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95-461: The Ennedi makes up an area of approximately 60,000 km (23,000 sq mi), as large as Switzerland, and its highest point is approximately 1,450 m (4,760 ft) above sea level. The Massif is composed of sandstone overlaying a Precambrian granite base. In the Ennedi, there are at least twenty perennial or semi-perennial springs, gueltas (desert ponds), and pools, but they rarely reach greater than

190-494: A palace economy . These economies were centrally based around the administration, meaning the dictator or pharaoh had both the ability and the right to say who was taxed and who received special treatment. Another early form of wealth redistribution occurred in Plymouth Colony under the leadership of William Bradford . Bradford recorded in his diary that this "common course" bred confusion, discontent, distrust, and

285-403: A 0.5 mm sieve. Studies in the deep sea define macrofauna as animals retained on a 0.3 mm sieve to account for the small size of many of the taxa. Megafauna are large animals of any particular region or time. For example, Australian megafauna . Meiofauna are small benthic invertebrates that live in both marine and freshwater environments . The term meiofauna loosely defines

380-585: A 1 mm mesh also depends upon whether it is alive or dead at the time of sorting. Mesofauna are macroscopic soil animals such as arthropods or nematodes . Mesofauna are extremely diverse; considering just the springtails ( Collembola ), as of 1998, approximately 6,500 species had been identified. Microfauna are microscopic or very small animals (usually including protozoans and very small animals such as rotifers ). To qualify as microfauna, an organism must exhibit animal-like characteristics, as opposed to microflora , which are more plant-like. Stygofauna

475-482: A better standard of living. Seen for example in the work of John Rawls , another argument is that a truly fair society would be organized in a manner benefiting the least advantaged, and any inequality would be permissible only to the extent that it benefits the least advantaged. Some proponents of redistribution argue that capitalism results in an externality that creates unequal wealth distribution. Many economists have argued that wealth and income inequality are

570-405: A cause of economic crises , and that reducing these inequalities is one way to prevent or ameliorate economic crises, with redistribution thus benefiting the economy overall. This view was associated with the underconsumptionism school in the 19th century, now considered an aspect of some schools of Keynesian economics ; it has also been advanced, for different reasons, by Marxian economics . It

665-436: A current political infrastructure that addresses these issues. Modern thinking towards the topic of the redistribution of wealth, focuses on the concept that economic development increases the standard of living across an entire society. Today, income redistribution occurs in some form in most democratic countries, through economic policies. Some redistributive policies attempt to take wealth, income, and other resources from

760-505: A deceased person from closest family members and moving towards a more distant family. Son(s), daughter(s), wife, husband and parents are the prime recipients. This distribution is explicitly illustrated in Qur’an and cannot be changed or modified. Under varying conditions, the share received by different relatives accordingly changes. The important principle is that the owner at the time of his/her death cannot change these shares. The context that

855-601: A diverse mixture of vegetation within the area. However, precipitation allows for greater moisture in the thin soil during the winter months, with lower run-off. The mountains are also known to have a north-Sahelian climate in the southern region, with greater amounts of precipitation between the months of May and September. The rainfall is subject to the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Just under one-tenth of World Heritage Sites are in Africa, but

950-524: A few dozen meters in the dry season. It is considered part of the Sahelian Acacia savanna, which extends across the entire continent which once contained diverse ungulates whose population has since been reduced. The landscape has geological structures, including towers, pillars, bridges, and arches, which serve as major tourist attractions. Interestingly, much of the sand found in the Sahara is due to

1045-436: A few years" but "longer growth spells are robustly associated with more equality in the income distribution." The Industrial Revolution led to increasing inequality among nations. Some economies took off, whereas others, like many of those in Africa or Asia, remained close to a subsistence standard of living. General calculations show that the 17 countries of the world with the most-developed economies had, on average, 2.4 times

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1140-453: A group of organisms by their size, larger than microfauna but smaller than macrofauna, rather than a taxonomic grouping. One environment for meiofauna is between grains of damp sand (see Mystacocarida ). In practice these are metazoan animals that can pass unharmed through a 0.5–1 mm mesh but will be retained by a 30–45 μm mesh, but the exact dimensions will vary from researcher to researcher. Whether an organism passes through

