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118-547: Edwardsburgh/Cardinal is a township in the United Counties of Leeds and Grenville of eastern Ontario , Canada. Edwardsburgh township was first surveyed in 1783, and incorporated in 1850. The township was part of the historical Grenville County before it merged with Leeds County to form the United Counties in the 19th century . The Township of Edwardsburgh/Cardinal was formed on January 1, 2001, through

236-619: A Basketmaker burial. Reference is made to a slightly earlier article on Burnet Cave in The University Museum Bulletin from November 1931. The Dent site in Colorado was the first known association of Clovis points with mammoth bones, as noted by Hannah Marie Wormington in her book Ancient Man in North America (4th ed. 1957). Gary Haynes, in his book The Early Settlement of North America , suggested

354-540: A township is one form of the subdivision of a county . In Quebec, the term is canton in French. The historic colony of Nova Scotia (present-day Nova Scotia, New Brunswick , and Prince Edward Island ) used the term township as a subdivision of counties and as a means of attracting settlers to the colony. In Prince Edward Island, the colonial survey of 1764 established 67 townships, known as lots, and 3 royalties, which were grouped into parishes and hence into counties;

472-664: A "Clovis first" model, where Clovis represented the earliest inhabitants in the Americas, today this is largely rejected, with several generally accepted sites across the Americas like Monte Verde II being dated to at least a thousand years earlier than the oldest Clovis sites. The end of the Clovis culture may have been driven by the decline of the megafauna that the Clovis hunted as well as decreasing mobility, resulting in local differentiation of lithic and cultural traditions across North America. Beginning around 12,750–12,600 years BP,

590-445: A "shock absorber" to redistribute stress during impact, though others have suggested that it may have been purely stylistic or used to strengthen the hafting to the spear handle. The points were generally produced from nodules or siliceous cryptocrystalline rocks. Clovis points were thinned using end-thinning ("the removal of blade-like flakes parallel to the long-axis"). They were initially prepared using percussion flaking, with

708-519: A bison herd of at least 22 individuals. At the time of deposition, the site was a steep-sided arroyo (dry watercourse) that formed a dead end, suggesting that hunters trapped the bison herd within the arroyo before killing them. Beginning in the 1950s, Paul S. Martin proposed the "overkill hypothesis", suggesting that the Late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions in North America were driven by human hunting, including by Clovis peoples, with

826-570: A common school to be built in every district where at least 20 students would attend. It would then be the township's responsibility to divide itself into School Sections based upon the locations of the congregated pupils. The Act distributed grants of £25 to schools that met the requirements to pay for a teacher's salary. Although this Act showed promise for the township, the Act did not supply funds for building materials or labour for schools to be built, thus few schools managed to be established early on. In

944-475: A district, i.e. in Northern Ontario ). A township municipality may consist of a portion of one or more geographic townships united as a single entity with a single municipal administration. Often rural counties are subdivided into townships. In some places, usually if the township is in a county rather than in a regional municipality , the head of a political township may be called a " reeve ", not

1062-485: A few limestone quarries, but the output of these quarries were small and only used locally. Up until the 18th century, the land was covered with thick, mature, mixed forests. The original forest was almost completely cleared throughout the years and the forest that stands today is mostly secondary growth over previously cleared land. The forests in the area presently contain numerous types of deciduous , oak , birch , ash and maple trees. The common coniferous trees in

1180-761: A fluted, lanceolate shape. Clovis points are typically large, sometimes exceeding 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in length. These points were multifunctional, also serving as cutting tools. Other stone tools used by the Clovis culture include knives, scrapers , and bifacial tools, with bone tools including beveled rods and shaft wrenches, with possible ivory points also being identified. Hides, wood, and natural fibers may also have been utilized, though no direct evidence of this has been preserved. Clovis artifacts are often found grouped together in caches where they had been stored for later retrieval, and over 20 Clovis caches have been identified. The Clovis peoples are thought to have been highly mobile groups of hunter-gatherers . It

1298-475: A high school diploma being the highest level of education attainment, and 19.3% reported having neither a high school nor a post-secondary diploma or degree. Within Edwardsburgh/Cardinal, the percentage of seniors (ages 65+) with post-secondary credentials was 42.4% and the percentage of seniors without any credentials was 40.3%. The percentage of adults (ages 25–44) with post-secondary credentials

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1416-606: A mayor. However, the distinction is changing as many rural townships are replacing the title with "mayor" to reduce confusion. A few townships keep both titles and designate "mayor" as the head of the municipal council and use "reeve" to denote the representative to the upper tier (usually county) council. The term "geographic township" is also used in reference to former political townships that were abolished or superseded as part of municipal government restructuring. In Quebec , townships are called cantons in French and can also be political and geographic, similar to Ontario although

1534-605: A new frame church was built in 1910 for the congregation. In 1956, a granite block building was built at the corner of Gill Street and Shanly Road to replace the frame church. In 1959, the Holiness Movement Church became the Free Methodist Church after a church union. This church operated into the late 1990s; after its closure it was converted into apartments. In 1934, Cardinal became home to a Pentecostal congregation. Church meetings were held in

1652-553: A new rectory and church office on site. As of 2024, this church is still in use. The Methodist congregation in Cardinal has been represented under a variety of names. The first Methodist churches were Episcopal Methodist and Wesleyan-Methodist churches, both constructed of stone. The Episcopal church was built on Dundas Street in 1851 and the Wesleyan-Methodist was located a mile west of the village on Highway 2. In 1883,

