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94-541: The English Palace was a palace in the south of the Peter Palace complex. It was commissioned by empress Catherine II (1729-1796), and designed by the Italian architect Giacomo Quarenghi (1744-1817). Construction started in 1781, lasted for 15 years and was completed in 1796. Delays were resulting from the delivery of heavy granite blocks to the shallow Peterhof harbour, changes in the design, and shortage of funds due to

188-883: A new war . The long six-year war for Russia took place in parallel with the Russo-Persian War , the Russo-Swedish War and the War of the Fourth Coalition . Despite this, in the decisive campaign of 1811, the Russian army of Kutuzov defeated the Ottoman army on the Danube , which made it possible to conclude a peace treaty beneficial for Russia, according to which Russia gained Bessarabia . The Ottoman Empire had maintained military parity with Russia until

282-688: A Russo-Iranian alliance against Turkey, as Persia was at war with the Ottoman Empire. In the meantime Russia was also supporting the accession to the Polish throne of Augustus III in the War of the Polish Succession (1733–35), over the French -nominated Stanisław Leszczyński . Austria had been Russia's ally since 1726. Russia entered into another war with the Ottoman Empire in 1736, prompted by raids on Ukraine by Crimean Tatars and

376-693: A colossal advantage, since the Russian Black Sea Fleet fleet had not recovered from the Crimean War. Despite this, the hostilities on the Black Sea in this war were not important. In response to the Russian proximity to the straits the British, against the wishes of the new Sultan Abdul Hamid II , intervened in the war. A large task force representing British naval supremacy entered the straits of Marmara and anchored in view of both

470-664: A counter to cavalry. Extended peace also resulted in a lack of practical experience among Ottoman commanders, in contrast with Russian generals such as Rumiantsev and Suvorov , whose abilities were honed during the Seven Years' War. Thus when war finally broke out with Russia in 1768 the Ottomans suffered devastating defeats, resulting in the loss of Crimea and the signing of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774. The Ottoman economy experienced general expansion and growth during

564-590: A few years, they bordered each other along a large territory in the Caucasus, which caused further frictions. Russia managed to secure a favourable international situation by signing treaties with Persia in 1732 and 1735 . These returned all Iranian territories gained since 1722 in the North and South Caucasus and Northern Iran, and avoided war with the emerging leader of Persia, Nader Shah . The treaties had other diplomatically favourable aspects as they established

658-480: A great deal of extra money from a uniform tax system with little corruption. The Sultan got a tighter grip on the provincial beys and increased the tribute they had to pay. However, Sultan Abdülaziz , used much of this money on furnishing and creating great palaces to rival the ones in England and France, which he had visited. The empire was undergoing a revolution, and throughout Anatolia a new Ottoman nationalism

752-527: A plague outbreak. In 1739, the Münnich army crossed the Dnieper , defeated the Ottoman Empire at Stavuchany , and occupied the fortress of Khotin and Iaşi . However, Austria was defeated by the Ottoman Empire once again and signed a separate peace treaty on August 21. This, coupled with the imminent threat of Swedish invasion , forced Russia to sign the Treaty of Niš with Turkey on September 18, ending

846-634: A stubborn struggle, surrendered to Plevna . After that, the Russian army crossed the Balkan Mountains, defeated the remaining Turkish troops and reached the approaches to Constantinople. In the Caucasus, the Turkish army held back the Russian offensive, but after a defeat at the Battle of Aladzha , retreated to Erzurum , after which the Russians took Kars . On the Black Sea, the Ottoman fleet had

940-412: A year earlier (1828) by the Russians from Qajar Iran through the Treaty of Turkmenchay . After the war of 1877-78, Russia also received Kars and Ardahan . During the early months of World War I , Kars was a key military objective for the Ottoman army. Enver Pasha who pushed the Ottoman Empire into World War I, needed a victory against the Russians to defend his position. He collected an army on

1034-778: Is also known as the Ancien Régime or Old Regime , contrasting with the "New Regime" of the Nizam-i Cedid and Tanzimat in the 19th century. The period characterized as one of decentralization in the Ottoman political system. Political and economic reforms enacted during the preceding War of the Holy League (1683-1699), particularly the sale of life-term tax farms ( Ottoman Turkish : malikāne ) instituted in 1695, enabled provincial figures to achieve an unprecedented degree of influence in Ottoman politics. This decentralization had once led historians to believe that