1235-499: A large reservoir in the area, the plateau has a rich collection of fauna . For example, there are at least 199 listed species of migratory birds that pass through the Ennedi. Other examples of fauna include the West African crocodile , also known as the desert crocodile, that once existed throughout the Sahara at a time of more abundant rainfall (see Neolithic Subpluvial ). A striking characteristic of this population of crocodiles

1330-523: A lower social class tend to favor more redistributive policies than their counterparts born into a higher social class. Research has also found that women generally support redistribution more than men do, though the strength of this preference varies across countries. While literature remains mixed on if monetary gain is the true motivation behind favoring redistributive policies, most researchers accept that social class plays some role in determining someone's views towards redistributive policies. Nonetheless,

1425-436: A particular region or time. The corresponding terms for plants and fungi are flora and funga , respectively. Flora, fauna, funga and other forms of life are collectively referred to as biota . Zoologists and paleontologists use fauna to refer to a typical collection of animals found in a specific time or place, e.g. the " Sonoran Desert fauna" or the " Burgess Shale fauna". Paleontologists sometimes refer to

1520-420: A person is in can influence their views on redistributive policies. For example, despite both being Western civilizations, typical Americans and Europeans do not have the same views on redistribution policies. This phenomenon persists even among people who would benefit most from redistributive policies, as poor Americans tend to favor redistributive policy less than equally poor Europeans. Research shows this

1615-446: A progressive system of taxation to achieve a certain level of income redistribution. In addition to the creation and implementation of these tax systems, "globalization of the world economy [has] provided incentives for reforming the tax systems" across the globe. Along with utilizing a system of taxation to achieve the redistribution of wealth, the same socio-economic benefit can be achieved if there are appropriate policies enacted within

1710-625: A sequence of faunal stages , which is a series of rocks all containing similar fossils. The study of animals of a particular region is called faunistics . Fauna comes from the name Fauna , a Roman goddess of earth and fertility, the Roman god Faunus , and the related forest spirits called Fauns . All three words are cognates of the name of the Greek god Pan , and panis is the Modern Greek equivalent of fauna (πανίς or rather πανίδα). Fauna

1805-437: A shift in lifestyle, pottery styles changed as well. For instance, vessels now had much more decorative patterns, and different shapes of pots were created. Also, certain stone tools emerged for the first time, including axes. Lastly, due to increased aridity from 3,000-2,000 BC, there were more established settlements, as well as a greater amount of herding with mainly small livestock. The pottery exhibited geometric patterns for

1900-505: A trickle-down effect, where the benefits of growth would eventually reach the poorest members of society. However, evidence began to emerge in the 1990s that challenged this notion and suggested that the link between economic growth and poverty reduction was not as strong as previously thought. This shift in thinking led to a reconsideration of the importance of addressing inequality in the pursuit of development. The redistribution of wealth and its practical application are bound to change with

1995-512: Is dwarfism , which developed due to their isolation, making them unusual (other such remnant populations are or were found in Mauritania and Algeria ). They survive in only a few pools in river canyons in the area, for example, the Guelta d'Archei , and are threatened with extinction . The last lions ( West African subspecies ) in the Sahara also survived here until they became extinct in

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2090-484: Is a major instrument of restricting the excessive accumulation of wealth and helping the poor and most vulnerable members of the society, Secondly, usury , or charging interest , is prohibited. Elimination of interest from the economic system is a revolutionary step with profound effects on all spheres of economic activities. Finally, the Inheritance Law Of Islam is the distribution of the property of

2185-412: Is also the word for a book that catalogues the animals in such a manner. The term was first used by Carl Linnaeus from Sweden in the title of his 1745 work Fauna Suecica . Cryofauna refers to the animals that live in, or very close to, cold areas. Cryptofauna is the fauna that exists in protected or concealed microhabitats . Epifauna, also called epibenthos , are aquatic animals that live on

2280-408: Is any fauna that lives in groundwater systems or aquifers, such as caves , fissures and vugs . Stygofauna and troglofauna are the two types of subterranean fauna (based on life-history). Both are associated with subterranean environments – stygofauna is associated with water, and troglofauna with caves and spaces above the water table . Stygofauna can live within freshwater aquifers and within