1770-430: A part of Edwardsburgh/Cardinal. Each hamlet usually had its own schoolhouse, cheese factory, and churches; many had their own general stores, burial grounds, as well as grist or saw mills. Brouseville, Ontario is a small rural hamlet located approximately 4 mi (6.4 km) north of Cardinal. The central location of the hamlet is the intersection of Brouseville Road and County Road 22 . Brouseville extends easterly to

1888-443: A period of time before an accidental fire destroyed the building. As the population increased and transportation improved, one and two-room schoolhouses were largely phased out in favour of larger, modern schools. In 1949, Cardinal became home to a modern public elementary school named Benson Public School in honour of a prominent village family. By 1959, four more classrooms were built. The school had its highest number of enrolment in

2006-495: A political unit called a rural municipality in general is 3 townships by 3 townships in size, or 18 miles squared, about 324 square miles (840 km ). Three municipalities in British Columbia , Langley , Esquimalt and Spallumcheen , have "township" in their official names but legally hold the status of district municipalities . Clovis culture The Clovis culture is an archaeological culture from

2124-537: A saw and grist mill which the community subsequently grew around. In the early-1800s, Cardinal began to grow as a village as more settlers arrived and businesses began operations. Another sawmill and a general store were established. A large dock was built for a timber business, which shipped timber on rafts to Montreal . In 1843, the village's post office was erected. Before the Galop Canal was constructed in 1846, early settlers earned an income hauling boats through

2242-480: A spire. In 1911, the church caught fire after being struck by lightning, and the spire was destroyed and replaced with the current tower. At the church's centennial in 1925 the building was renovated and given the name St. Andrew's Presbyterian. In 1967 the church in Mainsville amalgamated with St. Andrew's becoming St. Andrew's and St. James’ Presbyterian Church. An addition was added to the church in 1997. In 2017,

2360-417: A two-room brick structure along Dundas Street, called Dundas Street Public School. As enrolment increased, a frame building was constructed 50 ft (15 m) west of the brick school to house the younger children. This school served as both an elementary and continuation school until 1911, when a separate continuation school was erected due to overcrowding. The first continuation school opened in 1911, and

2478-481: A variety of locations before a church was constructed along Highway 2 during the late-1990s. The Pentecostal congregation met at the Orange Hall, followed by the local machine shop before purchasing the former telephone office on Dundas Street in 1941. Land was purchased by the congregation in 1997 to become the site of a new church. The purchased lot was the site of an apple orchard which the congregation tended to;

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2596-542: A wide range of goods, which also presumably represented status within the culture. Some of the goods and artifacts found buried alongside the Laurentians were not native to the area, meaning they must have traded goods frequently with other people. It is likely that the decapitated or otherwise brutalized remains are those of outside traders who threatened or attacked the Laurentian Archaic people. In 1673,

2714-512: Is a village located in the township of Edwardsburgh/Cardinal. Prior to being incorporated in 1878, the village was referred to by numerous names, including: Edwardsburgh, Point Cardinal, Munro's Point, Elgin, and Port Elgin. Situated along the Saint Lawrence River , between the towns of Iroquois to the east and Johnstown to the west, Cardinal has approximately one thousand residents. During the late 1700s, Hugh Munro acquired land at

2832-425: Is believed he was granted the land in present-day Cardinal as a result. The land at Cardinal had much potential in the 1700s due to the adjacent river and the construction of Ontario Highway 2 through the village in 1790. The river provided a means of transportation and power while the highway led to increased traffic to the area, as it was the primary route between Montreal and Kingston. By 1794, Munro had constructed

2950-587: Is disputed, with some authors arguing for a generalist hunter-gatherer lifestyle that also involved the occasional targeting of megafauna. The effectiveness of Clovis tools for hunting proboscideans has been contested by some authors, though others have asserted that Clovis points were likely capable of killing proboscideans, noting that replica Clovis points have been able to penetrate elephant hide in experimental tests, and that groups of hunter-gatherers in Africa have been observed killing elephants using spears . In

3068-488: Is generally agreed that these groups were reliant on hunting big game ( megafauna ), having a particularly strong association with mammoths, and to a lesser extent with mastodon , bison , camel , and horse, but they also consumed smaller animals and plants. The Clovis hunters may have contributed to the Late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions in North America, though this idea has been subject to controversy. Only one human burial has been directly associated with tools from

3186-440: Is generally thought be the result of normal cultural change over time. In South America, the widespread similar Fishtail or Fell point style was contemporaneous to the usage of Clovis points in North America and possibly developed from Clovis points. On August 29, 1927, the first evidence of Pleistocene humans seen by multiple archaeologists in the Americas was discovered near Folsom, New Mexico . At this site, they found

3304-504: Is half of its hull which is tipped over onto its side, with part of its skeleton sticking out above the water. Two less popular dive sites are also commonly associated with the Edwardsburgh/Cardinal township, SS Ralph T. Holcomb , and Fleur Marie . Apparently just east of Cardinal, the hull of SS Ralph T. Holcomb lies in the old canal bank. This ship was purchased by the Canada Starch Company for hauling coal sometime in

3422-434: Is located on the northeast corner of John and Middle Street. The building was designed by James Dowsley, measuring 50 by 36 ft (15 by 11 m) and constructed of brick. In 1923, the church became a parish, and a rectory was purchased. The church has gone many renovations since its construction, most of which being repairs or modernizations. In 1992, the church purchased a nearby home and demolished it in order to construct

