117-685: The Eastern Association of counties was an administrative organisation set up by Parliament in the early years of the First English Civil War . Its main function was to finance and support an army which became a mainstay of the Parliamentarian military effort until early 1645. In January 1644 committeemen of the Eastern Association gathered at the Bury Conference to discuss their concerns as regards
234-591: A magnum concilium (Latin for ' great council ' ) to discuss national business and promulgate legislation. For example, the Domesday survey was planned at the Christmas council of 1085, and the Constitutions of Clarendon were made at the 1164 council. The magnum concilium continued to be the setting of state trials, such as the trial of Thomas Becket . The members of the great councils were
351-654: A Bill of Attainder against the King's minister Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford , who was fiercely loyal to Charles. This resulted in Strafford's execution: of all Strafford's enemies Essex was perhaps the most implacable, dismissing appeals for mercy with the proverb Stone dead hath no fellow. In an attempt at reconciliation with Parliament, Charles gave royal assent to the Bill of Attainder and invited leading Parliamentary critics to join his Privy Council . Essex supported
468-585: A French invasion and unrest throughout the realm. For the first time, burgesses (elected by those residents of boroughs or towns who held burgage tenure , such as wealthy merchants or craftsmen) were summoned along with knights of the shire. Montfort was killed at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and Henry was restored to power. In August 1266, Parliament authorised the Dictum of Kenilworth , which nullified everything Montfort had done and removed all restraints on
585-612: A certain new town" were summoned to advise on the rebuilding of Berwick after its capture by the English. Parliament—or the High Court of Parliament as it became known—was England's highest court of justice. A large amount of its business involved judicial questions referred to it by ministers, judges, and other government officials. Many petitions were submitted to Parliament by individuals whose grievances were not satisfied through normal administrative or judicial channels. As
702-454: A change in royal policy. According to historian Judith Green , "these assemblies were more concerned with ratification and publicity than with debate". In addition, the magnum concilium had no role in approving taxation as the king could levy geld (discontinued after 1162) whenever he wished. The years between 1189 and 1215 were a time of transition for the great council. The cause of this transition were new financial burdens imposed by
819-479: A cow and coward, and beast." The divorce was a public spectacle and it made Essex a laughing stock at court. It was small comfort that the finding that Frances was still a virgin was greeted with equal derision: as a popular ballad put it The Dame was inspected, but fraud interjected a Maid of greater perfection. The annulment was granted on 25 September 1613, and Frances married her lover, who had been made 1st Earl of Somerset, on 26 December 1613. Three years later
936-844: A decisive victory, the Parliamentarians forced the Royalists to withdraw to Oxford. This gave the Parliamentary army a clear road between Reading and London. 1644 proved to be the turning point in the First English Civil War. In February an alliance with the Scots was consolidated with the creation of the Committee of Both Kingdoms , to which Essex was appointed. This replaced the Committee of Safety. It gave
1053-490: A difficult position in 1642. Parliament had voted to raise an army to counter the Royalist one Charles was leading but it was collectively unsure about how to conduct it. This state of affairs was unprecedented in English history. Parliamentarians wanted to make a deal with the King on their terms but they did not want to commit treason. The Parliamentary ordinance that commissioned Essex to his post of Captain-General gave him
1170-594: A fine for the restoration of their property that was identical to the tax requested by the King. At the Salisbury parliament of March 1297, Edward unveiled his plans for recovering Gascony. The English would mount a two-front attack with the King leading an expedition to Flanders while other barons traveled to Gascony . This plan faced opposition from the most important noblemen— Roger Bigod , marshal and earl of Norfolk , and Humphrey Bohun , constable and earl of Hereford . Norfolk and Hereford argued that they owed
1287-420: A handful of shots fired. By the end of 1642, Essex's forces were the weaker side against the Royalists but the Parliamentarians had the sympathy of the Scots and there were thousands of other troops ready to join their cause around the country. The scene was set for a long conflict. After a long winter break, Essex's army captured and occupied Reading on 26 April 1643 following a 10-day siege. Progress towards
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#17327650514381404-635: A leader of the baronial reformers, ignored these orders and made plans to hold a parliament in London but was prevented by Bigod. When the king arrived back in England he summoned a parliament which met in July, where Montfort was brought to trial though ultimately cleared of wrongdoing. In April 1261, the pope released the king from his oath to adhere to the Provisions of Oxford, and Henry publicly renounced
1521-594: A military leader at this stage. These reforms led to the creation of the New Model Army led by Sir Thomas Fairfax , son of the victorious Lord Fairfax at the Battle of Marston Moor. Cromwell was swiftly appointed to the post of Lieutenant-General, Fairfax's second-in-command. For the rest of his days, Essex was associated with the emerging Presbyterian faction in Parliament. One of his last political battles
1638-565: A new constitution in which the king's powers were given to a council of nine. The new council was chosen and led by three electors (Montfort, Stephen Bersted, bishop of Chichester , and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester ). The electors could replace any of the nine as they saw fit, but the electors themselves could only be removed by Parliament. Montfort held two other Parliaments during his time in power. The most famous— Simon de Montfort's Parliament —was held in January 1265 amidst threat of
