually, got exactly the same score on the WPT, and also all happened to all have achieved the highest scores on the WPT found in Woolley et al. This was noted by scholars as particularly unlikely to occur. Other anomalies found in
35520-503: Was also found to predict group performance in diverse tasks in MBA classes lasting over several months. Thereby, highly collectively intelligent groups earned significantly higher scores on their group assignments although their members did not do any better on other individually performed assignments. Moreover, highly collective intelligent teams improved performance over time suggesting that more collectively intelligent teams learn better. This
35712-500: Was an indestructible particle that had mass. Clausius discovered that the non-usable energy increases as steam proceeds from inlet to exhaust in a steam engine. From the prefix en- , as in 'energy', and from the Greek word τροπή [tropē], which is translated in an established lexicon as turning or change and that he rendered in German as Verwandlung , a word often translated into English as transformation , in 1865 Clausius coined
35904-440: Was developed by Ludwig Boltzmann in the 1870s by analyzing the statistical behavior of the microscopic components of the system. Boltzmann showed that this definition of entropy was equivalent to the thermodynamic entropy to within a constant factor—known as the Boltzmann constant . In short, the thermodynamic definition of entropy provides the experimental verification of entropy, while the statistical definition of entropy extends
36096-515: Was found to vary in the thermodynamic cycle but eventually returned to the same value at the end of every cycle. Thus it was found to be a function of state , specifically a thermodynamic state of the system. While Clausius based his definition on a reversible process, there are also irreversible processes that change entropy. Following the second law of thermodynamics , entropy of an isolated system always increases for irreversible processes. The difference between an isolated system and closed system
36288-522: Was referred to by Scottish scientist and engineer William Rankine in 1850 with the names thermodynamic function and heat-potential . In 1865, German physicist Rudolf Clausius , one of the leading founders of the field of thermodynamics, defined it as the quotient of an infinitesimal amount of heat to the instantaneous temperature. He initially described it as transformation-content , in German Verwandlungsinhalt , and later coined
36480-399: Was shown to be useful in characterizing the Carnot cycle . Heat transfer in the isotherm steps (isothermal expansion and isothermal compression) of the Carnot cycle was found to be proportional to the temperature of a system (known as its absolute temperature ). This relationship was expressed in an increment of entropy that is equal to incremental heat transfer divided by temperature. Entropy
36672-402: Was statistically significant (b=0.33, P=0.05). The number speaking turns indicates that "groups where a few people dominated the conversation were less collectively intelligent than those with a more equal distribution of conversational turn-taking". Hence, providing multiple team members the chance to speak up made a group more intelligent. Group members' social sensitivity was measured via
36864-618: Was to provide a way to diagnose, and improve, the collective intelligence of a city, business, NGO or parliament. Collective intelligence strongly contributes to the shift of knowledge and power from the individual to the collective. According to Eric S. Raymond in 1998 and JC Herz in 2005, open-source intelligence will eventually generate superior outcomes to knowledge generated by proprietary software developed within corporations. Media theorist Henry Jenkins sees collective intelligence as an 'alternative source of media power', related to convergence culture. He draws attention to education and
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