3540-459: Is still in use. The Saint Lawrence river in Cardinal is home to two sunken ships which are popular dive sites for tourists and locals. Both shipwrecks are also visible from land, as the water is shallow enough that both ships are partially exposed above the water. Conestoga was an iron-clad, wooden steam freighter built in Cleveland in the 19th century, and launched on July 6, 1878. The ship

3658-482: Is the Saint Lawrence River 's shore. To the west, the township ends at the boundary for Augusta Township and to the east is the neighbouring United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry . To the north of the township is the township of North Grenville . The township covers an area of 312 km (120 sq mi). The township belongs to the Great Lakes–Saint Lawrence lowlands region. Despite

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3776-426: Is unclear when the school closed, the building was used by the Canada Starch Company as a storehouse before becoming a duplex in 1891, as it remains in 2016. During the mid-1800s, there were two additional one-room log schoolhouses operating in Cardinal, one at the west end of the village and one about a mile east of the village. The exact years of their operation are unknown. In 1872, the first schools were replaced by

3894-683: The Blackwater Draw in eastern New Mexico. Despite several earlier Paleoindian discoveries, the best documented evidence of the Clovis complex was collected and excavated between 1932 and 1937 near Clovis, New Mexico , by a crew under the direction of Edgar Billings Howard until 1935 and later by John L. Cotter from the Academy of Natural Sciences at the University of Pennsylvania. Howard's crew left their excavation in Burnet Cave ,

4012-488: The Clovis point . Clovis points are bifacial (having flakes removed from both faces) and typically fluted (having an elongate flake removed from the base of the point ) on both sides, with the fluting typically running up a third or a half of the length of the point, distinct from many later Paleoindian traditions where the flute runs up the entire point length. Clovis points are typically parallel-sided to slightly convex, with

4130-580: The Episcopal Methodist Church , and the Free Methodist Church . The first Presbyterian church was constructed in 1826, slightly north of the site of the current Presbyterian church on Dundas Street. The Presbyterian congregation had existed for a year prior to the church's construction. The first church was a small, stone church with only one room. In 1877, the church was replaced by a larger brick building complete with

4248-563: The French , working with indigenous tribes from the area, built a storehouse on Old Breeches River, now known as Johnstown Creek. This storehouse was used to hold supplies en route to upriver trading posts such as Fort Frontenac (now, Kingston ) until 1758. In 1759, The French settlers built Fort de Lévis on Chimney Island, in the Saint Lawrence River just off of Johnstown, between it and Ogdensburg. The purpose of this fort

4366-493: The Paleoindian period of North America, spanning around 13,050 to 12,750 years Before Present (BP). The type site is Blackwater Draw locality No. 1 near Clovis, New Mexico , where stone tools were found alongside the remains of Columbian mammoths in 1929. Clovis sites have been found across North America. The most distinctive part of the Clovis culture toolkit are Clovis points , which are projectile points with

4484-648: The Prairie Provinces and parts of British Columbia , a township is a division of the Dominion Land Survey . Townships are (mostly) 6-by-6-mile (9.7 by 9.7 km) squares, about 36 square miles (93 km ) in area. The townships are not political units (although political boundaries often follow township boundaries) but exist only to define parcels of land relatively simply. Townships are divided into 36 equal 1-by-1-mile (1.6 by 1.6 km) square parcels, known as "sections." In Saskatchewan ,

4602-643: The Southern Plains , Clovis people created campsites of considerable size, which are often on the periphery of the region near sources of workable stone, from which they are suggested to have seasonally migrated into the plains to hunt megafauna. In the southeast, Clovis peoples created large camps that may have served as "staging areas", which may have been seasonally occupied, where a number of bands may have gathered for social occasions. At Jake Bluff in northern Oklahoma, Clovis points are associated with numerous butchered Bison antiquus bones, which represented

4720-466: The gomphothere Cuvieronius ) bison, equines of the genus Equus , and the extinct camel Camelops . A handful of sites possibly suggest the hunting of caribou/reindeer , peccaries ( Platygonus , Mylohyus ), ground sloths ( Paramylodon ), glyptodonts ( Glyptotherium ), tapirs , and the llama Hemiauchenia . Proboscideans (especially mammoths) are the most common recorded species found in Clovis sites, followed by bison. However,

4838-557: The 1800s. They are used primarily for geographic purposes, such as land surveying, natural resource exploration and tracking of phenomena such as forest fires or tornados , but are not political entities. Township municipalities, also called "political townships", are areas that have been incorporated with municipal governments, and are a lower-tier municipality (if located in a county or regional municipality , i.e. in Southern Ontario ) or single-tier municipality (if located in

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4956-550: The 1840s, further school related Acts were passed that led to vast improvement of the Common School education system in Edwardsburgh/Cardinal. By 1845, the superintendent for the Edwardsburgh district recorded 20 schools operating in the area with 755 children registered as students. In the 1850s, the township began to consider building separate schools in lieu of Common Schools, however these schools more expensive for

5074-526: The Americas , particularly those from Central and South America, and less related to those from contemporary North America, including northern Mexico, though there is considerable variability in the genetic closeness of Central and South American indigenous peoples to Anzick-1, with older ancient South American remains generally being closer, suggesting that the Native American population had already diverged into multiple genetically distinct groups by

5192-457: The British empire. By 1789, the loyalists had built a town site in one-acre lots, with streets named after the family of George III . It remains so today, with the exception of one street. The drawing of lots in Edwardsburgh was unusual in that every loyalist head-of-household drew from a hat, giving one and all an equal chance at receiving the most desirable piece of land, close to the river at