1755-458: A permanent feature of English politics. Thereafter, the king ruled in concert with an active Parliament, which considered matters related to foreign policy, taxation, justice, administration, and legislation. January 1236 saw the passage of the Statute of Merton , the first English statute . Among other things, the law continued barring bastards from inheritance. Significantly, the language of
1872-412: A precedent that taxation was granted in return for the redress of grievances. In 1232, Peter des Roches became the king's chief minister. His nephew, Peter de Rivaux , accumulated a large number of offices, including lord keeper of the privy seal and keeper of the wardrobe ; yet, these appointments were not approved by the magnates as had become customary during the regency government. Under Roches,
1989-399: A regiment in the unsuccessful campaign to relieve the siege of Breda. In 1625, under Sir Edward Cecil , he commanded a squadron as vice-admiral and as colonel of a foot regiment in the failed English expedition to Cadiz . Despite the lack of distinction, this period of his life gave him a good working knowledge of continental war methods and strategies, even if most of his own experience
2106-554: A rout. Both armies spent the night in the field before Essex withdrew the Parliamentarians to Warwick the next day. This battle and its aftermath portrayed the strengths and weaknesses of Essex's military mindset. His planning and leadership had allowed the Parliamentarian forces to stand their ground. However, his defensive caution and his unwillingness to engage the enemy led to his army being outmanoeuvred. Although Essex had begun his military preparations in London, prior to
2223-532: A schedule rather than at the pleasure of the king. The reformers hoped that the provisions would ensure parliamentary approval for all major government acts. Under the provisions, Parliament was "established formally (and no longer merely by custom) as the voice of the community". The theme of reform dominated later parliaments. During the Michaelmas Parliament of 1258, the Ordinance of Sheriffs
2340-488: A tax on moveables. In reality, this grant was not made by a parliament but by an informal gathering "standing around in [the king's] chamber". Norfolk and Hereford drew up a list of grievances known as the Remonstrances , which criticized the king's demand for military service and heavy taxes. The maltolt and prises were particularly objectionable due to their arbitrary nature. In August, Bigod and de Bohun arrived at
2457-517: A vassal to the King of France, English kings were suitors to the Parlement of Paris . In the 13th century, the French and English parliaments were similar in their functions; however, the two institutions diverged in significant ways in later centuries. After the 1230s, the normal meeting place for Parliament was fixed at Westminster . Parliaments tended to meet according to the legal year so that
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#17327650514382574-473: A year at Easter in the spring and after Michaelmas in the autumn. Under Edward, the first major statutes amending the common law were promulgated in Parliament: The first Statute of Westminster required free elections without intimidation. This act was accompanied by the grant of a tax on England's wealthy wool trade —a half- mark (6 s 8 d ) on each sack of wool exported. It became known as
2691-511: The magna et antiqua custuma (Latin: ' great and ancient custom ' ) and was granted to Edward and his heirs, becoming part of the Crown's permanent revenue until the 17th century. In 1294, Philip IV attempted to recover Aquitaine in the Gascon War . Edward's need for money to finance the war led him to take arbitrary measures. He ordered the seizure of merchants' wool, which
2808-742: The Battle of Brentford . The Royalists proceeded to sack the town. This galvanised sentiment in the City of London against a Royalist occupation. On 13 November, Essex was able to muster 24,000 men for the Battle of Turnham Green , including the remnants of the Edgehill army and the City trained bands, as well as apprentices and militiamen from Hertfordshire, Essex and Surrey. Essex and Major-General Phillip Skippon were key to this display of force by placing their soldiers in effective defensive positions and by keeping up morale. Charles, with much smaller forces, did not engage in battle. His army retreated with only
2925-541: The First War of Scottish Independence . This need for money led to what became known as the Model Parliament of November 1295. In addition to magnates who were summoned individually, sheriffs were instructed to send two elected knights from each shire and two elected burgesses from each borough. The Commons had been summoned to earlier parliaments but only with power to consent to what the magnates decided. In
3042-543: The Second Barons' War . Montfort defeated the king at the Battle of Lewes in 1264 and became the real ruler of England for the next twelve months. Montfort held a parliament in June 1264 to sanction a new form of government and rally support. This parliament was notable for including knights of the shire who were expected to deliberate fully on political matters, not just assent to taxation. The June Parliament approved
3159-736: The Second Battle of Newbury on 27 October. However, the Earl was sick in Reading at the time. His conduct in the West Country had frustrated Cromwell, now the most prominent member of the House of Commons following his military victories and the deaths of Hampden and Pym. Cromwell had become embroiled in a feud with the Earl of Manchester, who was still his superior officer in the Eastern Association. Essex and Manchester remained sympathetic to
3276-425: The five members about what the King was planning to do. Charles was humiliated when he entered the House of Commons only to find that the five members had fled. In that same month, Essex began to absent himself from Charles's court. In April he was dismissed from the office of Lord Chamberlain when he failed to join the King at York. His position as Captain-General of the southern forces was deemed to have lapsed. As
3393-479: The shires and boroughs were recognised as communes (Latin communitas ) with a unified constituency capable of being represented by knights of the shire and burgesses . Initially, knights and burgesses were summoned only when new taxes were proposed so that representatives of the communes (or the Commons) could report back home that taxes were lawfully granted. The Commons were not regularly summoned until