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1128-893: The Baku Commune was established in the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic . The commune later became the Centrocaspian Dictatorship , in turn conquered by the Ottoman Islamic Army of the Caucasus , then shortly by the Triple Entente and finally the Bolsheviks . Defeat on other fronts caused the Ottoman Empire to surrender and withdraw forces. Both the Armenian and Azerbaijani Republics ended up being part of

1222-772: The Balkans . The population of much of the Balkans were Slavs , as were the Russians. They also mainly followed the Eastern Orthodox Church , as did the Russians. When new movements in Russia, such as that of the Slavophiles , started to enter the region, it became agitated and prone to revolution. When the government in Constantinople tried to initiate measures to prevent an economic collapse throughout

1316-877: The Batak massacre in 1876. Januarius MacGahan , a journalist of the New York Herald and the London The Daily News wrote of the terrible happenings after his visit to Batak with Eugene Schuyler . According to most sources, around 5,000 people were massacred in Batak alone. The total number of victims in the April uprising according to most estimates around 15,000, which is supported by Eugene Schuyler 's report, published in The Daily News , according to which at least 15,000 persons were killed during

1410-546: The Battle of Zenta by Prince Eugene of Savoy of Austria. By 1699, Ottoman Hungary had been conquered by the Austrians. The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed that year. By this treaty, Mustafa II ceded Hungary (see Ottoman Hungary ) and Transylvania to Austria, Morea to the Venetian Republic and withdrew Ottoman forces from Polish Podolia . Also during this reign, Peter I of Russia (1682–1725) captured

1504-592: The Black Sea fortress of Azov from the Ottomans (1697). Mustafa was dethroned during the revolt named the Edirne event , which was preceded by a large-scale campaign in Georgia . In 1710 Charles XII of Sweden convinced Sultan Ahmed III to declare war against Russia, and the Ottoman forces under Baltacı Mehmet Pasha won a major victory at the Battle of Prut . In the subsequent treaty, Russia returned Azov to

1598-672: The Dnieper River . Russia joined the European Holy League ( Austria , Poland , Venice ) in 1686. During the war, the Russian army organized the Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689 and the Azov campaigns (1695–96) . In the light of Russia's preparations for the war with Sweden and other countries' signing the Treaty of Karlowitz with Turkey in 1699, the Russian government signed the Treaty of Constantinople with

1692-519: The Dolmabahçe Palace and the Russian army. Looking at the prospect of a British entry into the war the Russians decided to settle the dispute. The Treaty of San Stefano gave Romania and Montenegro their independence, Serbia and Russia each received extra territory, Austria-Hungary was given control over Bosnia , and Bulgaria was given almost complete autonomy. The hope of the Sultan

1786-611: The Imperial Russian Army . This time there was no help from abroad; in truth, many European nations supported the Russian war, as long as it did not get too close to Constantinople. Ten and a half months later when the war had ended, the age of Ottoman domination over the Balkans was over. In the Balkans, the Russian army, having crossed the Danube, captured the Shipka Pass . The Turkish army of Osman Nuri Pasha , after

1880-531: The Peterhof grand palace . In addition, the palace served as an art gallery with a collection primarily consisting of portraits of European monarchs. From time to time, public events were held at the palace, such exhibitions, charity balls or concerts (e.g. Anton Rubinstein (1829-1894) on 14 July 1885). After the Russian Revolution in 1917, the palace was used as a sanatorium. During World War II,

1974-568: The Soviet Union in 1920. The Soviet-Turkish border was established under the Treaty of Moscow (1921) . Treaty of Belgrade : Habsburgs cede the Kingdom of Serbia with Belgrade , the southern part of the Banat of Temeswar and northern Bosnia to the Ottomans, and the Banat of Craiova ( Oltenia ), gained by the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, to Wallachia (an Ottoman subject), and set

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2068-597: The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , which formally granted independence to the Crimean Khanate , but in reality it became dependent on Russia. Russia received 4.5 million rubles and two key seaports allowing the direct access to the Black Sea . It also marked the first time that a foreign power directly interfered in the affairs of the Sublime Porte , as the treaty gave Russia protector status over Turkey's Orthodox Christian subjects. In 1783, Russia annexed

2162-448: The malikāne contract, individuals could compete in auction for the right of taxation over a given revenue source, the winner of which would agree to submit his promised amount to the government each year, as well as providing a lump sum up front equal to two to three times the annual amount. This system provided the Ottoman government with a much more stable source of revenue, and they enjoyed significant budget surpluses throughout much of

