69-570: El Morro National Monument is a U.S. national monument in Cibola County , New Mexico , United States . Located on an ancient east–west trail in the western part of the state, the monument preserves the remains of a large prehistoric pueblo atop a great sandstone promontory with a pool of water at its base, which subsequently became a landmark where over the centuries explorers and travelers have left personal inscriptions that survive today. Between about 1275 to 1350 AD, up to 600 people of
138-466: A U.S. Forest Service firefighter who (along with his crew) watches over a group of rambunctious children while searching for their parents after rescuing them from a fire in the wilderness during a family vacation. The history of the Forest Service has been fraught with controversy, as various interests and national values have grappled with the appropriate management of the many resources within
207-478: A donation of lands acquired by John D. Rockefeller Jr. , for addition to Grand Teton National Park after Congress had declined to authorize this park expansion. Roosevelt's proclamation unleashed a storm of criticism about use of the Antiquities Act to circumvent Congress. A bill abolishing Jackson Hole National Monument passed Congress but was vetoed by Roosevelt, and Congressional and court challenges to
276-837: A fifth in the Atlantic Ocean, the Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument . On June 24, 2016, Obama designated the Stonewall Inn and surrounding areas in Greenwich Village , New York as the Stonewall National Monument , the first national monument commemorating the movement for LGBT rights in the United States . Obama's establishments included several others recognizing civil rights history, including
345-671: A key role in formulating policy and coordinating U.S. support for the protection and sound management of the world's forest resources. It works closely with other agencies such as USAID , the State Department , and the Environmental Protection Agency , as well as with nonprofit development organizations, wildlife organizations, universities, and international assistance organizations. The Forest Service's international work serves to link people and communities striving to protect and manage forests throughout
414-477: A major Alaska lands bill. Congress passed a revised version of the bill in 1980 incorporating most of these national monuments into national parks and preserves , but the act also curtailed further use of the proclamation authority in Alaska. Carter's 1978 proclamations included Misty Fjords and Admiralty Island National Monuments in the U.S. Forest Service and Becharof and Yukon Flats National Monuments in
483-450: A natural resting place for numerous travelers through the otherwise arid and desolate region, many of whom left their signatures, names, dates, poems, and stories of their treks in the walls of the sandstone cliff. While some of the inscriptions are now faded through age, there are still many that can be seen today and remain legible, with some dating back to the 17th century. The oldest legible inscription at El Morro, left by Juan de Oñate ,
552-525: A precedent for the use of the Antiquities Act to preserve large areas. Federal courts have since rejected every challenge to the president's use of Antiquities Act preservation authority, ruling that the law gives the president exclusive discretion over the determination of the size and nature of the objects protected. In 1918, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed Katmai National Monument in Alaska , comprising more than 1,000,000 acres (4,000 km ). Katmai
621-691: A range of biological, physical, and social science fields to promote sustainable management of United States' diverse forests and rangelands. Research employs about 550 scientists and several hundred technical and support staff, located at 67 sites throughout the United States and in Puerto Rico . Discovery and technology development and transfer is carried out through seven research stations. Research focuses on informing policy and land management decisions and includes addressing invasive insects, degraded river ecosystems , or sustainable ways to harvest forest products. The researchers work independently and with
690-680: A range of partners (formerly through a National Partnership Office ), including other agencies, academia, nonprofit groups, and industry. The information and technology produced through basic and applied science programs is available to the public for its benefit and use. In addition to the Research Stations, the USFS R&;D branch also leads several National Centers such as the National Genomics Center for Wildlife and Fish Conservation . The Forest Service plays
759-635: A regular and recurring presence on a vast amount of public lands, roads, and recreation sites. The primary focus of their jobs is the protection of natural resources, protection of Forest Service employees and the protection of visitors. To cover the vast and varied terrain under their jurisdiction, they use modified 4x4 pickup trucks, Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptors , special service SUVs , horses, K-9 units , helicopters, snowmobiles , dirt bikes, and boats. Special Agents are criminal investigators who plan and conduct investigations concerning possible violations of criminal and administrative provisions of