3510-439: The 1290s, after the so-called Model Parliament of 1295. Of the thirty parliaments between 1274 and 1294, knights only attended four and burgesses only two. Early parliaments increasingly brought together social classes resembling the estates of the realm of continental Europe: the landed aristocracy (barons and knights), the clergy, and the towns. Historian John Maddicott points out that "the main division within parliament
3627-484: The 14-year-old Frances Howard ; he was then sent on a European tour from 1607 to 1609, apparently without having consummated the marriage. Meanwhile, his wife began an affair with Robert Carr, Viscount Rochester , a favourite of King James I. After Essex's return, Frances sought an annulment on the grounds of impotence. Essex claimed that he was only impotent with her and had been perfectly capable with other women, adding that she "reviled him, and miscalled him, terming him
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3744-635: The Association. The first general designated as commander of the Association's forces was William Grey, 1st Baron Grey of Werke . One of the units which first became part of the Association's force was a "troop of horse" ( cavalry ) raised by Captain Oliver Cromwell . Granted a commission in August 1642, Cromwell received £1,104 from parliamentary funds and was able to prevent colleges of Cambridge University from donating money and college plate to
3861-574: The Commons and the Lords concerning who was going to command this army. On 2 April, Essex and Manchester gave way and resigned their commissions. The next day a revised Self-Denying Ordinance was approved by the House of Lords. This discharged members of both Houses from military commands but did not reject the possibility of their future reappointment. Although Essex still had many supporters in Parliament, he had enough opponents to block his re-emergence as
3978-507: The Countess remaining at Essex House in the Strand , London, Robert "playing soldiers" at his estates. There was a son from the union, Robert, styled Viscount Hereford, who was born on 5 November 1636 and died of plague a month later. Essex, who had given the birth date as a deadline beyond which he would have disowned the child, grudgingly acknowledged him as his own; however, the father
4095-617: The Crown to finance the Third Crusade , ransom Richard I , and pay for the series of Anglo-French wars fought between the Plantagenet and Capetian dynasties . In 1188, a precedent was established when the great council granted Henry II the Saladin tithe . In granting this tax, the great council was acting as representatives for all taxpayers. The likelihood of resistance to national taxes made consent politically necessary. It
4212-632: The Earl of Manchester defeated Royalist forces at the Battle of Marston Moor . The conduct of Cromwell, participating with the Eastern Association, was decisive in the victory. Simultaneously, Essex pursued his campaign to conquer the West Country . This was a strange move and it was made against the advice of the Committee of Both Kingdoms. There was some sympathy for the Parliamentary cause in Devon and Dorset but in Royalist Cornwall, there
4329-445: The King in battle. The other, known as the peace party, wanted to force Charles to the negotiating table rather than defeat him. Pym led the "middle group", which sought to maintain good relations between the two. Essex's commitment to the Parliamentary cause never wavered. However, his sympathies lay with the peace party throughout the conflict. This undermined his effectiveness as a military leader. Following several minor skirmishes,
4446-578: The King's base at Oxford after this was slow. Some began to question the willingness of Essex to lead the Parliamentarians to victory in the developing civil war. The fluctuating performance of his army in 1643 was in contrast to the ascendancy of the Eastern Association . This was an alliance of pro-Parliament militiamen from Essex, Hertfordshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire and Lincolnshire commanded by Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester . One of their cavalry commanders
4563-599: The Lincoln parliament of 1301, the King heard complaints that the charters were not followed and calls for the dismissal of his chief minister, the treasurer Walter Langton . Demands for appointment of ministers by "common consent" were heard for the first time since Henry III's death. To this, Edward angrily refused, saying that every other magnate in England had the power "to arrange his household, to appoint bailiffs and stewards" without outside interference. He did offer to right any wrongs his officials had committed. Notably,
4680-534: The Model Parliament, the writ of summons invested shire knights and burgesses with power to provide both counsel and consent. By 1296, the King's efforts to recover Gascony were creating resentment among the clergy, merchants, and magnates. At the Bury St Edmunds parliament in 1296, the lay magnates and Commons agreed to pay a tax on moveable property. The clergy refused, citing the recent papal bull Clericis Laicos , forbidding secular rulers from taxing
4797-730: The New Model, and became the pattern on which most of the other units were formed. At the same time, the criticism of the Earls of Manchester and Essex resulted in the Self-denying Ordinance , which placed command of the New Model Army in the hands of professional soldiers. Parliament of England The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England from the 13th century until 1707 when it
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4914-651: The North of England. However, he was denied a command in the second, which took place in 1640. This pushed him further into the arms of the growing number of the King's opponents in Parliament . Robert Devereux's opposition to the Stuart monarchy as a leader of the Country party in the House of Lords was established in the 1620s along with the Earls of Oxford, Southampton, Warwick, Lords Say and Spencer. During one exchange
5031-602: The Office of Captain-General, in such Manner, and according to such Instructions, as he shall, from Time to Time, receive from both Houses of Parliament", which was inevitably going to be a constraint on his ability to command an army. All these elements were a weight on the mind of Essex. It is to his credit that he was actually able to raise an army that was capable of fighting the royalist forces in battle. On 22 August 1642, Charles raised his standard at Nottingham Castle . pronouncing Essex and by extension Parliament traitors. This
