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42-482: The Electronics Technicians Association, International, Inc. (doing business as ETA International ) is a US-based not-for-profit 501(c)(6) trade association founded in 1978. The association provides certifications in industries such as basic electronics , fiber optics and data cabling , renewable energy , information technology , photonics and precision optics , customer service , biomedical , avionics , wireless communications , radar , and smart home . ETA

84-560: A physical person ), and a non-human person is called a juridical person (sometimes also a juridic , juristic , artificial , legal , or fictitious person , Latin : persona ficta ). Juridical persons are entities such as corporations, firms (in some jurisdictions ), and many government agencies . They are treated in law as if they were persons. While natural persons acquire legal personality "naturally", simply by being born, juridical persons must have legal personality conferred on them by some "unnatural", legal process, and it

126-433: A company limited by shares, its shareholders ). They may sue and be sued , enter into contracts, incur debt , and own property . Entities with legal personality may also be subjected to certain legal obligations, such as the payment of taxes. An entity with legal personality may shield its members from personal liability . In some common law jurisdictions a distinction is drawn between corporation aggregate (such as

168-550: A company, which is composed of a number of members) and a corporation sole , which is a public office of legal personality separated from the individual holding the office (these entities have separate legal personality). Historically most corporations sole were ecclesiastical in nature (for example, the office of the Archbishop of Canterbury is a corporation sole), but a number of other public offices are now formed as corporations sole. The concept of juridical personality

210-547: A division. Due to a power struggle within the organization, ETA was incorporated in Indiana on November 14, 1978 by a group of former NESDA members and officers. Among those were Richard "Dick" Glass and Ron Crow, two of the original founders of the CET program and the only administrators at that time. This made it easy to continue the CET program with the newly formed organization. Their goal was to create an association that represented

252-411: A jobs program in cooperation with NEA (National Electronics Association). Local school systems, local TV association members and USDL worked together on an 8,000-hour apprenticeship program aimed at solving the labor shortage problem while finding new vocations for those put out of work by modern technology. This new program would reward trainees but would not cover experienced technicians. Because of this,

294-479: A law restricting the free speech of a corporation or a political action group or dictating the coverage of a local newspaper, and because of the Due Process Clause , a state government may not take the property of a corporation without using due process of law and providing just compensation. These protections apply to all legal entities, not just corporations. A prominent component of relevant case law

336-583: A subscription to the High Tech News , ETA's bi-monthly membership magazine. Not-for-profit A not-for-profit or non-for-profit organization ( NFPO ) is a legal entity that does not distribute surplus funds to its members and is formed to fulfill specific objectives. An NFPO does not earn profit for its owners, as any revenue generated by its activities must be put back into the organization. While not-for-profit organizations and non-profit organizations (NPO) are distinct legal entities,

378-460: Is also found in virtually every other legal system. Some examples of juridical persons include: Not all organizations have legal personality. For example, the board of directors of a corporation, legislature, or governmental agency typically are not legal persons in that they have no ability to exercise legal rights independent of the corporation or political body which they are a part of. The concept of legal personhood for organizations of people

420-402: Is also one of the 12 COLEMs (Commercial Operator License Examination Manager) for U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) testing. ETA works with technicians, educators, and military personnel. ETA also partners with companies such as Motorola Solutions to provide certification to their employees. In 1965 the U.S. Labor Department, Bureau of Apprenticeship & Training (BAT) instigated

462-459: Is at least as old as Ancient Rome : a variety of collegial institutions enjoyed the benefit under Roman law . The doctrine has been attributed to Pope Innocent IV , who seems at least to have helped spread the idea of persona ficta as it is called in Latin . In canon law , the doctrine of persona ficta allowed monasteries to have a legal existence that was apart from the monks, simplifying

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504-601: Is for this reason that they are sometimes called "artificial" persons. In the most common case ( incorporating a business), legal personality is usually acquired by registration with a government agency set up for the purpose. In other cases it may be by primary legislation: an example is the Charity Commission in the UK. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 advocates for the provision of legal identity for all, including birth registration by 2030 as part of

546-484: Is not absolute. " Piercing the corporate veil " refers to looking at the individual natural persons acting as agents involved in a company action or decision; this may result in a legal decision in which the rights or duties of a corporation or public limited company are treated as the rights or liabilities of that corporation's members or directors . The concept of a juridical person is now central to Western law in both common-law and civil-law countries, but it

588-412: Is pertinent to the philosophy of law , as it is essential to laws affecting a corporation ( corporations law ). Juridical personhood allows one or more natural persons ( universitas personarum ) to act as a single entity ( body corporate ) for legal purposes. In many jurisdictions , artificial personality allows that entity to be considered under law separately from its individual members (for example in

630-730: Is presented to those service facilities that show they have a percentage of technicians and service managers certified, utilize a code of conduct, provide a service warranty and insurance coverage, adhere to zoning laws, use industry-approved equipment, and provide a clean and accessible facility. From the 1980s to the present, ETA has continued to expand their certification offerings to fill knowledge and skills assessment gaps in technology. ETA works with many different educators, businesses, and trainers to create vendor-neutral accredited certifications. ETA certifications are used by many different sectors including secondary and post-secondary schools, training businesses, corporations, government agencies, and