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#1732783874551828-525: A short history of how agency responsibilities have grown and evolved over its 118-year history in accordance with "what the American people desire from their natural resources at any given point in time." In the spring of 2023, the USDA proposed a change to its regulations to allow for the "responsible deployment of" carbon capture, utilization, and sequestration on National Forests lands. Although part of
897-641: A staff of 10 to 300 people under the direction of a district ranger, a line officer who reports to a forest supervisor. The districts vary in size from 50,000 acres (200 km ) to more than 1 million acres (4,000 km ). Most on-the-ground activities occur on ranger districts, including trail construction and maintenance, operation of campgrounds, oversight of a wide variety of special use permitted activities, and management of vegetation and wildlife habitat. U.S. Forest Service Law Enforcement & Investigations (LEI), headquartered in Washington, D.C. ,
966-724: Is a federal law enforcement agency of the U.S. government. It is responsible for enforcement of federal laws and regulations governing national forest lands and resources. All law enforcement officers and special agents receive their training through Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC). Operations are divided into two major functional areas: Uniformed Law Enforcement Officers (LEOs) enforce federal laws and regulations governing national forest lands and resources. LEOs also enforce some or all state laws on National Forest Lands. As part of that mission, LEOs carry firearms, defensive equipment, make arrests, execute search warrants , complete reports, and testify in court. They establish
1035-758: Is that the National Park Service was created in 1916 to manage Yellowstone and several other parks; in 1956, the Fish and Wildlife Service became the manager of lands reserved for wildlife. The Grazing Service and the United States General Land Office were combined to create the Bureau of Land Management in 1946. Also of note was that it was not until 1976 that the Federal Land Policy and Management Act became
1104-549: The Ancestral Puebloan culture lived in the 355+-room mesa-top pueblo. The village was situated on the old Zuni-Acoma Trail, an important ancient trade route. Spanish explorers visiting the area in the 16th century referred to the notable promontory as El Morro ("The Headland"); the local Zuni people call it A'ts'ina ("Place of writings on the rock"), and early Anglo-Americans referred to it as Inscription Rock. With its oasis-like source of water, El Morro served as
1173-715: The Bureau of Land Management , and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (in the case of marine national monuments). Historically, some national monuments were managed by the War Department . President Theodore Roosevelt used the Antiquities Act to declare Devils Tower in Wyoming as the first U.S. national monument. The Antiquities Act authorized permits for legitimate archaeological investigations and penalties for taking or destroying antiquities without permission. Additionally, it authorized
1242-663: The Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act , P.L. 95-313; and the Forest and Rangelands Renewable Resources Planning Act , P.L. 95-307. From the early 1900s to the present, there has been a fierce rivalry over control of forests between the Department of Agriculture and the Department of the Interior. Their roles overlap but numerous proposals to combine the two have failed. Most recently, in 2009,
1311-580: The César E. Chávez , Belmont–Paul Women's Equality , Freedom Riders , and Birmingham Civil Rights National Monuments . In December 2017, President Donald Trump substantially reduced the sizes of Bears Ears and Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monuments , removing protections on about 2.8 million acres of land where mining could resume. Three lawsuits challenged the legality of this action in federal court, and in October 2021, President Joe Biden reversed
1380-612: The Fish and Wildlife Service , the first to be created outside of the National Park Service. The latter two became national wildlife refuges in 1980. The proclamation authority was not used again anywhere until 1996, when President Bill Clinton proclaimed the Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument in Utah , after many years of unsuccessful advocacy by conservationists to protect parts of
1449-498: The Government Accountability Office (GAO) evaluated whether the Forest Service should be moved from the Department of Agriculture to the Department of the Interior, which already manages some 438 million acres (1,770,000 km ) of public land through the National Park Service , the Fish and Wildlife Service , and the Bureau of Land Management . GAO ultimately did not offer a recommendation upon
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#17327838745511518-655: The Grand Canyon as a national monument. In response to Roosevelt's declaration of the Grand Canyon monument, a putative mining claimant sued in federal court, claiming that Roosevelt had overstepped the Antiquities Act authority by protecting an entire canyon. In 1920, the United States Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the Grand Canyon was indeed "an object of historic or scientific interest" and could be protected by proclamation, setting