5148-553: The Parliamentarians an edge over the Royalists for the first time. However, the year also saw the increasing polarisation of the Parliamentary alliance between the peace party and those who wished to defeat the King in battle. The death of Pym in December 1643 led to the demise of the middle group and also deprived Essex of a key ally in the House of Commons. A confrontation between the two sides became inevitable. On 2 July 1644, Parliamentary commanders Lord Fairfax , Lord Leven and
5265-477: The Provisions in May. Most of the barons were willing to let the king reassume power provided he ruled well. By 1262, Henry had regained all of his authority, and Montfort left England. The barons were now divided mainly by age. The elder barons remained loyal to the king, but younger barons coalesced around Montfort, who returned to England in the spring of 1263. The royalist barons and rebel barons fought each other in
5382-527: The Royalist cause. However in September 1642 he was ordered to join the Earl of Essex at Northampton, whereon Cromwell's troop was listed amongst Essex's Regiment of Horse. The counties which composed the Eastern Association were some of the richest agricultural regions of England, so the Association's forces were some of best financed and equipped troops on either side in the early part of the civil war. During
5499-418: The Royalist cavalry under Goring on the other side and routed the Royalists from the field. The siege of York was resumed and the city fell to Parliamentarians on 16 July. Later in the year, the Eastern Association forces moved into the south of England where the Parliamentarian armies under the Earl of Essex and Sir William Waller had suffered setbacks. After the drawn Second battle of Newbury , Manchester
5616-543: The Somersets were tried by a panel of Lords for their part in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury ; Essex sat as a juror in the trial of his former wife and pressed the King to send her to the scaffold. Both were condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried out. On 11 March 1630, Essex married Elizabeth Pawlett, daughter of Sir William Pawlett, of Edington, Wiltshire , past High Sheriff of Wiltshire and cousin of William Paulet, 4th Marquess of Winchester . Elizabeth
5733-660: The action against Strafford and was appointed to the Privy Council. He was made Captain General of the royal armed forces south of the River Trent in February and was made Lord Chamberlain in July. However, the relationship between Charles and his Parliament deteriorated further. On 4 January 1642, Charles went to the House of Commons to arrest Pym and four other members for their alleged treason. Essex had tipped off
5850-502: The agenda. Beginning around the 1220s, the concept of representation, summarised in the Roman law maxim quod omnes tangit ab omnibus approbetur (Latin for ' what touches all should be approved by all ' ), gained new importance among the clergy, and they began choosing proctors to represent them at church assemblies and, when summoned, at Parliament. As feudalism declined and the gentry and merchant classes increased in influence,
5967-540: The animosity of King James was evident when he said, "I fear thee not, Essex, if thou wert as well beloved as thy father, and hadst 40,000 men at thy heels." When King James' son, Charles convened the Short Parliament in 1640 he had ruled without Parliament for 11 years. He was forced to call another one to raise money to fight insurgencies in Scotland and Ireland. However, many Parliamentarians sought to use
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#17327650514386084-455: The appointment of royal ministers, an action that normally was considered a royal prerogative . Historian John Maddicott writes that the "effect of the minority was thus to make the great council an indispensable part of the country's government [and] to give it a degree of independent initiative and authority which central assemblies had never previously possessed". The regency government officially ended when Henry turned sixteen in 1223, and
6201-593: The battle Charles had been able to position his army in between the Parliamentarian forces and London. This left the road to London open to Charles at the end of the battle. The King had also been able to engage Essex's army before the Parliamentarians were at full strength. On the day of the battle, Essex was still waiting for the arrival of John Hampden's two cavalry regiments and most of the Parliamentary artillery. Luckily for Essex, Charles did not take much advantage of this superior position. The King chose to make an assault on London with his army at full strength, as he too
6318-712: The bishops themselves promised an aid but would not commit the rest of the clergy. Likewise, the barons promised to assist the king if he was attacked but would not commit the rest of the laity to pay money. For this reason, the lower clergy of each diocese elected proctors at church synods , and each county elected two knights of the shire . These representatives were summoned to Parliament in April 1254 to consent to taxation. The men elected as shire knights were prominent landholders with experience in local government and as soldiers. They were elected by barons, other knights, and probably freeholders of sufficient standing. By 1258,
6435-478: The church without papal permission. In January 1297, a convocation of the clergy met at St Paul's in London to consider the matter further but ultimately could find no way to pay the tax without violating the papal bull. In retaliation, the King outlawed the clergy and confiscated clerical property on 30 January. On 10 February, Robert Winchelsey , archbishop of Canterbury, responded by excommunicating anyone acting against Clericis Laicos . Most clergy paid
6552-480: The country. The witan had a role in making and promulgating legislation as well as making decisions concerning war and peace. They were also the venues for state trials , such as the trial of Earl Godwin in 1051. After the Norman Conquest of 1066, the king received regular counsel from the members of his curia regis ( Latin for ' royal court ' ) and periodically enlarged the court by summoning
6669-619: The courts were also in session: January or February for the Hilary term , in April or May for the Easter term , in July, and in October for the Michaelmas term . Most parliaments had between forty and eighty attendees. Meetings of Parliament always included: The lower clergy ( deans , cathedral priors, archdeacons , parish priests ) were occasionally summoned when papal taxation was on