5310-505: The Clovis culture generally not found in subsequent cultures is "caching", where a collection of artifacts (typically stone tools, such as Clovis points or bifaces) were deliberately left at a location, presumably with the intention to return to collect them later, though some authors have interpreted cache deposits as ritual behavior. Over twenty such "caches" have been identified across North America. A few Clovis culture artifacts are suspected to reflect creative expression, such as rock art,

5428-402: The Clovis culture is not exclusively associated with large animals, with several sites showing the exploitation of small game like tortoises and jackrabbits . It is generally agreed that the people who produced the Clovis culture were reliant on big game for a significant portion of their diet (while also consuming smaller animals and plants), though to what degree they were reliant on megafauna

5546-425: The Clovis culture is to a degree ambiguous, the term being "used in a number of ways, referring to an era, to a culture, and most specifically, to a distinctive projectile point type", with disagreement between scholars about distinguishing between Clovis and various other Paleoindian archaeological cultures. A hallmark of the toolkit associated with the Clovis culture is the distinctively shaped lithic point known as

5664-629: The Clovis culture was succeeded by more regional cultures, including the Folsom tradition in central North America, the Cumberland point in mid/southern North America, the Suwannee and Simpson points in the southeast, and Gainey points in the Northeast – Great Lakes region. The Clovis and Folsom traditions may have overlapped, perhaps for around 80–400 years. The end of the Clovis culture

5782-641: The Clovis culture: Anzick-1 , a young boy found buried in Montana, who has a close genetic relation to some modern Native American populations, primarily in Central and South America . The Clovis culture represents the earliest widely recognised archaeological culture in North America (though in western North America, it appears to have been contemporaneous with the Western Stemmed Tradition ). While historically, many scholars held to

5900-441: The Laurentians are known to have used polished stone tools for hunting and woodworking. Excavations of human remains revealed they were a violent culture; humans remains from this period have been found to be decapitated, have skull fractures or stone projectiles embedded into the bones. These excavations also suggested that the Laurentian Archaic people were a ritualized culture as some of their dead were sprinkled with red ochre and

6018-524: The Pacific coast) but more common in the very earliest Indigenous Americans. Some authors have suggested that the Clovis culture lasted for a relatively short period of a few centuries, with a 2020 study suggesting a temporal range, based on ten securely radiocarbon-dated Clovis sites, of 13,050 to 12,750 calibrated years BP, ending subsequent to the onset of the Younger Dryas , consistent with

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6136-514: The Plano people. This culture was far more sophisticated than its ancestors; a result of a warmer climate and the emergence of modern flora and fauna. Current archaeological findings cannot show us any evidence as to how the culture housed or sheltered themselves. Although their diet consisted of mostly fish and plants, the Laurentians were also big game hunters of deer, elk, and even bear. In contrast to their ancestors who used rough, chipped stone tools,

6254-552: The Saint Lawrence River. The Methodist and Presbyterian congregations split on the purchase of a lot of land to be used as two new cemeteries in 1897 when the old cemetery was closed. The cemeteries are divided by a gravel driveway down the centre of the lot. After the 1920s, the Methodist Cemetery became known as the United Church Cemetery. These cemeteries are both still in use. The Anglican Cemetery

6372-846: The amalgamation of Edwardsburgh Township with the Village of Cardinal. It is a historical community with many old homes and buildings; including one-room school houses, grist mills, and churches. It is situated along the Saint Lawrence Seaway /River and extends back into rural hamlets. Both Highway 416 and Highway 401 pass through the township, as well as the South Nation River . The township's main population centres are Cardinal, Johnstown , and Spencerville . The township's administrative offices are located in Spencerville. Edwardsburgh/Cardinal's southern boundary

6490-596: The apples were sold to raise money for the church's construction. The church, originally known as the Philadelphia Pentecostal Tabernacle, now known as Cardinal Community Church is still in operation as of 2024. Cardinal is home to a total of six denominational cemeteries, two of which are no longer in use. Outside the village to the east are four cemeteries sitting on lots next to one another; these cemeteries are Roman Catholic, Anglican, Methodist and Presbyterian. The other two cemeteries are

6608-460: The area include many types of pine and cedar as well as balsam fir and white spruce . In the darker, acidic soils around the bogs and swamps there are tamarack trees , as well as juniper and black spruce . Wild grape, Virginia creeper , and other woody vines are native to the area. According to archaeologists, the earliest human activity in the area surrounding Edwardsburgh/Cardinal can be traced back to approximately 11,000 years ago, after

6726-545: The area prone to seasonal flooding. The north-west section of the township is known as the Groveton Bog, and to the east is known as the Hellgate Swamp. The soils in the area range from sandy and dry, to dark and acidic closer to the swamp areas. The majority of the township is covered in only a very thin layer of soil, in spite of this, there are very few rock outcrops in the area. The only notable outcrop within

6844-517: The area, it is actually located within American waters. The Galop Canal was opened in 1846 and was used until the 1950s. The canal allowed ships to bypass the rapids of the Saint Lawrence River near Cardinal and Iroquois. Construction began in 1844, and was done without machinery, but instead by use of hand tools such as axes, wheelbarrows, and shovels. The men worked for around 14 hours and were paid 50 cents each day. In 1897 new locks were built along

6962-607: The base of the point being concave. Although no direct evidence of what was attached to Clovis points has been found, Clovis points are commonly thought to have served as tips for spears /darts likely used as handheld thrusting or throwing weapons, possibly in combination with a spear thrower , for hunting and possibly self-defense. Wear on Clovis points indicates that they were multifunctional objects that also served as cutting and slicing tools, with some authors suggesting that some Clovis-point types were primarily used as knives. Clovis points were at least sometimes resharpened, though