2375-494: Is associated with caves and spaces above the water table and stygofauna with water. Troglofaunal species include spiders , insects , myriapods and others. Some troglofauna live permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment. Troglofauna adaptations and characteristics include a heightened sense of hearing, touch and smell. Loss of under-used senses is apparent in the lack of pigmentation as well as eyesight in most troglofauna. Troglofauna insects may exhibit

2470-448: Is because when a society has a fundamental belief that those who work hard will earn rewards from their work, the society will favor lower redistributive policies. However, when a society as a whole believes that some combination of outside factors, such as luck or corruption, can contribute to determining one's wealth, those in the society will tend to favor higher redistributive policies. This leads to fundamentally different ideas of what

2565-485: Is currently cultivated, about 50% is grazed, and cereal grains make up the main food groups. During arid periods, this site serves as a refuge for subtropical taxa, such as palms and grasses. The most common types of soils in Chad include Leptosols , Regosols , and Arenosols in the central and northern regions, and Fluvisols , Plinthosols , Planosols , Solonchaks , and Vertisols in the southern region. The Desert Locust

2660-402: Is essential. The distribution of income that emerges from competitive markets may be very unequal. However, under the conditions of the basic competitive model, a redistribution of wealth can move the economy to a more equal allocation that is also Pareto efficient. Lists: Opposite tendencies: Fauna Fauna ( pl. : faunae or faunas ) is all of the animal life present in

2755-400: Is known for its deleterious impacts on the local flora, specifically crops and pastures. While there is a lack of absolute dates concerning the Ennedi rock art, the images can be dated from around 5000 BC onwards. The archaeological record and sites' rock art allow researchers to generate these dates because there is, unfortunately, a lack of organic materials. For instance, only one cattle jaw

2850-411: Is much more equal than Western economies. Likewise, the socialist planned economies of the former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc featured very little income redistribution because private capital and land income were restricted. To attain an efficient allocation of resources with the desired distribution of income, if the assumptions of the competitive model are satisfied by the economy, the sole role of

2945-419: Is one example. Medicare is a government-run health insurance program that covers people age 65 or older, certain younger people with disabilities, and people with end-stage renal disease (permanent kidney failure requiring dialysis or a transplant, sometimes called ESRD). This is a direct benefit program because the government is directly providing health insurance for those who qualify. The difference between

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3040-424: Is sometimes related to the term class warfare , where the redistribution is alleged to counteract harm caused by high-income earners and the wealthy through means such as unfairness and discrimination. Redistribution tax policy should not be confused with predistribution policies. "Predistribution" is the idea that the state should try to prevent inequalities from occurring in the first place rather than through

3135-478: Is ‘just’ or fair in these countries and influences their overall views on redistribution.   Another context that can influence one's ideas of redistributive policies is the social class that one is born into. People tend to favor redistributive policy that will help the groups that they are a member of.   This is displayed in a study of Latin American lawmakers, where it is shown that lawmakers born into

3230-524: The Gini index for the income distribution before taxation and the Gini index after taxation is an indicator for the effects of such taxation. Wealth redistribution can be implemented through land reform that transfers ownership of land from one category of people to another, or through inheritance taxes , land value taxes or a broader wealth tax on assets in general. Before-and-after Gini coefficients for

3325-408: The distribution of wealth can be compared. Interventions like rent control can impose large costs. Some alternative forms of interventions, such as housing subsidies, may achieve comparable distributional objectives at less cost. If the government cannot costlessly redistribute, it should look for efficient ways of redistributing—that is, ways that reduce the costs as much as possible. This is one of

3420-419: The negative income tax for very low income earners and tax loopholes (tax avoidance) for the better-off. Two other common types of governmental redistribution of income are subsidies and vouchers (such as food stamps or Section-8 housing vouchers). These transfer payment programs are funded through general taxation, but benefit the poor or influential special interest groups and corporations. While

3515-520: The pore spaces of limestone , calcrete or laterite , whilst larger animals can be found in cave waters and wells. Stygofaunal animals, like troglofauna, are divided into three groups based on their life history - stygophiles, stygoxenes, and stygobites. Troglofauna are small cave -dwelling animals that have adapted to their dark surroundings. Troglofauna and stygofauna are the two types of subterranean fauna (based on life-history). Both are associated with subterranean environments – troglofauna