6786-518: The exchequer protesting that the irregular tax "was never granted by them or the community" and declared they would not pay it. The outbreak of the First War of Scottish Independence necessitated that both the king and his opponents put aside their differences. At the October 1297 parliament, the council agreed to concessions in the king's absence. In exchange for a new tax, the Confirmatio Cartarum reconfirmed Magna Carta, abolished
6903-440: The excuse of his absence from the realm and Welsh attacks in the marches, Henry ordered the justiciar, Hugh Bigod , to postpone the parliament scheduled for Candlemas 1260. This was an apparent violation of the Provisions of Oxford; however, the provisions were silent on what should happen if the king were outside the kingdom. The king's motive was to prevent the promulgation of further reforms through Parliament. Simon de Montfort ,
7020-514: The few English nobles with any military experience, Essex was chosen to lead it. The Parliamentary ordinance that was passed proclaimed Essex to be: Captain-General and Chief Commander of the Army appointed to be raised, and of all other Forces of the Kingdom...and that he the said Earl shall have and enjoy all Power, Titles, Preheminence, Authority, Jurisdiction and Liberties, incident and belonging to
7137-455: The first half of the 17th century. With the start of the Civil War in 1642, he became the first Captain-General and Chief Commander of the Parliamentarian army , also known as the Roundheads . However, he was unable and unwilling to score a decisive blow against the Royalist army of King Charles I . He was eventually overshadowed by the ascendancy of Oliver Cromwell and Thomas Fairfax , and resigned his commission in 1646. Robert Devereux
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#17327650514387254-423: The first major engagement between the two armies took place at the Battle of Edgehill on 23 October 1642. Both sides had raised impressive armies. Essex's lifeguard included Henry Ireton , Charles Fleetwood , Thomas Harrison , Nathaniel Rich , Edmund Ludlow , Matthew Tomlinson and Francis Russell. All of them played a leading role in the civil war and its aftermath but a degree of amateurism and bad discipline
7371-421: The fleeing Parliamentarian horsemen but Essex had kept two cavalry regiments in reserve. As the rival infantry divisions engaged in combat, with Essex fighting alongside his troops with a pike, the two remaining Parliamentarian cavalry regiments made a devastating attack on the exposed Royalist foot soldiers. Both sides incurred heavy losses and the battle ended in stalemate after Rupert's cavalry returned to stop
7488-455: The future settlement of the kingdom once the war was over. A republican settlement was not the objective of the Parliamentary army at this point or during Essex's lifetime. This inevitably gave Charles the upper hand at first. Royalist MPs gradually filtered away from parliament during 1642. They later joined a rival Parliament in Oxford set up by the King. The remnants of the Long Parliament gradually split into two camps. One wished to defeat
7605-409: The government revived practices used during King John's reign and that had been condemned in Magna Carta, such as arbitrary disseisins , revoking perpetual rights granted in royal charters, depriving heirs of their inheritances, and marrying heiresses to foreigners. Both Roches and Rivaux were foreigners from Poitou . The rise of a royal administration controlled by foreigners and dependent solely on
7722-483: The king military service in foreign lands but only if the king were present. Therefore, they would not go to Gascony unless the King went as well. Norfolk and Hereford were supported by around 30 barons, and the parliament ended without any decision. After the Salisbury parliament ended, Edward ordered the seizure of wool (see prise ) and payment of a new maltolt. In July 1297, a writ declared that "the earls, barons, knights, and other laity of our realm" had granted
7839-444: The king stirred resentment among the magnates, who felt excluded from power. Several barons rose in rebellion, and the bishops intervened to persuade the king to change ministers. At a great council in April 1234, the king agreed to remove Rivaux and other ministers. This was the first occasion in which a king was forced to change his ministers by a great council or parliament. The struggle between king and Parliament over ministers became
7956-469: The king's tenants-in-chief . The greater tenants ( archbishops , bishops , abbots , earls , and barons ) were summoned by individual writ , but lesser tenants were summoned by sheriffs . These were not representative or democratic assemblies. They were feudal councils in which barons fulfilled their obligation to provide counsel to their lord the king. Councils allowed kings to consult with their leading subjects, but such consultation rarely resulted in
8073-510: The king. In 1267, some of the reforms contained in the 1259 Provisions of Westminster were revised in the form of the Statute of Marlborough passed in 1267. This was the start of a process of statutory reform that continued into the reign of Henry's successor. Edward I ( r. 1272–1307 ) learned from the failures of his father's reign the usefulness of Parliament for building consensus and strengthening royal authority. Parliaments were held regularly throughout his reign, generally twice
8190-411: The last Royalist post in Lincolnshire. When it was captured, the Association's army was free to join the Parliamentarian army under Lord Fairfax and the Scottish Covenanters under the Earl of Leven in the Siege of York . On 1 July, the besiegers were outmanoeuvred by Prince Rupert of the Rhine , who skirted them and reached the city. The next day however, Rupert chose to engage them even though he
8307-428: The leading members of the committee from the Commons. This committee was supposed to act as a bridge between Members of Parliament and the armed forces supporting them in the field. At this point, these armies primarily consisted of regional defence militias and city-trained bands who were sympathetic to the Parliamentary cause. On 12 July, Parliament went one step further and voted to raise an army of its own. As one of
8424-582: The magnates demanded the adult king confirm previous grants of Magna Carta made in 1216 and 1217 to ensure their legality. At the same time, the king needed money to defend his possessions in Poitou and Gascony from a French invasion. At a great council in 1225, a deal was reached that saw Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest reissued in return for taxing a fifteenth (7 percent) of movable property. This set