7080-566: The blades typically carried in the mobile toolkit. Bifaces served a variety of roles for Clovis hunter-gatherers, such as cutting tools, preforms for formal tools such as points, and as portable sources of large flakes useful as preforms or tools. Other tools associated with the Clovis culture are adzes (likely used for woodworking), bone "shaft wrenches" (suggested to have been used to straighten wooden shafts), as well as rods, some of which have beveled (diagonally shaped) ends. These rods are made of bone, antlers, and ivory. The function of

7198-401: The boat was moved to the lock at Galop Canal in the 1960s, where it was purchased along with its sister ship by a local welder who had the intention of disassembling them both and selling the metal as scrap. A family tragedy prevented the welder from ever completing the deconstruction of both ships and the abandoned Weehawk eventually sank to the bottom of the canal. All that remains of the ship

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7316-618: The canal. Some parts of the canal reached 243 m (797 ft) in length and were the longest in Canada at the time. In the 1950s the Saint Lawrence Seaway was created and new locks were built in Iroquois for large, ocean-going ships. Present day, Galop Canal is a popular location amongst locals for swimming and picnics, as well as diving. The wreck of Weehawk is located in Lock 27 at Galop Canal; divers are able to view this site and drift with

7434-403: The cemetery was closed and relocated when the canal to the north of the cemetery was dug. Many of the bodies and stones from the old cemetery were relocated to the new cemetery, and many unmarked graves were discovered in the process and also moved. A few graves still remain on site. The relocated Presbyterian and Methodist cemeteries are located east of the village of Cardinal along Highway 2 and

7552-411: The church closed operations in Cardinal and joined up with Knox Presbyterian Church in Iroquois, Ontario. The first St. Paul's Anglican Church building was located along Highway 2, east of the village. The stone church was constructed around 1827 and was then known as St. Paul's Edwardsburgh. The land surrounding the church became a designated cemetery shortly following construction. In 1872, the building

7670-492: The culture likely originated from the expansion of a single population. In Western North America, the Clovis culture was contemporaneous with and perhaps preceded by the Western Stemmed Tradition , which produced unfluted projectile points, with the Western Stemmed Tradition continuing in the region for several thousand years after the end of Clovis. The end of the Clovis culture may have been driven by

7788-527: The current of the Saint Lawrence River to the nearby Conestoga dive site. The township of Edwardsburgh/Cardinal is dotted with many old, rural hamlets and communities, most of which date back to the early 1800s. Most of these hamlets are tiny and only ever had a few farms and less than twenty businesses. The communities of Brouseville, New Wexford, Crystal Rock, Ventnor, Hyndman, Mainsville, Groveton, Campbell's Corners, McCarley's Corners, The Island, McReynolds, Pittston, Van Allens, Glen Smail and Shanly are all

7906-508: The decline of the megafauna that the Clovis hunted, as well as decreasing mobility, resulting in local differentiation of lithic and cultural traditions across North America. This is generally considered to be the result of normal cultural change through time. There is no evidence that the disappearance of the Clovis culture was the result of the onset of the Younger Dryas, or that there was a population decline of Paleoindians following

8024-753: The earliest recognisable archaeological culture in North America, were suggested to represent the earliest inhabitants of the Americas south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet . However, since the beginning of the 21st century, this hypothesis has been abandoned by most researchers, as several widely accepted sites, notably Monte Verde II in Chile (c. 14,500 years BP) as well as Paisley Caves in Oregon (c. 14,200 years BP) and Cooper's Ferry in Idaho (c. 15,800 years BP) are suggested to be considerably older than

8142-513: The early 1900s before it was sunk. Fleur Marie was built in Quebec in 1850 and was later left abandoned at the docks in Prescott. The abandoned ship was considered an eyesore amongst locals and eventually caught fire, leading to the ship to be scuttled in 50 ft (15 m) of water off the shore of Windmill Point in 1883, where it still currently sits. Although Fleur Marie is associated with

8260-733: The east and west of the continent. The area of its origin remains unclear, though the development of fluted Clovis points appears to have occurred in North America south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet and not in Beringia . The Clovis culture may have originated from the Dyuktai lithic style widespread in Beringia. While some authors have suggested that the Clovis culture resulted from diffusion of traditions through an already pre-existing Paleoindian population, others have asserted that

8378-511: The end of the Clovis culture. The Clovis culture was succeeded by various regional point styles, such as the Folsom tradition in central North America, the Cumberland point in mid/southern North America, the Suwannee and Simpson points in the southeast, and the Gainey points in the northeast-Great Lakes region. The Clovis and Folsom traditions may have overlapped, perhaps for around 80–400 years. A number of authors have suggested that

8496-462: The first in situ Folsom point with the bones of the extinct bison species Bison antiquus . This confirmation of a human presence in the Americas during the Pleistocene inspired many people to start looking for evidence of early humans. In 1929, 19-year-old Ridgely Whiteman, who had been closely following the excavations in nearby Folsom in the newspapers, discovered the Clovis site near

8614-537: The first professionally excavated Clovis site, in August 1932, and visited Whiteman and his Blackwater Draw site. By November, Howard was back at Blackwater Draw to investigate additional finds from a construction project. The American Journal of Archaeology , in its January–March 1932 edition, mentions Howard's work in Burnet Cave, including the discovery of extinct fauna and a "Folsom type" point 4 ft below