3610-526: The "haves" and give them to the "have-nots", but many redistributions go elsewhere. For example, the U.S. government's progressive-rate income tax policy is redistributive because much tax revenue goes to social programs such as welfare and Medicare . In a progressive income tax system, a high income earner will pay a higher tax rate (a larger percentage of their income) than a low income earner; and therefore, will pay more total dollars per person. Other taxation-based methods of redistributing income are

3705-525: The 1940s due to increased land use and hunting/poaching. Any surviving scimitar oryx antelopes and Sudan cheetah still alive in the wild are likely to be found in the remote regions of the Ennedi Plateau. Researchers used camera traps to identify an isolated population of North African ostrich that was discovered to still be living in the protected area. To bolster this population, African Parks rehomed 11 ostrich chicks from Zakouma National Park to

3800-445: The 1990s, the dominant view among development economists was that inequality in poor countries was a less pressing issue compared to ensuring sufficient growth, which was believed to be the primary means of reducing poverty. The policy recommendation for developing countries was clear: it was not possible to simultaneously decrease poverty and inequality. This perspective was based on the belief that economic growth would eventually lead to

3895-519: The 50 states of the US, British researchers Richard G. Wilkinson and Kate Pickett show a correlation between income inequality and higher rates of health and social problems ( obesity , mental illness , homicides , teenage births , incarceration , child conflict, drug use), and lower rates of social goods ( life expectancy , educational performance, trust among strangers , women's status , social mobility , even numbers of patents issued per capita), on

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3990-407: The 526 species of flora found: 41.3% therophytes, 3.0% geophytes, 5.1% helophytes, 1.1% hydrophytes, 7.0% hemicryptophytes, 18.4% chamaephytes, 15.1% phanerophytes. Unusual species, including Rauwolfia afra , a type of tree typically found in tropical and equatorial Africa, is found in the Ennedi. Much of the vegetation is protected by the presence of deep canyons and gueltas. Only 2% of Chadian land

4085-520: The Chadian government eventually reduced the size of the protected area due to oil exploration. The Ennedi suffers from high income inequality, so the use of oil reserves has allowed for better redistribution of wealth . There is believed to have been a partnership contract between the State Party and oil companies for oil exploration and the private lease of land which have raised concerns regarding

4180-540: The Chadian government in January 2019. The World Bank has also worked with the Chadians by recommending the oil-revenues-management-and-redistribution program, which states that “70% of direct oil revenues are to be allocated to priority sectors, 15% to public investments, 5% to the oil-producing department, and 10% to future generations.”  However, the Chadian government has already been criticized for not abiding by

4275-561: The Chiguéou II site, includes cattle figures in extravagant geometric designs. Cattle were found all among the highlands, while other animals, such as horses, were not. Other types of domesticated animals found included sheep and dogs. During the Iron Age, people survived on a more nomadic lifestyle, choosing to display camels and specifically horses in their pictures. However, these animals were not individualized with different coats as

4370-599: The Eastern European economies has increased after moving from socialist controlled systems to market-based economies. For the Islamic distribution, the following are the three key elements of the Islamic Economic System, which have significant implications for the distribution of income and wealth (if fully implemented) and are markedly different from Capitalism. The Islamic system is defined by

4465-549: The Ennedi rock art site by scrawling their names on the art in French and Arabic, with the latest inscription from January 2017. Chad's minister of culture, Mahamat Saleh Haroun, described the situation, "It's an African story and they wanted to destroy that." While the head of UNESCO in Chad Abdelkerim Adoum Bahar believes the damage can be repaired, other organizations have since become involved. For example,

4560-408: The Ennedi, according to researcher Daget. A total number of 2,173 species of flora are native to Chad, and some of the first flora researchers in the area back in the 1950s included R. Corti, H. Gillet, R. Maire, and P. Quézel. There are currently over 525 species of flora that have been listed in the Ennedi. Specifically, researcher Gillet used a classification system to describe 7 main life forms for