672-654: Is the Supreme Court decision Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission , which ruled unconstitutional certain restrictions on corporate campaign spending during elections. Other United States points of law include: In Act II, Scene 1 of Gilbert and Sullivan 's 1889 opera, The Gondoliers , Giuseppe Palmieri (who serves, jointly with his brother Marco, as King of Barataria) requests that he and his brother be also recognized individually so that they might each receive individual portions of food as they have "two independent appetites". He is, however, turned down by

714-415: Is the characteristic of a non-living entity regarded by law as having the status of personhood . A juridical or artificial person ( Latin : persona ficta ; also juristic person ) has a legal name and has certain rights, protections, privileges, responsibilities, and liabilities in law, similar to those of a natural person . The concept of a juridical person is a fundamental legal fiction . It

756-524: Is the property owned by the deity or idol as a "legal person". Humans appointed to act on behalf of deity are called the "shebait" . A shebait acts as the guardian or custodian of deity to protect the right of deity and fulfill the legal duties of the deity. Shebait is similar to a trustee in case the deity or temple does have a legally registered trust or entity. Under the Hindu Law property gifted or offered as rituals or donations, etc absolutely belongs to

798-547: The " Animal Welfare Board of India vs Nagaraja" case in 2014 mandated that animals are also entitled to the fundamental right to freedom enshrined in the Article 21 of Constitution of India i.e. right to life, personal liberty and the right to die with dignity ( passive euthanasia ). In another case, a court in Uttarakhand state mandated that animals have the same rights as humans. In another case of cow-smuggling ,

840-592: The 2030 Agenda . As legal personality is a prerequisite to legal capacity (the ability of any legal person to amend – i.e. enter into, transfer, etc. – rights and obligations ), it is a prerequisite for an international organization to be able to sign international treaties in its own name . The term "legal person" can be ambiguous because it is often used as a synonym of terms that refer only to non-human legal entities, specifically in contradistinction to "natural person". Artificial personality , juridical personality , or juristic personality

882-699: The International Certification Accreditation Council (ICAC) and align with the ISO-17024 standard. Independent audits are conducted on a regular basis to ensure compliance. Membership is open to anyone who is involved in one of the industries ETA serves. Membership allows voting rights for such things as biannual officer elections and service awards as well as by-law changes and other association business. ETA offers six types of membership for educators, professionals, technicians, and students. Each membership includes

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924-466: The New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 provides: "... the provisions of this Bill of Rights apply, so far as practicable, for the benefit of all legal persons as well as for the benefit of all natural persons." In part based on the principle that legal persons are simply natural persons and their organizations, and in part based on the history of statutory interpretation of the word "person",

966-507: The Punjab and Haryana High Court mandated that "entire animal kingdom including avian and aquatic" species has a "distinct legal persona with corresponding rights, duties, and liabilities of a living person" and humans are "loco parentis" while laying out the norms for animal welfare, veterinary treatment, fodder and shelter, e.g. animal drawn carriages must not have more than four humans, and load carrying animals must not be loaded beyond

1008-603: The Uttarakhand High Court , mandated that the river Ganges and Yamuna as well as all water bodies are "living entities" i.e. "legal person" and appointed three humans as trustees to protect the rights of rivers against the pollution caused by the humans, e.g. "pilgrims's bathing rituals" . The Supreme Court of India overturned the decision of the High Court of Uttarakhand in July 2017. Section 28 of

1050-730: The "legal person" status by the law "have rights and co-relative duties; they can sue and be sued, can possess and transfer property" . Since these non-human entities are "voiceless" they are legally represented "through guardians and representatives" to claim their legal rights and to fulfill their legal duties and responsibilities. Specific non-human entities given the status of "legal person" include " corporate personality , body politic , charitable unions etc," as well as trust estates , deities , temples, churches, mosques, hospitals, universities, colleges, banks, railways, municipalities, and gram panchayats (village councils), rivers, all animals and birds. In court cases regarding corporates,

1092-747: The Certified Electronics Technician (CET) program was created. In 1970 a group of technicians decided to form an organization to promote the CET program and the electronics industry as a whole. This organization would be a division of NEA called the International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians (ISCET). In the mid-1970s NEA and an organization called NATESA merged to form the National Electronic Service Dealers Association (NESDA) with ISCET remaining as

1134-471: The U.S. Supreme Court held that for the purposes of the case at hand, a corporation is "capable of being treated as a citizen of [the State which created it], as much as a natural person." Ten years later, they reaffirmed the result of Letson, though on the somewhat different theory that "those who use the corporate name, and exercise the faculties conferred by it," should be presumed conclusively to be citizens of

1176-453: The U.S. military. ETA offers certifications in various knowledge areas, but does not offer courses or training in these areas. ETA does, however, offer endorsements of courses offered through educational institutions through their Course Approval program. Maintenance or renewal of certifications is required to keep in line with the ISO-17024 standards. Most certifications are good for four years. All technical certifications are accredited by