8541-501: The maltolt, and formally recognised that "aids, mises , and prises" needed the consent of Parliament. Edward soon broke the agreements of 1297, and his relations with Parliament remained strained for the rest of his reign as he sought further funds for the war in Scotland. At the parliament of March 1300, the king was forced to agree to the Articuli Super Cartas , which gave further concessions to his subjects. At
8658-610: The new Parliament to bring the King to account. Relations between Charles and his Parliament quickly broke down. Essex was a strong Protestant and he had a reputation for being one of the puritan nobles in the House of Lords . He was friends with John Pym , one of the strongest critics of Charles in the House of Commons during the Short Parliament and its successor the Long Parliament . In 1641, Parliament passed
8775-406: The number of petitions increased, they came to be directed to particular departments (chancery, exchequer, the courts) leaving the king's council to concentrate on the most important business. Parliament became "a delivery point and a sorting house for petitions". From 1290 to 1307, Gilbert of Rothbury was placed in charge of organising parliamentary business and record-keeping—in effect a clerk of
8892-407: The parliament of February 1305 included ones related to crime. In response, Edward issued the trailbaston ordinance. The state trial of Nicholas Seagrave was conducted as part of this parliament as well. Harmonious relations continued between king and Parliament even after December 1305 when Pope Clement V absolved the King of his oath to adhere to Confirmatio Cartarum . The last parliament of
9009-407: The parliaments . Kings could legislate outside of Parliament through legislative acta (administrative orders drafted by the king's council as letters patent or letters close ) and writs drafted by the chancery in response to particular court cases. But kings could also use Parliament to promulgate legislation. Parliament's legislative role was largely passive—the actual work of law-making
9126-403: The peace party, while Cromwell had emerged as the leading voice in the campaign to fight a more aggressive war against Charles. Following a month of Parliamentary arguments between Manchester and Cromwell, with the former speaking in the House of Lords and the latter making his attacks in the House of Commons, the scene was set for a showdown. On 19 December 1644, the first Self-Denying Ordinance
9243-451: The petition on behalf of "the prelates and leading men of the kingdom acting for the whole community" was presented by Henry de Keighley , knight for Lanchashire . This indicates that knights were holding greater weight in Parliament. The last four parliaments of Edward's' reign were less contentious. With Scotland nearly conquered, royal finances improved and opposition to royal policies decreased. A number of petitions were considered at
9360-791: The power to vote to elect their representatives—the burgesses—to the House of Commons. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy , a process that arguably culminated in the English Civil War and the High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I . Since the unification of England in the 10th century, kings had convened national councils of lay magnates and leading churchmen. The Anglo-Saxons called such councils witans . These councils were an important way for kings to maintain ties with powerful men in distant regions of
9477-430: The preamble describes the legislation as "provided" by the magnates and "conceded" by the king, which implies that this was not simply a royal measure consented to by the barons. In 1237, Henry asked Parliament for a tax to fund his sister Isabella's dowry. The barons were unenthusiastic, but they granted the funds in return for the king's promise to reconfirm Magna Carta, add three magnates to his personal council, limit
9594-425: The proposed New Model Army . However in the following months many of its units were incorporated into this new military formation. As part of Parliament's efforts to improve the administration of its forces, the Parliamentarian militias of Essex , Hertfordshire , Norfolk , Suffolk , Cambridgeshire were established as the "Eastern Association" on 20 December 1642. Huntingdonshire and Lincolnshire later joined
9711-409: The reign was held at Carlisle in 1307. It approved the marriage of the King's son to Isabella of France . Legislation attacking papal provisions and papal taxation was also ratified. Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex , KB , PC ( / ˈ d ɛ v ə ˌ r uː / ; 11 January 1591 – 14 September 1646) was an English Parliamentarian and soldier during
9828-671: The relationship between the king and the baronage had reached a breaking point over the Sicilian business , in which Henry had promised to pay papal debts in return for the pope's help securing the Sicilian crown for his son, Edmund. At the Oxford Parliament of 1258 , reform-minded barons forced a reluctant king to accept a constitutional framework known as the Provisions of Oxford : Parliament now met regularly according to
9945-445: The rights belonging to the king's subjects. King John ( r. 1199–1216 ) alienated the barons by his partiality in dispensing justice, heavy financial demands and abusing his right to feudal incidents, reliefs , and aids . In 1215, the barons forced John to abide by a charter of liberties similar to charters issued by earlier kings (see Charter of Liberties ) . Known as Magna Carta (Latin for ' Great Charter ' ), it
10062-457: The royal prerogative of purveyance , and protect land tenure rights. But Henry was adamant that three concerns were exclusively within his royal prerogative: family and inheritance matters, patronage, and appointments. Important decisions were made without consulting Parliament, such as in 1254 when the king accepted the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily for his younger son, Edmund Crouchback . He also clashed with Parliament over appointments to
10179-491: The said Office of Captain-General, throughout the whole Kingdom of England and Dominion of Wales, in as large and ample a Manner as any other General of an Army in this Kingdom hath lawfully used exercised, and enjoyed. He accepted the commission. Parliament also bolstered his territorial power by reappointing him Lord Lieutenant of the counties of Yorkshire and Staffordshire , and appointing him that of Montgomeryshire , Herefordshire and Shropshire . Essex had been put in