2256-539: The war with Turkey. Its name relates to its location in the English park, which was created at the same time by the gardener James Meader. The garden was designed in English landscape style , which was in the fashion at that time. The palace was Quarenghi's first building in Russia. For the design, he drew inspiration from the composition of Prior Park , near Bath , which was built by John Wood for Ralph Allen in

2350-421: The 1730s and 1740s, and Wanstead House . Like some of his later designs, the palace is distinguished by a precise layout, simplicity and chastity of composition, and monumentality of forms, which was achieved by creating imposing slightly massive proportions and using colonnades to smooth wall plans. The main entrance was accentuated by a wide granite staircase leading to the mezzanine and an eight-column portico of

2444-528: The 1739 Treaty of Belgrade , the Ottomans remained at peace in Europe for nearly thirty years, missing out on the rapid improvements in military technology and organization associated with the Seven Years' War (1756-63), particularly the development of highly trained and disciplined regimental forces, innovations in the tactical deployment of small-caliber cannons, and the widespread use of socket bayonets as

2538-707: The April Uprising in addition to 36 villages in three districts being buried. According to Donald Quataert around 1,000 Muslims were killed by Christian Bulgarians and consequently 3,700 Christians were killed by Muslims. Soon the Balkan rebellions were beginning to falter. In Europe, papers were filled with reports of Ottoman soldiers killing thousands of Slavs. Even in Great Britain William Ewart Gladstone published his account of Ottoman atrocities in his Bulgarian Horrors and

2632-623: The Austrians from Mehadia and overran the Banat (1789); but in Moldavia Field-Marshal Pyotr Rumyantsev was successful and captured Iaşi and Khotyn . Ottoman generals were incompetent, and the army mutinous; expeditions for the relief of Bender and Akkerman failed, Belgrade was taken by the Austrians, The Russian army under the command of Alexander Suvorov defeated the Turks in the Battle of Rymnik and captured Izmail . The fall of Anapa completed

2726-500: The British the island of Cyprus . While annoyed at British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli , the Sultan had nothing but praise for Otto von Bismarck who forced many of the major concessions upon Russia. These close Germano-Ottoman relations would persist until both empires' very end. The Russian extension in this century developed with the main theme of supporting independence of Ottomans' former provinces and then bringing all of

2820-535: The Corinthian order with a triangular pediment. The western façade had a loggia with six columns. The ground floor was lined with granite. Within the English Palace, Empress Catherine II hoped to seclude herself from the bustle of court life. During the reign of her successor, Paul I (1754-1801), the palace suffered the same fate as other newly constructed royal residences by his mother, who resented: it

2914-726: The Crimea the same month, inflicting some defeats on the army of the Crimean Khan and capturing Karasubazar . Lacy and his soldiers had to leave the Crimea, however, due to lack of supplies. Austria entered the war against Turkey in July 1737 but was defeated a number of times. In August, Russia, Austria and Turkey began negotiations in Nemirov , which would turn out to be fruitless. There were no significant military operations in 1738. The Russian army had to leave Ochakov and Kinburn due to

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3008-468: The Crimean Khanate . In the same year, Russia established its protectorate over the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti according to the Treaty of Georgievsk . In 1787, Empress Catherine II made a triumphant trip across the Crimea , accompanied by representatives of foreign courts and her ally, Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor . These events and the friction caused by mutual complaints of infringements of

3102-612: The Great in the early 18th century. The first Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570) occurred after the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan by the Russian tsar Ivan the Terrible . The Ottoman Sultan Selim II tried to squeeze the Russians out of the lower Volga by sending a military expedition to Astrakhan in 1569. The Turkish expedition ended in disaster for the Ottoman army , which could not take Astrakhan and almost completely perished in

3196-483: The Great ended very unsuccessfully for Russia. The Russian army, led by the tsar, was surrounded by a superior Turkish-Tatar army and was forced to agree to unfavorable peace conditions, according to which it returned the previously captured Azov to the Ottoman Empire. By the late 17th century, Safavid Iran , which neighbored both empires and had been one of the greatest rivals for Turkey for centuries (16th–19th centuries), had been heavily declining. Taking advantage of

3290-606: The Ottoman Empire in 1700. Following the results of peace, Russia managed to annex Azov and get access to the Sea of Azov. After the Russians had defeated the Swedes and the pro- Swedish Empire Ukrainian Cossacks led by Ivan Mazepa in the Battle of Poltava in 1709, Charles XII of Sweden managed to persuade the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia on November 20, 1710. The Prut campaign of Peter