4655-540: The Ennedi, directed by Renan Ozturk to show the beauty of the Ennedi. Redistribution of wealth Redistribution of income and wealth is the transfer of income and wealth (including physical property ) from some individuals to others through a social mechanism such as taxation , welfare , public services , land reform , monetary policies , confiscation , divorce or tort law. The term typically refers to redistribution on an economy-wide basis rather than between selected individuals. Understanding of

4750-829: The GDP per capita of the world's poorest economies in 1870. By 1960, the most developed economies had 4.2 times the GDP per capita of the poorest economies. Regarding to GDP indicator, GDP has nothing to say about the level of inequality in society. GDP per capita is only an average. When GDP per capita rises by 5%, it could mean that GDP for everyone in the society has risen by 5%, or that GDP of some groups has risen by more while that of others has risen by less—or even declined. Public choice theory states that redistribution tends to benefit those with political clout to set spending priorities more than those in need, who lack real influence on government. The socialist economists John Roemer and Pranab Bardhan criticize redistribution via taxation in

4845-547: The Scandinavian countries, social democracy has been in decline since the labor movement weakened. Instead, Roemer and Bardhan argue that changing the patterns of enterprise ownership and market socialism , obviating the need for redistribution, would be more sustainable and effective at promoting egalitarianism. Marxian economists argue that social democratic reforms – including policies to redistribute income – such as unemployment benefits and high taxes on profits and

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4940-542: The Trust for African Rock Art, in partnership with the Factum Foundation, has since documented Ennedi through photographs; their mission is to show the issues involved in protecting rock art. Due to both erosion and vandalism, the Ennedi has faced deterioration, but this art has now been recorded in 3D to raise awareness about the beauty of this site. Films have also been made about this landscape, including Towers of

5035-566: The Twenty-First Century is at the forefront of the debate, mainly focusing on within-country concentration of income and wealth. Branko Milanovic provided evidence of increasing inequality at the global level, showing how the group of so-called "global plutocrats ", i.e. the richest 1% in the world income distribution, were the main beneficiaries of economic growth in the period 1988–2008. More recent analysis supports this claim, as 27% of total economic growth worldwide accrued to

5130-483: The area and are estimated to be about 8,000 years old. Much of the art has been recognized with its great expression through color, with more than 86% of the art painted and 14% engraved. The art was found on the floors, on the ceilings, and the walls of shelters created by wind erosion, and they are often found in elevated positions. The artwork portrays both animals and humans as they are in real life, with little to no hunter-gatherer representation. Unfortunately, many of

5225-478: The area. Lastly, the discovery of the fish species P. senegalus and P. normani are of particular interest to researchers. The identification of these species in the Sahara desert shows the connection between the Ounianga lakes and Lake Chad . The researchers sampled during the day and the night with landing nets and other observations to conduct their study. Finally, there are only seven species of fish found in

5320-424: The artwork depicted at Ennedi Plateau. However, the rock art had the greatest emphasis on domesticated cattle. In fact, at one site, Murdi, researchers graphed the frequency of humans and animals found among the rock art. Cattle consisted of over 50% of the total pictures, caprids around 10%, and dogs around 5%. The first rock picture ever discovered included the "Apollon Garamante," which showed two masked persons on

5415-414: The bottom substratum as opposed to within it, that is, the benthic fauna that live on top of the sediment surface at the seafloor. Infauna are benthic organisms that live within the bottom substratum of a water body, especially within the bottom-most oceanic sediments, the layer of small particles at the bottom of a body of water, rather than on its surface. Bacteria and microalgae may also live in

5510-426: The classic theory that individual preferences for redistribution decrease with their income, leading to societal preferences for redistribution that increase with income inequality has been disputed. Perhaps the most important impact of government on the distribution of “wealth” is in the sphere of education—in ensuring that everyone has a certain amount of human capital . By providing all individuals, regardless of

5605-582: The colonists looked upon it as a form of slavery. A closely related term, distributism (also known as distributionism or distributivism), refers to an economic ideology that developed in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th century. It was based on the principles of Catholic social teaching , particularly the teachings of Pope Leo XIII in his encyclical Rerum Novarum and Pope Pius XI in Quadragesimo Anno . More recently, Pope Francis echoed

5700-414: The context of Nordic-style social democracy , reportedly highlighting its limited success at promoting relative egalitarianism and its lack of sustainability. They point out that social democracy requires a strong labor movement to sustain its heavy redistribution, and that it is unrealistic to expect such redistribution to be feasible in countries with weaker labor movements. They point out that, even in