8732-540: The front of the settlement. In the late 1700s, most of the Loyalists upon their arrival to the area were farmers, and did not see formal education as a valuable or important thing. In 1787, three years after their arrival, more privileged Loyalists began to petition for a school to be built in each district, to teach mathematics, arithmetic, English and Latin. Finally, in the early 1800s, the government of Upper Canada passed The Common School Act of 1816, which allowed for

8850-782: The geographic use is not used much or at all. They were introduced after the British Conquest, primarily as a surveying unit. They were designated and cover most of the unattributed territory in Eastern Quebec and what is now known as the Eastern Townships and later used in surveying the Outaouais and Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean regions. Townships often served as the territorial basis for new municipalities, but township municipalities are no different from other types such as parish or village municipalities. In

8968-552: The hunting and extinction of large herbivores having a knock-on effect causing the extinction of large carnivores. This suggestion has been the subject of controversy. The timing of megafauna extinction in North America also coincides with major climatic changes, making it difficult to disentangle the effects of various factors. In a 2012 survey of archaeologists in The SAA Archaeological Record , 63% of respondents said that megafauna extinctions were likely

9086-437: The idea that they were continually resharpened "long-life" tools has been questioned. The shape and size of Clovis points varies significantly over space and time; the largest points exceed 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in length. The points required considerable effort to make and often broke during knapping, particularly during fluting. The fluting may have served to make the finished points more durable during use by acting as

9204-562: The land was virtually invisible, and the population density during this period was very low. No human remains have survived from this time period making it impossible to determine the physical appearance of the cultures. The period following the Paleo-Indian Period was known as the Archaic Period . From 5000–1000 BCE the eastern Ontario region was dominated by the Laurentian Archaic people, who were direct descendants of

9322-707: The larger villages and pupils started being transported there instead. Many of the structures are still standing and have been converted into private homes. The following is a list of some of these schools and their names: Currently, the township's schools belong to the Upper Canada District School Board . There are only two schools still operating within the township boundaries: South-Edwardsburgh Public School in Johnstown, and Centennial '67 Public School in Spencerville. Both of these schools are elementary schools; for high school, students have

9440-610: The late 1700s. Many unfortunate events in Munro's life led to his settlement in Cardinal. After the death of his Major, Munro was held responsible for large debts incurred by supplying the soldiers with necessities. After joining the Loyalists , Munro was injured in the American Revolutionary War and saddled with more debt after supplying troops out of pocket. Munro petitioned the government for compensation, and it

9558-492: The late 1960s with 400 pupils attending. Benson Public School closed in 2017.and sits abandoned to date As of 2016, Cardinal is home to five active churches: a Presbyterian , United , Anglican , Roman Catholic and Pentecostal Church . Three other churches were once located in the village throughout its history, all of which were Methodist churches . These churches were the Wesleyan-Methodist Church ,

9676-417: The manufacture of a biface are struck from prepared edges of a piece and travel from one edge across the face", with limited removal of the opposite edge. Whether or not the overshot flaking was intentional on the part of the stoneknapper has been contested, with other authors suggesting that overface flaking (where flakes that travel past the midline but terminate before reaching the opposite end are removed)

9794-544: The old Presbyterian and Methodist cemeteries, located behind the Presbyterian Church within the village. The old Presbyterian Cemetery located within the village was established in 1827 and was also used by Methodists. In the mid-1880s, a ship carrying immigrants arrived in the area which had experienced a cholera epidemic on board; numerous immigrants were buried in the southern part of the cemetery in an unmarked area who died shortly after their arrival. In 1897,

9912-400: The oldest Clovis sites. Historically, it was suggested that the ancestors of the people who produced the Clovis culture migrated into North America along the " ice-free corridor ", but many later scholars have suggested that a migration along the Pacific coast is more likely. The Clovis culture is known from localities across North America, from southern Canada to northern Mexico and across

10030-497: The option of attending a TR Leger School campus located in Prescott. In 2011 according to the National Household Survey, of 5,060 adults (persons over 25 years of age) in the township, 53.8% had obtained some form of post-secondary education; 13.8% having a university degree, and an additional 27.4% having a college diploma, and 12.5% having a trades certificate. 27.1% of the township's adult population reported

10148-571: The option of either South Grenville District High School in Prescott , or North Grenville District High School in Kemptville , both of which are located in close proximity to the township. For Catholic schools, students from Edwardsburgh/Cardinal may attend St. Mark Catholic School in Prescott or St. Mary-St. Cecilia Catholic School in Morrisburg; as these are the closest elementary schools to

10266-501: The point being finished using pressure flaking . Clovis blades —long flakes removed from specially prepared conical or wedge-shaped cores—are part of the global Upper Paleolithic blade tradition. Clovis blades are twice as long as they are wide and were used and modified to create a variety of tools, including endscrapers (used to scrape hides), serrated tools, and gravers. Unlike bifaces, Clovis blade cores do not appear to have been regularly transported over long distances, with only

10384-400: The population had grown to around 120 individuals. Several businesses opened mid-century, including three more general stores, a blacksmith, a tailor, a gunsmith, two shoemakers, a cloth factory, a library, a carpentry shop and two inns. Additionally, this period was the beginning of the Canada Starch Company. During the late-1800s, the community prospered further, as more businesses opened and

10502-437: The population of Cardinal had reached 1,000. New businesses at this time included a drug store, three barbers, a bakery, a jewellery shop, a cheese factory, a butcher shop, an undertaker and several others. The first public school in Cardinal, built around 1843, was a two-storey frame building originally standing at the corner of First and Henry Street. This school was later moved to the corner of New and James Street. Although it