3384-501: The Ottoman Empire was in decline during this period, part of the larger and now debunked Ottoman Decline Thesis , but it is now recognized that the Ottomans were successfully able to tie emerging provincial elites politically and financially to the central government. The empire likewise experienced significant economic growth during much of the eighteenth century and was, until the disastrous war with Russia in 1768-74 , also able to match its rivals in military strength. In light of this,

3478-453: The Ottoman state. While in previous centuries a strict division between the military-administrative askeri class and the civilian reaya class had been at least theoretically enforced, the sale of malikāne enabled the latter group to take part in government administration. Provincial notables enjoyed the legitimacy they earned by tying themselves formally to the Ottoman state, while the Ottoman state benefited from its closer relationship with

3572-651: The Ottomans, agreed to demolish the fortress of Taganrog and others in the area, and to stop interfering with the affairs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth or Cossacks . Discontent at the leniency of these terms was so strong in Istanbul that it nearly brought on a renewal of the war. In 1715 Morea was taken from the Venetians . This led to hostilities with Austria , in which the Ottoman Empire had an unsuccessful outcome, and Belgrade fell into

3666-448: The Ottomans, particularly in the Battle of Grocka . By 1739 the Ottomans had reconquered Belgrade , forcing the Austrians to make peace. Abandoned by their allies, Russia too sued for peace, abandoning all of their conquests except for Azov. The Persian wars saw Ottoman forces ranged against the military genius of Nadir Shah . The Ottomans managed to retain control of Baghdad , but Armenia , Azerbaijan and Georgia fell back within

3760-650: The Persian sphere of influence. During Osman's reign there were several big fires in Istanbul , the capital. Ever since the Patrona Halil rebellion had overthrown Ahmed III in 1730, the government had largely been dominated by the empire's Chief Black Eunuchs . Grand viziers served for very limited periods in office. This changed when Mustafa III came to the throne in 1757. The son of Ahmed III, Mustafa sought to revive his father's policy of close cooperation with

3854-422: The Question of the East . The uprisings raised a chance for Russia, and ( Prince Gorchakov ) and Austria-Hungary ( Count Andrássy ), who made the secret Reichstadt Agreement on July 8, 1876, on partitioning the Balkan peninsula depending on the outcome. The following year a new Russo-Turkish war had begun. Despite fighting better than they ever had before, the modernised Ottoman armies still were not equal to

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3948-405: The Russo-Turkish wars Collapse and dissolution of both empires during World War I Russo-Turkish wars ( Russian : Русско-турецкие войны , romanized :  Russko-turetskiye voyny ) or Russo-Ottoman wars ( Turkish : Osmanlı-Rus savaşları ) were a series of twelve wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 20th centuries. It was one of

4042-400: The Slav peoples of the Balkans under Bulgaria or using Armenians in the east sets the stage. At the end of the century from Russian perspective; Romania , Serbia and Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria was achieved. That alarmed the Great Powers . After the Congress of Berlin the Russian expansion was controlled through stopping the expansion of Bulgaria. The Russian public felt that at

4136-466: The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which had closed the previous war, stirred up public opinion in Constantinople , and the British ambassador lent his support to the war party. In 1787 the Ottomans demanded that Russia vacate the Crimea. Russia declared war, but Ottoman preparations were inadequate and the moment was ill-chosen, now that Russia and Austria were in alliance, a fact that came to light only after events were already in motion. The Turks drove back

4230-407: The central state in a mutually beneficial relationship. The central government and provincial power-holders thus remained interdependent, and the latter did not seek independence from the Ottoman Empire. During the seventeenth century provincial governors had been appointed for unspecified periods of time, producing a significant degree of uncertainty among them with regard to security of office. By

4324-415: The common people, but also as places where people could come together on a relatively equal basis to discuss public affairs. While the seventeenth century had witnessed some degree of backlash against the spread of coffeehouses from the state, which was concerned with their socially subversive influence, and from the ultra-conservative religious movement of the Kadızadelis , during the eighteenth century there

4418-441: The construction of a new summer palace near Kağıthane in Istanbul, to be named Saʿdabad ("Abode of Felicity"). Whereas Topkapı Palace enhanced the prestige of the Ottoman dynasty through seclusion, Saʿdabad was meant to serve as a stage for a much more visible and ostentatious sultanate, similar to the palace of Versailles in France. Coffeehouses played a major role in public life, not only by providing items of consumption for