5795-401: The continuous evolution of social norms, politics, and culture. Within developed countries income inequality has become a widely popular issue that has dominated the debate stage for the past few years. The importance of a nation's ability to redistribute wealth in order to implement social welfare programs, maintain public goods, and drive economic development has brought various conversations to

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5890-416: The cows were. Also, while paintings of cattle portray the animals as static, horses are shown as galloping animals, creating an artistic quality to the art. Some more recent paintings included horses with chariots. Horses are believed to not be exhibited in the artwork as much as other animals, such as cattle, due to a lesser influence on the pastoralists. Camels were also portrayed, as having more movement than

5985-422: The earlier Papal statements in his Evangelii Gaudium . Different types of economic systems feature varying degrees of interventionism aimed at redistributing income, depending on how unequal their initial distributions are. Free-market capitalist economies tend to feature high degrees of income redistribution. However, Japan's government engages in much less redistribution because its initial wage distribution

6080-409: The first time, and stone tools included mainly just retouched flakes and grinding material. As rock art depictions have shown, there has been a decrease in fauna over time due to climatic changes, but also due to hunting and poaching. While the decrease in fauna has been a large issue in the area, vandalism has also taken a large toll on the site. For instance, suspected local youths defaced rock art at

6175-500: The following three key elements: Ushr and Zakat, the prohibition of usury, and the Inheritance Law. Ushr is an obligatory payment from agriculture output at the time of harvesting. If agricultural land is irrigated by rain or some other natural freely available water the producer is obliged to pay ten percent of the output as Ushr. In case irrigation water is not free of cost then the deduction would be five percent, while Zakat

6270-446: The funding of public services . One basis for redistribution is the concept of distributive justice , whose premise is that money and resources ought to be distributed in such a way as to lead to a socially just , and possibly more financially egalitarian , society. Another argument is that a larger middle class benefits an economy by enabling more people to be consumers , while providing equal opportunities for individuals to reach

6365-527: The generation of dust in the Tibesti-Ennedi triangle. Evidence of a change in climate occurred between 6000 BP, with a savanna region with ~250 mm annual rainfall, to ~150 mm annual rainfall 4300 BP. It later reached an annual rainfall of 50  mm around 2700 BP, similar to the amount of annual rainfall observed today. There are also monsoons common in the area, generating around 50–150  mm of rain per year. These natural disasters create

6460-477: The government is to alter the initial distribution of wealth – the major drivers of income inequality in capitalist systems – was virtually nonexistent; and because the wage rates were set by the government in these economies. A comparison between Socialist and Capitalist Systems in terms of distribution of income is much easier as both these systems stand practically implemented in a number of countries under compatible political systems. Inequality in almost all

6555-435: The human figures found, only 4% were engraved. There were numerous handprints from both men and women found among the rock art. Males are often exhibited as standing in front of cattle holding a lance and a shield, mainly seen as protecting their animals. Females are not portrayed as often as males. The graph mentioned previously that showed the frequency of humans and animals found that at the site Mundi, men were depicted 20% of

6650-410: The interstices of bottom sediments. In general, infaunal animals become progressively smaller and less abundant with increasing water depth and distance from shore, whereas bacteria show more constancy in abundance, tending toward one million cells per milliliter of interstitial seawater. Such creatures are found in the fossil record and include lingulata , trilobites and worms . They made burrows in

6745-429: The main concerns of the branch of economics called the economics of the public sector. One study suggests that "the middle class faces a paradoxical status" in that they tend to vote against income redistribution, even though they would benefit economically from it. The objectives of income redistribution are to increase economic stability and opportunity for the less wealthy members of society and thus usually include

6840-422: The men typically are. Another major site, Niola Doa, which means "The place of the girls," in the local language, is no longer considered under UNESCO protection, yet is known as one of the most important rock sites in the Sahara. Many figures appear to be naked, with smaller figures adorning skirts, and some were seen as having a genetic condition known as steatopygia , which is caused by an accumulation of fat in