1587-611: The Tongass National Forest in Alaska and ski areas such as Alta, Utah in the Wasatch-Cache National Forest . In addition, the Forest Service is responsible for managing National Grasslands in the midwest. Furthermore, areas designated as wilderness by acts of Congress , prohibit logging, mining, road and building construction and land leases for purposes of farming and or livestock grazing. Since 1978, several Presidents have directed
1656-632: The Trails of the Ancients Byway , a designated New Mexico Scenic Byway . The monument was featured in the film Four Faces West (1948), starring Joel McCrea . In December 2019, the International Dark Sky Association certified El Morro as an International Dark Sky Park, recognizing its preservation of not only the historic inscriptions but also its natural night sky. National monument (United States) In
1725-414: The U.S. Department of the Interior (which manages the National Park Service , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Bureau of Land Management ). The concept of national forests was born from Theodore Roosevelt 's conservation group, Boone and Crockett Club , due to concerns regarding Yellowstone National Park beginning as early as 1875. In 1876, Congress formed the office of Special Agent in
1794-492: The United States , a national monument is a protected area that can be created from any land owned or controlled by the federal government by proclamation of the president of the United States or an act of Congress. National monuments protect a wide variety of natural and historic resources, including sites of geologic, marine, archaeological, and cultural importance. The Antiquities Act of 1906 gives presidents
1863-399: The 195 million acres (790,000 km ) of public land administered by the Forest Service. Individual sites range from 47 to 22,500 ha in size. Operations of Experimental Forests and Ranges are directed by local research teams for the individual sites, by Research Stations for the regions in which they are located, and at the level of the Forest Service. Major themes in research at
1932-560: The American West. The reference in the act to "objects of ... scientific interest" enabled President Theodore Roosevelt to make a natural geological feature, Devils Tower in Wyoming , the first national monument three months later. Among the next three monuments he proclaimed in 1906 was Petrified Forest in Arizona , another natural feature. In 1908, Roosevelt used the act to proclaim more than 800,000 acres (3,200 km ) of
2001-491: The Chief. Research stations include Northern, Pacific Northwest, Pacific Southwest, Rocky Mountain , and Southern . There are 92 research work units located at 67 sites throughout the United States. there are 80 Experimental Forests and Ranges that have been established progressively since 1908; many sites are more than 50 years old. The system provides places for long-term science and management studies in major vegetation types of
2070-532: The Department of Agriculture to assess the quality and conditions of forests in the United States. Franklin B. Hough was appointed the head of the office. In 1881, the office was expanded into the newly formed Division of Forestry . The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 authorized withdrawing land from the public domain as forest reserves managed by the Department of the Interior . In 1901, the Division of Forestry
2139-478: The Department of Agriculture, the Forest Service receives its budget through the Subcommittee on Appropriations—Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies. The Forest Service achieved widespread awareness during the 1960s, as it became the setting for the long running classic TV show Lassie , with storylines focusing on Lassie's adventures with various forest rangers. The iconic collie's association with
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2208-486: The Experimental Forests and Ranges includes: develop of systems for managing and restoring forests, range lands, and watersheds; investigate the workings of forest and stream ecosystems; characterize plant and animal communities; observe and interpret long-term environmental change and many other themes. There are nine regions in the Forest Service; numbered 1 through 10 (Region 7 was eliminated in 1965 when
2277-536: The FY 2019 Annualized Continuing Resolution includes $ 500 million above the base as bridge to the first year of the fire fix. The Forest Service, headquartered in Washington, D.C., has 27,062 permanent, full-time employees as of Sept. 20, 2018, including 541 in the headquarters office and 26,521 in regional and field office. The USDA Forest Service's mission is to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of
2346-478: The Forest Service adapt current policies and develop new policies and actions to conserve and manage the national forests and grasslands for climate resilience, so that the Agency can provide for ecological integrity and support social and economic sustainability over time?" Ancillary questions pertained to both "adaptation planning" and "adaptation practices". The background section of the proposed rulemaking includes