4512-413: The course of the seventeenth century, the nature of the Ottoman Empire's government had transformed from a patrimonial system into one which was supported more by bureaucracy than by the personal authority of the sultan. The last effort of a militarily active sultan to personally control the entire government of the empire was undone in the 1703 rebellion known as the Edirne incident , in which Mustafa II

4606-461: The demarcation line to the rivers Sava and Danube Treaty of Niš (3 October 1739) : Russia gives up territorial claims to Ottoman Moldova and Bessarabia; Ottomans cede the demilitarized Azov to Russia, as well as the Zaporozhye region Treaty of Batum Ottoman Old Regime The history of the Ottoman Empire in the 18th century has classically been described as one of stagnation and reform . In analogy with 18th-century France, it

4700-466: The eastern border. The army was badly defeated under Enver's command at the Battle of Sarikamish January 2, 1915, against Nikolai Yudenich . This defeat was more due to the winter weather and bad planning, given the fact that Russians were actually preparing to evacuate Kars. With the loss of the eastern army, Ottoman defenses crumbled with further small battles and the Russian army succeeded in advancing as far west as Erzincan . The Ottoman army suffered

4794-406: The eighteenth century, all governors were appointed for one-year tenures, at the end of which they were subject to review and potential re-appointment. Provincial government in the Ottoman Empire was reliant upon continued cooperation between the centrally-appointed governors and local ayan . The latter played a key role in tax collection, particularly during wartime, and met in regular councils with

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4888-666: The eighteenth century. However, the impact of malikāne extended far beyond its original economic and fiscal purpose. It facilitated a new style of government in the Ottoman Empire, which has been characterized as one of "decentralization". Malikāne contracts were split into shares and privately traded on an ever-expanding market, taking advantage of the growing economy of the early eighteenth century Ottoman Empire. These state assets were traded among numerous social groups, including but not limited to military and religious officials, rural gentry, urban notables, and janissaries . This provided provincial figures with new ways to interact with

4982-420: The empire's history during this period is now generally viewed in more neutral terms, eschewing concepts such as 'decline' and 'stagnation'. The Old Regime was brought to an end not by a single dramatic event, but by the gradual process of reform begun by Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807), known as the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order). Although Selim himself was deposed, his reforms were continued by his successors into

5076-518: The empire, but established deep roots within a small geographical area. Ayan utilized patronage networks to wield significant influence within their local city or region, and their cooperation was essential in order for Ottoman provincial administration to function. During the eighteenth century, ayan were tied to the state through the aforementioned institution of malikāne . By purchasing malikāne , ayan were able to consolidate their control over their local region of influence, but were also linked to

5170-402: The empire, it touched off a revolt in Herzegovina in 1875. The revolt in Herzegovina quickly spread to Bosnia and then Bulgaria . Soon Serbia also entered the war against the Turks. These revolts were the first test of the new Modern Ottoman Army . Even though they were not up to Western European standards, the army fought effectively and brutally; during the war, the Ottomans carried out

5264-514: The end of Congress of Berlin thousands of Russian soldiers had died for nothing. During the Greek uprising, the Russian Empire reached the Ottoman borders in the Caucasus , which were located in the southwest of the region, as well as northeastern Anatolia . Under the terms of the Treaty of Adrianople , the Ottoman Empire recognized Russian sovereignty over western Georgia , which was formerly under Ottoman suzerainty, and recognized Russian domination of present-day Armenia , which had been conquered

5358-530: The entire Ottoman fleet at Sinop , Britain and France concluded that armed intervention on the side of the Ottomans was the only way to halt a massive Russian expansion. Even though the Ottomans and Russians were on opposing sides, the roots of the ensuing Crimean War lay in the rivalry between the British and the Russians. The war ended unfavorably for the Russians, with the Paris peace of 1856 . The wars declined Ottoman morale and turned it helpless, illustrating that modern technology and superior weaponry were

5452-456: The export of fine textiles, handmade yarns, and leather goods. The eighteenth century was a time of increasing consumption and sociability among the Ottoman elite. Dozens of palaces sprang up along the shores of the Bosphorus for the rich Ottoman grandees, who used their wealth to fund Istanbul's rapid expansion. Fountains were constructed across the city, providing fresh water for a growing urban population. In 1721 Sultan Ahmed III ordered

5546-427: The first examples of industrial productions. But the social problems peaked and after the revolt of Patrona Halil Ahmet was dethroned. Although Mahmud was brought to the throne by the civil strife engendered by Patrona Halil , he did not espouse Halil's anti-reform agenda. In fact, much of his first year as sultan was spent in dealing with the reactionary forces unleashed by Halil. Eventually, on 24 November 1731, he