10620-413: The population steadily increased. In 1871, the population had reached 300. By the 1870s, the village was home to an additional three general stores, a machinist, a milliner, two blacksmiths, eight tradesmen, five churches, a carriage shop, a doctor and a telegraph operator in addition to its original businesses and tradespeople. In 1878, the village was officially incorporated and renamed Cardinal. By 1895,

10738-435: The rapids. Some residents relied on agriculture for their income, and maintained family farms. By the mid-19th century Cardinal began to develop further, as the Galop Canal had been fully constructed to allow easy passage through the rapids and a Grand Trunk Railway line was laid through the community, connecting it with Toronto. A train station was built shortly after the tracks were laid, called Edwardsburg Station. By 1851,

10856-423: The region vary greatly, and reflect thousands of years of the Clovis people's progression and a changing environment. The earlier weapons were short dart-points, while two to three thousand years later, the Clovis people were mostly carving stone spear-points. This is indicative of an increase in larger game animals migrating into the area. There is little evidence of these cultures ever existing, as their footprint on

10974-453: The result of a "combination of factors". The only known Clovis burial is that of Anzick-1 , an infant boy who was found near Wilsall, Montana , in 1968. The body was associated with over 100 stone and bone artifacts, all of which were stained with red ocher, and it dates to approximately 12,990–12,840 years BP. Sequencing of his genome demonstrates that he belonged to a population that is ancestral to many contemporary Indigenous peoples of

11092-402: The results obtained in a 2007 study by the same authors. Other authors have argued that some sites extend the range of the Clovis culture back to 13,500 years BP, though the dating for these earlier sites is not secure. Some scholars have supported a long chronology for Clovis of around 1,500 years. Historically, many authors argued for a "Clovis first" paradigm, where Clovis, which represents

11210-573: The retreat of a glacier first made the land inhabitable; this era is known as the Paleo-Indian period. Numerous stone arrowheads have been excavated within the region and can be traced to the Clovis people , as well as the Plano people . Although no habitation sites have been discovered within the township boundaries, it is suggested that these cultures must have hunted in the Edwardsburgh/Cardinal area during this time. The Clovis arrows found within

11328-633: The rods is unknown and has been subject to numerous hypotheses. Rods that were beveled on both ends are most often interpreted as foreshafts to which stone points were hafted, with a pair of rods surrounding each side of the point (or alternatively, the point being surrounded by a single beveled rod and the end of the wooden shaft, ) while rods that are beveled on only one end, with the other being pointed, are most often interpreted as projectile points. The rods may have served other purposes, such as prybars. Clovis people are also known to have used ivory and bone to create projectile points. A distinctive feature of

11446-468: The shoreline. Conestoga rests at a depth of only 22–25 ft (6.7–7.6 m), with the top portion of the steeple engine protruding above the river. According to divers, the wooden portions of the Conestoga site are well preserved, however the top portions of metal are badly ice-damaged and rusted, and are quickly deteriorating. Looters and "wreck-stripping" has apparently caused significant damage to

11564-654: The site which would later become Cardinal. Upon seeing the Galops rapids, Munro saw potential for water power, which could become profitable. According to General Simcoe's documents, by 1794 Munro had established a saw and grist mill on his property. By 1864, Cardinal's business concerns included the McLatchie foundry and the Canada Starch Works. The village of Cardinal was founded by Captain Hugh Munro in

11682-481: The site, and a blade from Conestoga ' s 14 ft (4.3 m) propeller was broken off by a dynamite blast during a salvage attempt gone wrong. Weehawk was launched out of Camden, New Jersey , on December 12, 1926, where it operated as a ferry along the New England coast for many years. Weehawk was 45 m (148 ft) long and could carry around 500 passengers as well as around 30 cars. Eventually

11800-566: The stone tools found at a site were hundreds of kilometers away from the source stone outcrop, in one case over 900 kilometres (560 mi) away. The people who produced the Clovis culture probably had a low population density but with geographically extensive cultural networks. The Clovis culture is suggested to have heavily utilized hides, wood, and natural fibres, though no direct evidence of this has been preserved. Clovis culture artifacts have often been found associated with big game, including proboscideans ( Columbian mammoth , mastodon , and

11918-580: The time of the Clovis culture, followed by subsequent migration of these populations later in the Holocene . Like other Native Americans, Anzick-1 is closely related to Siberian peoples , confirming the Asian origin of the Clovis culture. He belongs to Y chromosome Haplogroup Q-L54 , which is common among contemporary Native Americans, and to mitochondrial haplogroup D4h3a, which is rare among contemporary Native Americans (occurring in only 1.4%, primarily along

12036-521: The township boundary, and Kain Road is considered to be the southern boundary of the community. Brouseville, formerly known as Bolton's Corners, was renamed in 1872 after Dr. William H. Brouse, a local travelling physician. Brouse took over the South Grenville seat in the 1872 federal election which prompted residents to change the name in his honour. Township (Canada) In Eastern Canada ,

12154-541: The township is along the Saint Lawrence river in New Wexford. None of the bedrock in the township contains phosphates , metalliferous ores, mica or anything else of notable value; the sands in the area are also of little value as they are too silty and fine to be used as building material. There is, however, a high concentration of stones in much of the local soil, making it suitable for gravel. The area had

12272-467: The township to open due to a higher taxation on separate schools. When another Act went into effect in the mid-1850s, the common and separate schools levelled in price, as the double taxation on separate schools ended. This led to the first separate school being erected in 1855. In total, about 28 single-room separate schools were registered in the township of Edwardsburgh/Cardinal. The separate schools were phased out after bigger, newer schools were built in