2415-768: The Forest Service and other statutes under the United States Code . Special agents are normally plainclothes officers who carry concealed firearms, and other defensive equipment, make arrests, carry out complex criminal investigations, present cases for prosecution to U.S. Attorneys , and prepare investigative reports. All field agents are required to travel a great deal and usually maintain a case load of ten to fifteen ongoing criminal investigations at one time. Criminal investigators occasionally conduct internal and civil claim investigations. The 193 million acres (780,000 km ) of public land that are managed as national forests and grasslands are collectively known as
2484-446: The Forest Service balances resource extraction, resource protection, and providing recreation. The work includes managing 193 million acres (780,000 km ) of national forest and grasslands, including 59 million acres (240,000 km ) of roadless areas ; 14,077 recreation sites; 143,346 miles (230,693 km) of trails; 374,883 miles (603,316 km) of roads; and the harvesting of 1.5 billion trees per year. Further,
2553-502: The Forest Service fought fires on 2.996 million acres (12,120 km ) of land in 2007. The Forest Service organization includes ranger districts, national forests, regions, research stations and research work units and the Northeastern Area Office for State and Private Forestry. Each level has responsibility for a variety of functions. The Chief of the Forest Service is a career federal employee who oversees
2622-401: The Forest Service led to Lassie receiving numerous awards and citations from the U.S. Senate and the Department of Agriculture, and was partly responsible for a bill regarding soil and water pollution that was signed into law in early 1968 by President Lyndon Johnson , which was dubbed by some as "The Lassie Program". In the 2019 family comedy movie Playing With Fire , John Cena plays
2691-521: The Nation's forests and grasslands to meet the needs of present and future generations. Its motto is "Caring for the land and serving people." As the lead federal agency in natural resource conservation, the Forest Service provides leadership in the protection, management, and use of the nation's forest, rangeland, and aquatic ecosystems. The agency's ecosystem approach to management integrates ecological, economic, and social factors to maintain and enhance
2760-582: The National Forest System. These lands are located in 44 states, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands and comprise about 9% of the total land area in the United States. The lands are organized into 155 national forests and 20 national grasslands. The mission of the National Forest System is to protect and manage the forest lands so they best demonstrate the sustainable multiple-use management concept, using an ecological approach, to meet
2829-996: The Pacific Ocean, the largest in the system: the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument , the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument , the Marianas Marine National Monument , and the Rose Atoll Marine National Monument . They are managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service, with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration overseeing the fisheries. President Barack Obama significantly expanded two of them and added
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2898-538: The USFS to administer National Monuments inside of preexisting National Forests. The Forest Service also manages Grey Towers National Historic Site in Milford, Pennsylvania , the home and estate of its first Chief, Gifford Pinchot . By 1935, the U.S. Forest Service's fire management policy stipulated that all wildfires were to be suppressed by 10 am the morning after they were first spotted. In August 1944, to reduce
2967-485: The agency would have to put $ 400 to $ 500 million in wildfire prevention projects on hold because funding for firefighting was running low as the fiscal year ended. The decision was meant to preserve resources for fighting active fires burning in California, Oregon, Washington and Idaho. Politicians of both parties indicated they believed the then-current funding structure was broken, but did not agree on steps to fix
3036-646: The agency. The Chief reports to the Under Secretary for Natural Resources and Environment in the U.S. Department of Agriculture, an appointee of the President confirmed by the Senate. The Chief's staff provides broad policy and direction for the agency, works with the Administration to develop a budget to submit to Congress, provides information to Congress on accomplishments, and monitors activities of
3105-642: The agency. There are five deputy chiefs for the following areas: National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, Research and Development, Business Operations, and Finance. The Forest Service Research and Development deputy area includes five research stations, the Forest Products Laboratory , and the International Institute of Tropical Forestry , in Puerto Rico. Station directors, like regional foresters, report to
3174-704: The area. This was the first national monument managed by the Bureau of Land Management . This action was unpopular in Utah, and bills were introduced to further restrict the president's authority, none of which have been enacted. Most of the 16 national monuments created by President Clinton are managed not by the National Park Service, but by the Bureau of Land Management as part of the National Landscape Conservation System . President George W. Bush created four marine national monuments in