5640-490: The first three quarters of the eighteenth century. The Ottoman budget grew dramatically, from 1 billion akçe in 1699 to 1.6 billion in 1748. In contrast with the previous century, the Ottomans enjoyed budget surpluses during most of these years. Istanbul's commercial infrastructure was significantly revamped and expanded during the eighteenth century, improvements which underpinned the empire's rapidly growing international trade. The Ottoman economy particularly benefited from

5734-416: The hands of Austria in 1717. Through the mediation of England and the Netherlands the peace of Passarowitz was concluded in 1718, by which the Ottomans retained their conquests from the Venetians, but lost Banat . During the course of the Persian war the Ottomans made successive conquests with little resistance from Persian armies, though often impeded by the nature of the country and the fierce spirit of

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5828-447: The independence of Greece and the transition of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus to Russia. Thus Greece became the first independent country created out of a section of the Ottoman Empire. Russian Empire aspirations for a section of the empire and bases on Russia's southern flank provoked British fears over naval domination of the Mediterranean and control of the land route to the Indian Subcontinent . When in 1853 Russia destroyed

5922-484: The lands of central Ukraine. Crimean Tatars , Turks and Nogais ravaged New Serbia , took a significant number of slaves . Their raid was repulsed by the garrison of the Fortress of St. Elizabeth , after which the movement to the Black Sea continued troops of General Rumyantsev . The Polish opposition was defeated by Alexander Suvorov , who was then transferred to the Ottoman theatre of operations, where in 1773 and 1774 he won several minor and major battles following

6016-440: The local judge ( kadı ), the commander of the Janissaries , the commander of the fortress garrison ( dizdar ), and local ayan leaders. Meetings were held either in the residence of the kadı or the provincial governor's office. The Ottoman military was capable of matching those of its European rivals during the first half of the eighteenth century, and there was no significant technological gap between them. However, following

6110-420: The longest series of military conflicts in European history . Except for four wars (the war of 1676–1681 , the Pruth River Campaign , the war of 1735–1739 , and the Crimean War ), the conflicts ended in losses for the Ottoman Empire, which was undergoing a long period of stagnation and decline ; conversely, they showcased the ascendancy of Russia as a European power after the modernization efforts of Peter

6204-421: The military campaign of the Crimean khan in the Caucasus . In May 1736, the Russian army launched an invasion of the Crimean peninsula and burned the capital of the Crimean Khanate, Bakhchysarai . On June 19, the Russian Don army under the command of General Peter Lacy captured Azov. In July 1737, the Münnich army took by storm the Ottoman fortress of Ochakov . The Lacy army (now 40,000 strong) marched into

6298-450: The most important part of a modern army, and a part that the Ottoman Empire was sorely lacking. While fighting alongside the British, French, and even the Piedmontese , the Ottomans could see how far they had fallen behind. Things began to change after the Crimean War. One of these changes arose as Europeans began to see commercial opportunity in the empire and the money entering via trade dramatically increased. The government also received

6392-415: The most important venue for public sociability was the bathhouse ( hamam ). Lady Mary Wortley Montagu , who visited an Edirne bathhouse in 1718, stated that the bathhouse played the same role for women that the coffeehouse played for men. Large numbers of women could meet on a regular basis, where they would have opportunities to discuss public affairs. In the early eighteenth century Istanbul's water supply

6486-448: The native tribes. After a few years, however, the war became less favourable to Ottoman ambition. The celebrated Persian military leader Nadir Konli Khan (who afterwards reconquered and conquered states for himself), gained his first renown by exploits against the enemies of Shah Tahmasp. Most of Ahmet's reign was the sub period known as Tulip period . The period was marked by a high taste of architecture, literature and luxury as well as

6580-461: The next heavy defeat in the Battle of Erzurum in 1916, after which the Russian army captured the whole of Western Armenia . After the 1916 campaign, the front remained stable until the Russian Revolution . The collapse of the Russian army after the 1917 revolution left only thinly spread Armenian units to resist the inevitable Ottoman counter-attack. The newly declared First Republic of Armenia took over Kars in April 1918. That same year in March,

6674-420: The nineteenth century and utterly transformed the nature of the Ottoman Empire. Of crucial importance for this period in Ottoman history was the institution of malikāne , or life-term tax farm . Tax farming had been used as a method of revenue-raising throughout the seventeenth century, but contracts only began to be sold on a life-term basis in 1695, as part of the empire's wartime fiscal reforms. According to