6935-456: The other animals. Wild animals were also portrayed in the artwork for their religious and mythical meanings. Giraffes were the most common wild animals demonstrated, and they were most often expressed during hunter-gatherer times. Also, numerous rhinos were crafted alongside round-headed humans, unusual for the typical behavior of rhinos as they usually live as couples or loners. Depictions of people are fairly common in Ennedi rock art, and among

7030-539: The other. The authors argue inequality leads to the social ills through the psychosocial stress , status anxiety it creates. A 2011 report by the International Monetary Fund by Andrew G. Berg and Jonathan D. Ostry found a strong association between lower levels of inequality and sustained periods of economic growth. Developing countries (such as Brazil, Cameroon, Jordan) with high inequality have "succeeded in initiating growth at high rates for

7125-697: The paintings have deteriorated due to weathering and vandalism. Early pictures were monochrome, representing people working with their livestock, and many were shown with hunting gear while walking and running. This portrayal emphasized the type of lifestyle people had during the early Iron Age, a period in Africa from around the second century AD until 1000 AD. As time progressed, images became much more colorful. Many more combative weapons were shown, which may have been due to intensified fighting due to distinguished hierarchies. A changing climate, due to decreased water and pasture, may have been indicated with these types of weapons. Domesticated animals made up nearly 69% of

7220-409: The persons receiving transfers from such programs may prefer to be directly given cash, these programs may be more palatable to society than cash assistance, as they give society some measure of control over how the funds are spent. Governmental redistribution of income may include a direct benefit program involving either cash transfers or the purchase of specific services for an individual. Medicare

7315-405: The phrase varies, depending on personal perspectives, political ideologies and the selective use of statistics. It is frequently used in politics, to refer to perceived redistribution from those who have more to those who have less. Occasionally, albeit rarely, the term is used to describe laws or policies that cause redistribution in the opposite direction, from the poor to the rich. The phrase

7410-497: The political arena. A country's means of redistributing wealth comes from the implementation of a carefully thought out well described system of taxation. The implementation of such a system would aid in achieving the desired social and economic objective of diminishing social inequality and maximizing social welfare. There are various ways to impose a tax system that will help create a more efficient allocation of resources, in particular, many democratic, even socialist governments utilize

7505-570: The potential for tourism to amass support for this landscape and to contribute to the needs of the local people. The European Union contributed €4.7 million to African Parks, and the Dutch Postcode Lottery gave around €3 million over three years to this organization. Furthermore, about 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi), a large portion of the Ennedi Plateau, was designated as the Ennedi Natural and Cultural Reserve by

7600-652: The program. The plateau consists of Cambrian - Ordivician to Carboniferous sandstone on the north-facing Gondwana platform . The sandstone overlies the Pan-African basement consisting of granites , gneiss , or quartzite ridges. Glacial lineations, plus ridge-and-trough topography, record the Andean-Saharan glaciation . Unfortunately, not a lot of studies have been conducted on Northern Chad due to security issues, harsh climatic conditions, wars, and banditry. However, researchers have found that due to

7695-406: The proposed " Buffett Rule ", which is a hybrid taxation model composed of opposing systems intended to minimize the favoritism of special interests in tax design. The effects of a redistributive system are actively debated on ethical and economic grounds. The subject includes an analysis of its rationales, objectives, means, and policy effectiveness. In ancient times, redistribution operated as

7790-426: The reduced amount of protected area by UNESCO. As a result to this increase in oil exploitation, there has been accidental oil spills in Chad, leaving the contamination of groundwater, accidental chemical spills, and the reduction in air quality. African Parks assumed management of this area in partnership with the Chadian government in early 2018. African Parks intends to improve the park's infrastructure and explore

7885-422: The reserve. The chicks were kept in a holding facility until they reached adulthood, before being released into the greater area. There are currently 25 ostriches in Ennedi as of 2022. It has been suggested that the cryptid Ennedi tiger (a supposed surviving sabertooth cat) may also live there. Gazelles and antelopes are also known to be present in the area. Poaching and hunting have decreased the number of species in

7980-491: The sediment as protection and may also have fed upon detritus or the mat of microbes which tended to grow on the surface of the sediment. Today, a variety of organisms live in and disturb the sediment . The deepest burrowers are the ghost shrimps ( Thalassinidea ), which go as deep as 3 metres (10 ft) into the sediment at the bottom of the ocean. Limnofauna refers to the animals that live in fresh water. Macrofauna are benthic or soil organisms which are retained on