3243-443: The changes. The restoration of the monuments has been challenged in court in an attempt to attack the Antiquities Act. President Biden's proclamations establishing and expanding monuments often incorporated consultation with Native American tribes for management and planning. United States Forest Service The United States Forest Service ( USFS ) is an agency within the U.S. Department of Agriculture that administers
3312-472: The cliffs. El Morro was designated a national monument by President Theodore Roosevelt on December 8, 1906, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. Today the site is managed by the National Park Service . The many inscription panels, water pool, pueblo ruins, and the top of the promontory are all accessible via park trails. El Morro is one of many prehistoric sites on
3381-437: The conclusion of its performance audit . The Forest Service remains a part of the USDA. As of 2019, FY 2020 Forest Service total budget authority is $ 5.14 billion, a decrease of $ 815 million from 2019. The budget includes $ 2.4 billion for Wildland Fire Management, a decrease of $ 530 million from the 2019 Annualized Continuing Resolution because the "fire fix" cap adjustment becomes available in FY 2020, while
3450-633: The current Eastern Region was created from the former Eastern and North Central regions. ). Each encompasses a broad geographic area and is headed by a regional forester who reports directly to the Chief. The regional forester has broad responsibility for coordinating activities among the various forests within the region, for providing overall leadership for regional natural resource and social programs, and for coordinated regional land use planning. The Forest Service oversees 155 national forests, 20 grasslands, and one tall-grass prairie. Each administrative unit typically comprises several ranger districts, under
3519-491: The diverse needs of people. The goal of the State and Private Forestry program is to assist with financial and technical assistance to private landowners, state agencies, tribes, and community resource managers. It provides assistance by helping sustain the United States' urban and rural forests and their associated communities from wildland fires, insects, disease, and invasive organisms. Approximately 537 staff are employed in
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#17327838745513588-631: The first Spanish governor of the colony of Santa Fe de Nuevo México , is dated April 16, 1605. Among the Anglo-American emigrants who left their names there in 1858 were several members of the Rose-Baley Party , including Leonard Rose and John Udell . Nearby petroglyphs and carvings made by the Ancestral Puebloans were inscribed centuries before Europeans arrived. In 1906, U.S. federal law prohibited further carving on
3657-544: The funding allocation. During the 2019–2020 bushfires in Australia, the US Forest Services sent a contingent of firefighters. They worked alongside firefighters from other American fire departments. In April 2023, the U.S. Forest Service published a proposed rulemaking in response to climate change on the topic of improving climate resilience on the public lands that it manages. The agency introduced
3726-825: The future. The report is entitled "Managing the Impacts of Wildfire on Communities and the Environment: A Report to the President In Response to the Wildfires of 2000"—The National Fire Plan for short. The National Fire Plan continues to be an integral part of the Forest Service today. The following are important operational features of the National Fire Plan: In August 2014, Tom Vilsack, the Secretary of Agriculture, announced that
3795-616: The most widely recognized slogans in the United States. According to the Advertising Council , Smokey Bear is the most recognized icons in advertising history and has appeared almost everywhere via Public Service Announcements in print, radio, television. Smokey Bear, an icon protected by law, is jointly owned by the Forest Service, the Ad Council and the National Association of State Foresters . In 1965, at
3864-408: The nation's 154 national forests and 20 national grasslands covering 193 million acres (780,000 km ) of land. The major divisions of the agency are the Chief's Office, National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, Business Operations, as well as Research and Development. The agency manages about 25% of federal lands and is the sole major national land management agency not part of
3933-835: The national policy for retaining public land for federal ownership. Significant federal legislation affecting the Forest Service includes the Weeks Act of 1911, the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 , P.L. 73-482; the Multiple Use – Sustained Yield Act of 1960 , P.L. 86-517; the Wilderness Act , P.L. 88-577; the National Forest Management Act , P.L. 94-588; the National Environmental Policy Act , P.L. 91–190;
4002-537: The need for such rulemaking as: Climate change and related stressors, such as wildfire, drought, insects and disease, extreme weather events, and chronic stress on ecosystems are resulting in increasing impacts with rapid and variable rates of change on national forests and grasslands. These impacts can be compounded by fire suppression, development in the Wildland Urban Interface (WUI), and non-climate informed timber harvest and reforestation practices. The foundational question pertained to climate adaptation : "How should