1218-565: The US Supreme Court has repeatedly held that certain constitutional rights protect legal persons ( such as corporations and other organizations). Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad is sometimes cited for this finding because the court reporter's comments included a statement the Chief Justice made before oral arguments began, telling the attorneys during pre-trial that "the court does not wish to hear argument on

1260-456: The corporation's State of incorporation. Marshall v. Baltimore & Ohio R. Co., 16 How. 314, 329, 14 L.Ed. 953 (1854). These concepts have been codified by statute, as U.S. jurisdictional statutes specifically address the domicile of corporations. Indian law defines two types of "legal person", the human beings as well as certain non-human entities which are given the same legal judicial personality as human beings. The non-human entities given

1302-459: The deity Rama in the specific temple was a "legal entity" entitled to be represented by their own lawyer appointed by the trustees acting on behalf of the deity. Similarly, in 2018 SC decided that the deity Ayyappan is a "legal person" with " the right to privacy " in the court case regarding the entry of women to Sabarimala shrine of Lord Ayyapan. Under the Indian law, the "shebaitship"

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1344-435: The deity and not to the shebait. Case example are "Profulla Chrone Requitte vs Satya Chorone Requitte, AIR 1979 SC 1682 (1686): (1979) 3 SCC 409: (1979) 3 SCR 431. (ii)" and "Shambhu Charan Shukla vs Thakur Ladli Radha Chandra Madan Gopalji Maharaj, AIR 1985 SC 905 (909): (1985) 2 SCC 524: (1985) 3 SCR 372" . India and New Zealand both recognised the legal rights of rivers in 2017. In court cases regarding natural entities,

1386-416: The difficulty in balancing the need for such groups to have infrastructure though the monks took vows of personal poverty. Another effect of this was that, as a fictional person, a monastery could not be held guilty of delict due to not having a soul, helping to protect the organization from non- contractual obligations to surrounding communities. This effectively moved such liability to persons acting within

1428-602: The goal of generating profit. An example of this is a sports club , which exists for the enjoyment of its members and thus would function well as an NFPO, with revenue being re-invested into improving the organization. These organizations typically file for tax exemption in the United States under section 501(c)(7) of the Internal Revenue Code as social clubs. Common ventures for which NFPOs are established include: Charities, as NFPOs, function under

1470-405: The organization while protecting the structure itself, since persons were considered to have a soul and therefore capable of negligence and able to be excommunicated . In the common law tradition, only a person could possess legal rights. To allow them to function, the legal personality of a corporation was established to include five legal rights—the right to a common treasury or chest (including

1512-419: The premise that any revenue generated should be used to further their charitable missions rather than distribute profits among members. This revenue might come from donations, fundraising, or other activities undertaken to support their charitable cause. Legal Entity There are therefore two kinds of legal entities: human and non-human. In law, a human person is called a natural person (sometimes also

1554-612: The question whether the provision in the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution , which forbids a State to deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, applies to these corporations. We are all of the opinion that it does." Later opinions interpreted these pre-argument comments as part of the legal decision. As a result, because of the First Amendment , Congress may not make

1596-506: The right to own property), the right to a corporate seal (i.e., the right to make and sign contracts), the right to sue and be sued (to enforce contracts), the right to hire agents (employees) and the right to make by-laws (self-governance). Since the 19th century, legal personhood has been further construed to make it a citizen, resident, or domiciliary of a state (usually for purposes of personal jurisdiction ). In Louisville, C. & C.R. Co. v. Letson , 2 How. 497, 558, 11 L.Ed. 353 (1844),

1638-419: The shareholders are not responsible for the company's debts but the company itself being a "legal person" is liable to repay those debts or be sued for the non-repayment of debts. In court cases regarding animals, the animals have the status of "legal person" and humans have the legal duty to act as " loco parentis " towards animals welfare like a parent has towards the minor children. A court while deciding

1680-460: The specified limits and those limits must be halved when animals have to carry the load up a slope. In court cases regarding religious entities, the deity (deity or god is a supernatural being considered divine or sacred) is also a "legal person" who can engage in legal cases through " trustees " or " managing board in charge of the temple" . Supreme Court of India (SC), while deciding Ayodhya case of Ram Janmabhoomi , decided in 2010 that

1722-620: The technician instead of the dealer. In 1993 ETA became a COLEM for the FCC Commercial Radio License program and offers professionals the chance to sit for seven different FCC commercial licenses at ETA test sites including the general radiotelephone operator license . In 2004, ETA helped create the Certified Service Center (CSC) program whose mission is to encourage professionalism with the service industry. The Certified Service Center designation

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1764-509: The terms are sometimes used interchangeably. An NFPO must be differentiated from a NPO as they are not formed explicitly for the public good as an NPO must be, and NFPOs are considered "recreational organizations", meaning that they do not operate with the goal of generating revenue as opposed to NPOs. An NFPO does not have the same obligation as an NPO to serve the public good, and as such it may be used to apply for tax-exempt status as an organization that serves its members and does not have

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