6768-487: The notables, who were more effectively able to handle issues of local government and taxation. The institution of malikāne continued largely undisturbed until 1793, when Selim III began to phase it out as part of his general reform effort, known as the New Order ( Ottoman Turkish : Niẓām-ı Cedīd ). As malikāne contracts expired they were transferred to the New Order treasury, and recontracted to individuals whom

6862-486: The palace was destroyed in 1942, due to its position on the front line. After the war, the Soviet government decided not to restore the palace and blew it up with dynamite. The cellars and the basement of the building have partially been preserved. A monument has been placed on the palace ruins. 59°52′51″N 29°52′54″E  /  59.880922°N 29.88158°E  / 59.880922; 29.88158 History of

6956-405: The press, and thus approved of its use. Müteferrika's press was mainly used to disseminate historical, geographical, and linguistic works, but suffered due to low market demand for printed books in comparison with more prestigious manuscripts, eventually closing down in 1796-7. Although Mustafa II (1695–1703), last of campaigning sultans, won a few minor victories, he suffered a devastating loss in

7050-712: The previous grand successes of the Russian Field-Marshal Pyotr Rumyantsev at Larga and Kagul . Naval operations of the Russian Baltic Fleet in the Mediterranean yielded victories under the command of Aleksei Orlov . In 1771, Egypt and Syria rebelled against Ottoman rule, while the Russian fleet totally destroyed the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Chesma . On July 21, 1774, the Ottoman Empire signed

7144-525: The provinces was predicated upon maintaining the loyalty of local interest groups. State authority was represented by the provincial governor ( beylerbey ) and the judge ( kadı ), the latter carrying out most of the day-to-day administration of the province. Representing local interests were figures known as "notables" ( ayan ). Ayan came from diverse backgrounds; what distinguished them was their entrenched local status. Unlike Ottoman state officials, they did not generally migrate from position to position across

7238-533: The provincial governors or their representatives ( mütesellim s). Frequently, mütesellim s were chosen from among the local ayan , and some families acquired the office on a hereditary basis. Particularly powerful ayan families, such as the al-Azms of Damascus, were also able to acquire governorships. Particularly during the second half of the eighteenth century, the duties of provincial government were carried out in local councils. Although varying from region to region, major figures on such councils would include

7332-605: The second half of the eighteenth century, but by the 1820s the Ottoman armies were unable to put down the Greek War of Independence in southern Greece . The great powers of Europe intervened, and assisted Greece with its independence. After the Battle of Navarino and the Russo-Turkish War (1828–29) , in which the Russian army first crossed the Balkan Mountains and took Adrianople , Turkey recognized

7426-558: The series of Ottoman disasters. The Russian Black Sea Fleet , created just a few years earlier, under the command of Admiral Ushakov , inflicted a series of defeats on the Turkish Fleet and seized the initiative in the Black Sea. Sultan Selim III was nervous to restore his country's prestige by a victory before making peace, but the condition of his military rendered this hope unavailing. Turkey signed an assistance pact with Prussia on 31 January 1790, but received no help during

7520-429: The situation, Russia and the Ottoman Empire conquered swaths of its territory comprising contemporary Dagestan , Azerbaijan , and Northern Iran , which was taken by Peter I in the Russo-Persian War (1722–1723) ; the Ottomans took the territory to the west, comprising modern day Armenia , parts of Eastern Anatolia , as well as western Iran. The gains by both were confirmed in the Treaty of Constantinople (1724) . For

7614-456: The state deemed reliable. This attempt at centralization was opposed by provincial figures who by then had a vested interest in the continuation of malikāne , and contributed to Selim III's overthrow in 1807. Malikāne contracts thus continued to be sold and traded until the 1840s, when they were finally eliminated as part of the empire's extensive reform effort, known as the Tanzimat . Over

7708-413: The state in a symbiotic relationship. Just as the Ottoman government relied on them to maintain order in the provinces, so too did they come to rely on the Ottoman government to provide them with legitimacy and continued access to malikāne revenues. Thus paradoxically, the Ottoman government both granted provincial figures a greater degree of autonomy than ever before, while also tying them more closely to

7802-609: The steppes, while the Ottoman fleet was wrecked in the Sea of Azov . The peace treaty between the two sides cemented Russia's rule on the Volga, but allowed the Ottoman Empire to obtain a number of commercial benefits. The Crimean Khanate , an Ottoman vassal , continued its expansion against the Tsardom of Russia , but was defeated at the Battle of Molodi in 1572. The next conflict between Russia and Turkey began 100 years later as part of