10296-472: The status of fundamental law after John's reign. The word parliament comes from the French parlement first used in the late 11th century, meaning ' parley ' or ' conversation ' . In the mid-1230s, it became a common name for meetings of the great council. The word was first used with this meaning in 1236. In the 13th century, parliaments were developing throughout north-western Europe. As
10413-486: The task of "preserving the Safety of his Majesty's Person". It did not specifically instruct him to engage the King in battle as this would have been treason. It conveniently blamed the brewing troubles on those surrounding the King rather than Charles himself, specifically "the cunning practice of Papists, and malicious Counsels of divers ill-affected Persons, inciting his Majesty to raise men". It also bound Essex to, "execute
10530-480: The three great offices of chancellor , justiciar , and treasurer . The barons believed these three offices should be restraints on royal misgovernment, but the king promoted minor officials within the royal household who owed their loyalty exclusively to him. In 1253, while fighting in Gascony, Henry requested men and money to resist an anticipated attack from Alfonso X of Castile . In a January 1254 Parliament,
10647-520: The title of godly, precious men..." Late in 1643, Lawrence Crawford was appointed Sergeant-Major General of the Foot. He too frequently clashed with Cromwell. For much of 1643, the Association was engaged in battles against the Northern royalists to secure Lincolnshire for Parliament. The Royalists were defeated at Gainsborough and Winceby . In May 1644, the Association's forces besieged Lincoln ,
10764-411: The university in 1605. The 2nd Earl led an unsuccessful rebellion against Elizabeth in 1601. He was subsequently executed for treason and the family lost its title. However, King James I chose to restore it after he became King of England . In 1604, Robert Devereux became the 3rd Earl of Essex. The young earl became a close friend of Henry Stuart, Prince of Wales . Essex was married at age 13 to
10881-408: The unprecedented prospect of a military confrontation between the King and Parliament grew, on 4 July 1642 Parliament voted to create a Committee of Safety consisting of ten Members of the House of Commons and five peers, of which Essex was one alongside the Earl of Northumberland , the Earl of Pembroke , the Earl of Holland and Viscount Saye and Sele . Pym, John Hampden and Denzil Holles were
10998-818: The winter of 1642–43, it established Parliamentary control over East Anglia . The Grand Committee of the Eastern Association, and its different sub-committees, sat in the Bear Inn in Cambridge throughout 1643 and 1644. In August 1643, Lord Grey was replaced as commander by the Earl of Manchester . Oliver Cromwell was appointed Lieutenant General of the Horse. The two men clashed, especially over Cromwell's selection of officers. Manchester wrote, "Colonel Cromwell raising of his regiment makes choice of his officers not such as were soldiers or men of estate, but such as were common men, poor and of mean parentage, only he would give them
11115-468: Was Oliver Cromwell . The Eastern Association established itself as a formidable fighting force in 1643, thanks in a large part to Cromwell's regiment, which became known as the 'Ironsides' . Nonetheless, 1643 was a good year overall for Essex's army. In what was perhaps his finest hour, on 20 September, Essex's forces came off as the stronger side in the First Battle of Newbury . Despite not winning
11232-553: Was Parliament's main tool in disputes with the king. Nevertheless, the king was still able to raise lesser amounts of revenue from sources that did not require parliamentary consent, such as: Henry III ( r. 1216–1272) became king at nine years old after his father, King John, died during the First Barons' War . During the king's minority, England was ruled by a regency government that relied heavily on great councils to legitimise its actions. Great councils even consented to
11349-440: Was a symbolic declaration of war against Parliament. It was clear from this point onwards that the two armies would engage in battle at some point, starting the English Civil War . However, the majority of those supporting Parliament were still fearful of committing treason against the King and this inhibited them in the early years of the conflict. They were also well aware that an agreement with Charles would be necessary to achieve
11466-497: Was approved by the House of Commons. This proposed that all members of the House of Commons and the House of Lords be barred from exercising military commands. This was rejected by the Lords on 13 January 1645. However, on 21 January the Commons passed the New Model Ordinance. This was a proposal to create a united Parliamentary army. It was approved by the Lords on 15 February. Over a month of negotiations ensued between
11583-422: Was awaiting the arrival of more soldiers from around the country. This allowed Essex and his army to make a break for London via Watling Street . Essex arrived back in London to a hero's welcome on 7 November, before Charles was able to get there. On 12 November Rupert's Royalist army engaged in their first major assault in preparation for a march on London. A small Parliamentarian garrison suffered heavy losses at
11700-454: Was based on three assumptions important to the later development of Parliament: Clause 12 stated that certain taxes could only be levied "through the common counsel of our kingdom", and clause 14 specified that this common counsel was to come from bishops, earls, and barons. While the clause stipulating no taxation "without the common counsel" was deleted from later reissues, it was nevertheless adhered to by later kings. Magna Carta would gain
11817-434: Was convenient for kings to present the great council as a representative body capable of consenting on behalf of all within the kingdom. Increasingly, the kingdom was described as the communitas regni (Latin for ' community of the realm ' ) and the barons as their natural representatives. But this development also created more conflict between kings and the baronage as the latter attempted to defend what they considered
11934-429: Was divided into the House of Lords and House of Commons , which included knights of the shire and burgesses . During Henry IV 's time on the throne, the role of Parliament expanded beyond the determination of taxation policy to include the "redress of grievances", which essentially enabled English citizens to petition the body to address complaints in their local towns and counties. By this time, citizens were given