4071-463: The number of forest fires , the Forest Service and the Wartime Advertising Council began distributing fire education posters featuring a black bear . The poster campaign was a success; the black bear would later be named Smokey Bear , and would, for decades, be the "spokesbear" for the Forest Service. Smokey Bear has appeared in innumerable TV commercials; his popular catch phrase, "Only YOU can prevent forest fires"—later changed to wildfires—is one of
4140-426: The overall direction of a forest supervisor. Within the supervisor's office, the staff coordinates activities among districts, allocates the budget, and provides technical support to each district. Forest supervisors are line officers and report to regional foresters. The administration of individual National Forests is subdivided into Ranger Districts. The Forest Service has over 600 ranger districts. Each district has
4209-459: The power to proclaim national monuments by executive action. In contrast, national parks in the U.S. must be created by Congressional legislation. Some national monuments were first created by presidential action and later designated as national parks by congressional approval. The 134 national monuments are managed by several federal agencies: the National Park Service , United States Forest Service , United States Fish and Wildlife Service ,
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#17327838745514278-940: The president to proclaim "historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic or scientific interest" on federal lands as national monuments, "the limits of which in all cases shall be confined to the smallest area compatible with the proper care and management of the objects to be protected." Presidents have used the Antiquities Act's proclamation authority not only to create new national monuments but to enlarge existing ones. For example, Franklin D. Roosevelt significantly enlarged Dinosaur National Monument in 1938. Lyndon B. Johnson added Ellis Island to Statue of Liberty National Monument in 1965, and Jimmy Carter made major additions to Glacier Bay and Katmai National Monuments in 1978. The Antiquities Act of 1906 resulted from concerns about protecting mostly prehistoric Native American ruins and artifacts (collectively termed "antiquities") on federal lands in
4347-457: The proclamation authority were mounted. In 1950, Congress finally incorporated most of the monument into Grand Teton National Park, but the act doing so barred further use of the proclamation authority in Wyoming except for areas of 5,000 acres or less. The most substantial use of the proclamation authority came in 1978, when President Jimmy Carter proclaimed 17 new national monuments in Alaska after Congress had adjourned without passing
4416-405: The program and is administered through National Forest System regions and the Northeastern Area of the United States. The research and development (R&D) arm of the Forest Service works to improve the health and use of the United States' forests and grasslands . Research has been part of the Forest Service mission since the agency's inception in 1905. Today, Forest Service researchers work in
4485-418: The quality of the environment to meet current and future needs. Through implementation of land and resource management plans, the agency ensures sustainable ecosystems by restoring and maintaining species diversity and ecological productivity that helps provide recreation, water, timber, minerals, fish, wildlife, wilderness, and aesthetic values for current and future generations of people. The everyday work of
4554-492: The request of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , the Forest Service was commissioned by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) to research the use of forest fire as a military weapon. A report was published in June 1970 and declassified in May 1983. In September 2000, the Departments of Agriculture and the Interior developed a plan to respond to the fires of 2000, to reduce the impacts of these wildland fires on rural communities, and to ensure sufficient firefighting resources in
4623-399: The world. The program also promotes sustainable land management overseas and brings important technologies and innovations back to the United States. The program focuses on conserving key natural resource in cooperation with countries across the world. Although a large volume of timber is logged every year, not all National Forests are entirely forested. There are tidewater glaciers in
4692-550: Was later enlarged to nearly 2,800,000 acres (11,000 km ) by subsequent Antiquities Act proclamations and for many years was the largest national park system unit. Petrified Forest , Grand Canyon , and Great Sand Dunes , among several other national parks , were also originally proclaimed as national monuments and later designated national parks by Congress. Substantial opposition did not materialize until 1943, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt proclaimed Jackson Hole National Monument in Wyoming . He did this to accept
4761-405: Was renamed the Bureau of Forestry . The Transfer Act of 1905 transferred the management of forest reserves from the United States General Land Office of the Interior Department to the Bureau of Forestry, henceforth known as the United States Forest Service . Gifford Pinchot was the first United States Chief Forester in the Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt . A historical note to include
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