12390-782: The township under the Catholic District School Board of Eastern Ontario . The closest Catholic high school to the township is St. Michael Catholic High School located in Kemptville. Elementary students also have the option of attending St. Lawrence Academy, located in Prescott, which is a private school that focuses on Christian values. The nearest post-secondary school to the township is the St. Lawrence College campus located in Brockville. For adult schools and continuing education, residents of Edwardsburgh/Cardinal have

12508-479: The township's proximity to the Saint Lawrence River, only ten percent of the area's water drains into the Saint Lawrence, and ninety percent drains into the South Nation River. The flow of the South Nation River through this area is described as very sluggish with poor drainage, due to the fact there is little drop in elevation along the river; this leads to the formation of bogs and swamps, and also makes

12626-401: The townships were geographically and politically the same. In New Brunswick, parishes have taken over as the present-day subdivision of counties, and present-day Nova Scotia uses districts as appropriate. In Ontario , there are both geographic townships and township municipalities. Geographic townships are the original historical administrative subdivisions surveyed and established primarily in

12744-509: The two Methodist congregations amalgamated, and a new church was needed to accommodate the new, larger congregation. Ten years later, in 1893, the church was constructed of red brick along Dundas Street. In 1925, the church became known as St. John's United Church after entering into a church union. This church is still in use. Some members of the Wesleyan-Methodist church became the Holiness Movement Church around 1900, and

12862-410: The type of fluted point thereafter associated with megafauna (especially mammoths) at over a dozen other archaeological sites in North America would have been more appropriately named "Dent" rather than Clovis, the town near Blackwater Draw that gave the type of point its name. A feature considered to be distinctive of the Clovis tradition is overshot flaking, which is defined as flakes that "during

12980-880: The use of red ochre , and engraved stones. The best-known examples of this were found at the Gault site in Texas and consist of limestone nodules incised with expressive geometric patterns, some of which mimic leaf patterns. Clovis peoples, like other Paleoindian cultures, used red ocher for a variety of artistic and ritual purposes, including burials, and to cover objects in caches. Clovis peoples are known to have transported ocher 100 kilometres (62 mi) from its original outcrop. They are also suggested to have produced beads out of animal bones. Clovis hunter-gatherers are characterized as "high-technology foragers" who utilized sophisticated technology to maintain access to resources under conditions of high mobility. In many Clovis localities,

13098-593: Was about 20% higher, at 62.5%; the percentage of adults without post-secondary credentials was significantly lower than the percentage of seniors, with only 10.4% having not attained any certifications. The most common field of study in Edwardsburgh/Cardinal is business, management or marketing. In the year 2011, of the 2,720 residents aged 25 or older who had obtained a post-secondary education, 86.2% had attended school in Ontario, 9.6% had studied in another province or territory and 4.2% had studied outside Canada. Cardinal

13216-421: Was around 77 m (253 ft) in length with a speed of 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph). Conestoga was awaiting passage through lock 28 at the Galop Canal on May 22, 1922, when a fire broke out in the engine room. All passengers managed to escape and the ship's cargo was also salvaged, however the ship itself was flushed downstream from the locks where it eventually sank about 75 ft (23 m) from

13334-438: Was deemed unsafe and was replaced at a new location, the corner of John and New Street. The old church was demolished, and the stones were used to erect a stone cairn on the site which it once stood. The new brick church was built with a parish hall. In 1958, an addition was added to the hall. As of 2024, this church is still in use. The Sacred Heart Roman Catholic Church was built in 1875 on land donated by G.W. Benson. The church

13452-487: Was established in 1827, upon the construction of the former Anglican church on Highway 2 along the Saint Lawrence River. In the mid-1880s, some of the bodies from the aforementioned cholera epidemic were buried behind the cemetery's vault. In 1891, the cemetery vault was presented to the Anglican church by W.T. Benson, with an agreement that any revenue coming from the vault be used to benefit the church or cemetery. The vault

13570-403: Was located on First Street. The building was a stable which was renovated into a school. This structure served as the continuation school until 1921, when a home once belonging to the prominent Benson family was sold and turned over to the school board. The school was known as Cardinal High School, and operated into the early 1950s. After its closure, the school was left boarded up and abandoned for

13688-410: Was the primary goal. Other elements considered distinctive of the Clovis culture tool complex include "raw material selectivity; distinctive patterns of flake and blade platform preparation, thinning and flaking; characteristic biface size and morphology, including the presence of end-thinning; and the size, curvature and reduction strategies of blades". It has long been recognised that the definition of

13806-887: Was to protect the Saint Lawrence River from the British. It was captured by Major-General Jeffrey Amherst in August 1760 during the Battle of the Thousand Islands . The island on which the fort once stood was permanently flooded during the construction of the Saint Lawrence Seaway . In 1784, British loyalists from the United States arrived, fleeing the American Revolution . The first settlement of 166 settled in Royal Township #6 (subsequently renamed Edwardsburg) at Johnstown, named after Sir William Johnson , an Irish-born British Army official in

13924-491: Was used by all Cardinal's congregations. The Anglican Cemetery is still in use as of 2016. The Roman Catholic cemetery, known as Sacred Heart Cemetery, was erected in 1892. Prior to this, Roman Catholics were buried in nearby Prescott or Dixon's Corners. The cemetery is located along Highway 2 and the Saint Lawrence River, between the Anglican cemetery and the Presbyterian and Methodist cemeteries. As of 2016, this cemetery

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