8075-414: The side of cattle. Cattle were perceived as having unique horns, especially among longhorn cattle which occupied a large population. For instance, some cattle were given lyre-shaped horns. Cattle were known to have a large financial, cultural, and environmental impact on the people of the Ennedi highlands. They were also given distinct coats to individualize these animals, and rock art at some sites, including

8170-633: The site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Site in February 2016. During this process, there was much debate over what should be included. First of all, two administration zones and several villages had to reach agreement on whether it was considered a part of the World Heritage Site.  However, its establishment has benefited Chad by increasing income in the area from tourists who spend money to stay.  Also,

8265-399: The tax and benefits system once they have occurred. For example, a government predistribution policy might require employers to pay all employees a living wage and not just a minimum wage , as a "bottom-up" response to widespread income inequalities or high poverty rates. Many alternate taxation proposals have been floated without the political will to alter the status quo. One example is

8360-422: The thighs and the buttocks. During 5,000-4,000 cal BC, the Ennedi people worked as hunting, fishing, and gathering groups mainly on the plains. They mainly remained in settlement sites due to favorable conditions. Pottery vessels used at these sites included dotted wavy-line patterns unique to this period. As time progressed until around 4,000 cal BC, hunting and gathering societies shifted to cattle-herding. With

8455-687: The time, while women were only depicted 10%. However, women were often displayed as extravagantly decorated, such as those at Niola Dola. They were often covered in wavy lines and interesting geometric patterns, and these designs have been compared to Round Head-style figures found in Algeria. At sites like Nabara 2, located on the base of the north-face of the Saodomanga, oval engravings depict fauna like camels, cattle, and giraffes. Warriors are seen hiding behind round shields, and women are donned in long dresses. Females are not accompanied by weapons, while

8550-532: The top 1% of the world income distribution in the period 1980–2016. The approach underpinning these analyses has been critiqued in certain publications such as The Economist . Peter Singer 's argument contrasts to Thomas Pogge's in that he states we have an individual moral obligation to help the poor. The rich people who are living in the states with more redistribution, are more in favor of immigrants than poorer people, because this can make them pay less wages. Using statistics from 23 developed countries and

8645-413: The wealth of their parents, with a free basic education, government reduces the degree of inequality that otherwise would exist. Income inequality has many different connotations, three of which are of particular importance: The existence of high inequality within many developing countries , alongside persistent poverty , began to draw attention in the early 1970s. However, throughout the 1980s and into

8740-726: The wealthy create more contradictions in capitalism by further limiting the efficiency of the capitalist system via reducing incentives for capitalists to invest in further production. In the Marxist view, redistribution cannot resolve the fundamental issues of capitalism – only a transition to a socialist economy can. Income redistribution will lower poverty by reducing inequality, if done properly. But it may not accelerate growth in any major way, except perhaps by reducing social tensions arising from inequality and allowing poor people to devote more resources to human and physical asset accumulation. Directly investing in opportunities for poor people

8835-421: Was found from around 630 BC. However, researchers continue to use radiocarbon dates from both charcoal and other cattle bones to age these sites. In addition, there are around six sites, and around 40 pictures have been found. Examples of petroglyphs or rock paintings have been found in the area, such as those at the "lost sight" of Niola Doa. Thousands of paintings and carvings of people and animals exist throughout

8930-448: Was particularly advanced in the US in the 1920s by Waddill Catchings and William Trufant Foster . More recently, the so-called "Rajan hypothesis" posited that income inequality was at the basis of the explosion of the 2008 financial crisis. The reason is that rising inequality caused people on low and middle incomes, particularly in the US, to increase their debt to keep up their consumption levels with that of richer people. Borrowing

9025-494: Was particularly high in the housing market and deregulation in the financial sector made it possible to extend lending in sub-prime mortgages . The downturn in the housing market in 2007 halted this process and triggered the financial crisis . Nobel Prize laureate Joseph Stiglitz , along with many others, supports this view. There is currently a debate concerning the extent to which the world's extremely rich have become richer over recent decades. Thomas Piketty 's Capital in

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