7896-679: The struggle for the territory of Ukraine. While Russia conquered Left-bank Ukraine after the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) , the Ottoman Empire, in the course of the Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676) , spread its rule over all of Right-bank Ukraine with the support of its vassal , Petro Doroshenko (1665–1672). The latter's pro-Ottoman policy caused disapproval among many Ukrainian Cossacks , who would elect Ivan Samoilovich as sole Hetman of all Ukraine in 1674. In 1676, Russian troops captured Chigirin and overthrew Doroshenko, who

7990-556: The war. Following a border incident at Balta, Sultan Mustafa III declared war on Russia on September 25, 1768. The Turks formed an alliance with the Polish opposition forces of the Bar Confederation , while Russia was supported by Great Britain , which offered naval advisers to the Imperial Russian Navy . In January 1769, a 70-thousand Turkish-Tatar army led by Crimean Khan Qırım Giray invaded

8084-521: The war. Accordingly, the Treaty of Jassy was signed with Russia on 9 January 1792, by which the Crimea and Ochakov were left to Russia, the Dniester was made the frontier in Europe, and the Asiatic frontier remained unchanged. Gábor Ágoston attributes the decline of Ottoman power relative to Russia to the reactionary Janissaries : In 1806, the Ottoman Empire incited by Napoleonic France started

8178-544: Was appearing. It seemed as though it might be possible for the empire to turn its decline around. The monetary and governmental collapse combined with a new threat from Russia began the final stages of the Empire's collapse. Russia had been forced by the Crimean War to give up its ambitions of conquering the Ottoman capital of Constantinople and taking control of the Bosphorus . Instead it decided to focus on gaining power in

8272-575: Was deposed. Major governmental offices were no longer located within the imperial palace , and exercised greater independent authority. By the 1790s the central bureaucracy had grown to number some 1,500-2,000 scribes, representing a significant increase over the 183 who were serving in 1593. High-ranking bureaucrats found their social mobility increased, and many of them went on to establish successful careers as provincial governors and even grand viziers, posts which in previous centuries were typically limited to men of military backgrounds. Ottoman rule in

8366-528: Was exiled to Russia. In 1677, the Ottoman army tried to retake Chigirin, but was defeated. In 1678, the Ottoman army was finally able to take Chigirin after a bloody assault, but here the Ottoman expansion to the northeast was stopped. In 1679–80, the Russians repelled the attacks of the Crimean Tatars and signed the Treaty of Bakhchisarai in 1681, which established the Russo-Turkish border on

8460-553: Was forced to execute Halil and his main followers, whereupon the rebellion ceased. Another war erupted between the Ottomans and Russia in May 1736. Russian forces captured Azov (1736) and Ochakov (1737), but failed to take Bender and suffered immense losses from disease and logistical challenges after unsuccessfully invading the Crimea in 1738. In 1737 Austria joined the war on the Russian side, but suffered disastrous defeats against

8554-401: Was no longer an effort to ban them entirely. Coffeehouse culture had become an established feature of the cities and towns of the Ottoman Empire, and now the state limited itself to surveillance measures in an effort to control the unruly groups which could gather in them. Socially, they became more stratified, with different venues emerging for those of varying social ranks. For Ottoman women,

8648-411: Was significantly upgraded, allowing the number of bathhouses to multiply across the city. Bathhouses were naturally segregated by sex, but also sometimes catered to particular social classes as well. The first Turkish-language printing press was established in Istanbul in 1727 by Ibrahim Müteferrika , a Hungarian convert to Islam. Both the imperial court and religious authorities recognized the value of

8742-475: Was that the other great powers would oppose such a one-sided resolution and a conference would be held to revise it. His hope became reality and in 1878 the Congress of Berlin was held where Germany promised to be an "honest broker" in the treaty's revision. In the new treaty Bulgarian territory was decreased and the war indemnities were cancelled. The conference also again hurt Anglo-Ottoman relations by giving

8836-635: Was turned into barracks, like the Catherine Palace in Moscow. Later during the reign of Alexander I (1777-1825), under direct supervision of Quarenghi, the palace was thoroughly renovated between 1802 and 1805. At the same time, the interior decoration was completed in classical style. Until the start of the World War I , the palace was used as a guesthouse for foreign diplomats and other high-ranking guests, who were attending summer receptions at

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