12051-544: Was done by the king and council, specifically the judges on the council who drafted statutes. Completed legislation was then presented to Parliament for ratification. Kings needed Parliament to fund their military campaigns. On the basis of Magna Carta, Parliament asserted for itself the right to consent to taxation, and a pattern developed in which the king would make concessions (such as reaffirming liberties in Magna Carta) in return for tax grants. Withholding taxation
12168-478: Was evident on both sides during the battle. Following a brief exchange of artillery fire, the battle began with a Royalist cavalry charge led by Prince Rupert of the Rhine . A second Royalist cavalry charge followed, led by Henry Wilmot, 1st Earl of Rochester . Both the right and left flanks of the Parliamentarian horse were scattered. The Royalist cavalry, with their eye on the baggage train, unwisely chose to pursue
12285-457: Was given power to correct abuses of their officials. The Michaelmas Parliament of 1259 enacted the Provisions of Westminster , a set of legal and administrative reforms designed to address grievances of freeholders and even villeins , such as abuses related to the murdrum fine. Henry III made his first move against the baronial reformers while in France negotiating peace with Louis IX . Using
12402-643: Was introduced at Court during the Great Parliament of 1628/29 just after her father died, as the eldest unmarried daughter needing to marry to improve her family prospects. Back from travels in military service on the Continent (see below) Robert was also pressured to marry again (and quickly) to show the Court the humiliation from his first marriage could be overcome. This marriage was also a disaster and failed, though not as publicly. They separated in 1631,
12519-534: Was issued as letters patent that forbade sheriffs from taking bribes. At the Candlemas Parliament of 1259, the baronial council and the twelve representatives enacted the Ordinance of the Magnates . In this ordinance, the barons promised to observe Magna Carta and other reforming legislation. They also required their own bailiffs to observe similar rules as those of royal sheriffs, and the justiciar
12636-487: Was less between lords and commons than between the landed and all others, lower clergy as well as burgesses". Specialists could be summoned to Parliament to provide expert advice. For example, Roman law experts were summoned from Cambridge and Oxford to the Norham parliament of 1291 to advise on the disputed Scottish succession . At the Bury St Edmunds parliament of 1296, burgesses "who best know how to plan and lay out
12753-454: Was limited to defensive operations. Every drive he made to recruit volunteers for these expeditions was successful, such was the loyalty he could command. Following a period of little distinguished activity in the 1630s, Essex, who had been made Knight of the Bath in 1638, served in the army of King Charles I during the first Scottish Bishops' War in 1639 as Lieutenant-General of the army in
12870-402: Was only released after payment of the unpopular maltolt , a tax never authorised by Parliament. Church wealth was arbitrarily seized, and the clergy were further asked to give half of their revenues to the king. They refused but agreed to a smaller sum. Over the next couple years, parliaments approved new taxes, but it was never enough. More money was needed to put down a Welsh rebellion and win
12987-404: Was outnumbered. In the resulting Battle of Marston Moor , all of Fairfax's army and half the Scots fled. However, Manchester's infantry and especially the Eastern Association cavalry under Cromwell stood firm. Cromwell's cavalry - aided by Covenanter regiments - first drove off Royalist cavalry on their side of the field. Showing discipline they rallied beyond the Royalist forces and then attacked
13104-423: Was practically no support for the Parliamentarians at all. Although the campaign started well, Essex's army was forced to surrender in September at Lostwithiel after they were outmanoeuvred by the Royalists. The Earl himself escaped in a fishing boat to avoid humiliation. He left the task of surrendering to Skippon. The Lostwithiel campaign proved to be the end of Essex's military career. His army participated in
13221-418: Was replaced by the Parliament of Great Britain . Parliament evolved from the great council of bishops and peers that advised the English monarch . Great councils were first called Parliaments during the reign of Henry III ( r. 1216–1272 ). By this time, the king required Parliament's consent to levy taxation. Originally a unicameral body, a bicameral Parliament emerged when its membership
13338-443: Was severely criticised by Cromwell for what was seen to be half-hearted leadership. The Eastern Association army had been carrying much of the burden of the war and on 19 November 1644, the Association announced that it could no longer bear the cost of maintaining its army. This prompted Parliament to decree the formation of the New Model Army . Four cavalry and four infantry regiments of the Eastern Association army were absorbed into
13455-498: Was the son and heir of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex , the courtier and soldier from the later reign of Queen Elizabeth I . His mother was Frances Walsingham (1567–1633), the only daughter of Sir Francis Walsingham , Elizabeth's spymaster. He was born at the home of his grandmother, Lady Walsingham, in Seething Lane, London. His education continued at Eton College and Merton College, Oxford , being created MA by
13572-645: Was to be an undistinguished military career prior to the start of the First English Civil War . Between 1620 and 1624 he served in Protestant armies in Germany and the Low Countries . In 1620 he joined Sir Horace Vere's expedition to defend the Palatine. In 1621 he served with Prince Maurice of Nassau , and in 1622 with Count Ernst von Mansfeld (battle of Fleurus, 29 August 1622). In 1624 he commanded
13689-427: Was widely suspected by the Court to be Elizabeth's alleged lover, Sir Thomas Uvedale (from the alleged prompting of William Seymour, 1st Marquess of Hertford , Robert's brother-in-law who leased part of Essex House in London, and expected to inherit if Robert had no issue). Elizabeth, through her funeral oration (in 1656) by her second husband Sir Thomas Higgons , vigorously denied this. In 1620 Essex embarked on what
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