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189-517: He was born Bernhard Eskeles, the posthumous son of Rabbi Issachar Berush Eskeles , son of the Polish - Moravian Rabbi Gabriel Eskeles . At an early age he went to Amsterdam , where he entered a commercial house, of which he became manager at the age of 17, but met with reverses, and lost the fortune which his father had left to him. In 1774 he returned to Vienna and entered the business of his brother-in-law Nathan Arnstein , with whom he established

378-420: A moreh hora'ah ("a teacher of rulings"). A more advanced form of semikhah is yadin yadin ("He may judge, he may judge" or "May he judge? He may judge."). This enables the recipient to serve as a judge on a rabbinical court and adjudicate cases of monetary law, among other responsibilities. The recipient of this ordination can be formally addressed as a dayan ("judge") and also retain the title of rabbi. Only

567-515: A center of learning on par with HUC. Schechter was both traditional in sentiment and quite unorthodox in conviction. He maintained that theology was of little importance and it was practice that must be preserved. He aspired to solicit unity in American Judaism, denouncing sectarianism and not perceiving himself as leading a new denomination: "not to create a new party, but to consolidate an old one". The need to raise funds convinced him that

756-666: A congregational arm for the Rabbinical Assembly and the JTS was required. On 23 February 1913, he founded the United Synagogue of America (since 1991: United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism), which then consisted of 22 communities. He and Mendes first came to major disagreement; Schechter insisted that any alumnus could be appointed to the USoA's managerial board, and not just to serve as communal rabbi, including several

945-543: A congregational rabbi, teacher, chaplain, Hillel director, camp director, social worker or administrator—through the placement office of his or her seminary. Like any modern professional, he or she will negotiate the terms of employment with potential employers and sign a contract specifying duties, duration of service, salary, benefits, pension and the like. A rabbi's salary and benefits today tend to be similar to those of other modern professionals, such as lawyers and accountants, with similar levels of post-graduate education. It

1134-519: A cornerstone doctrine of Conservative Judaism. The movement views the legalistic system as normative and binding, and believes Jews must practically observe its precepts, like Sabbath, dietary ordinances, ritual purity, daily prayer with phylacteries and the like. Concurrently, examining Jewish history and rabbinic literature through the lens of academic criticism, it maintained that these laws were always subject to considerable evolution, and must continue to do so. Emet ve-Emunah titled its chapter on

1323-758: A course about Conservative theology open in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTS). The hitherto sole major attempt to define a clear credo was made in 1988, with the Statement of Principles Emet ve-Emunah (Truth and Belief), formulated and issued by the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism . The introduction stated that "lack of definition was useful" in the past but a need to articulate one now arose. The platform provided many statements citing key concepts such as God, revelation and Election , but also acknowledged that

1512-634: A dynamic Halakha , often cite the manner in which the sages of old used rabbinic statutes ( Takkanah ) that enabled the bypassing of prohibitions in the Pentateuch, like the Prozbul or Heter I'ska . In 1948, when employing those was first debated, Rabbi Isaac Klein argued that since there was no consensus on leadership within Catholic Israel, formulation of significant takkanot should be avoided. Another proposal, to ratify them only with

1701-957: A few thousands of adherents and forty partially active synagogues, is not officially affiliated with Masorti Olami, Conservative Judaism regards it as a fraternal, "non-Orthodox but halakhic" movement. In New York, the JTS serves as the movement's original seminary and legacy institution, along with the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies at the American Jewish University in Los Angeles; the Marshall T. Meyer Latin American Rabbinical Seminary (Spanish: Seminario Rabínico Latinoamericano Marshall T. Meyer ), in Buenos Aires , Argentina; and

1890-537: A fire unto itself, not even in incandescent bulbs , and therefore was not a forbidden labour and could be done on the Sabbath. On that basis, while performing banned labours is of course forbidden—for example, video recording is still constituted as writing—switching lights and other functions are allowed, though the RA strongly urges adherents to keep the sanctity of the Sabbath (refraining from doing anything that may imitate

2079-530: A full-time occupation. Under these conditions, the Geonim collected taxes and donations at home and abroad to fund their schools ( yeshivot ) and paid salaries to teachers, officials and judges of the Jewish community, whom they appointed. Maimonides (1135–1204), who supported himself as a physician, reasserted the traditional view of offering rabbinic service to the Jewish community without compensation. It remains

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2268-688: A generally Conservative approach, but unlike these, generally have "no barriers to enrollment based on the faith of the parents or on religious practices in the home". During the first decade of the 21st century, a number of schools that were part of the Schechter network transformed themselves into non-affiliated community day schools. The USCJ also maintains the Camp Ramah system, where children and adolescents spend summers in an observant environment. The rise of modern, centralized states in Europe by

2457-551: A heretic, demanding he announce whether he believed that both the Oral and Written Torah were of celestial origin. Rabbis Benjamin Hirsch Auerbach , Solomon Klein and others published more complaisant tracts, but also requested an explanation. Rapoport marshaled to Frankel's aid, assuring that his words were merely reiterating ben Jehiel's and that he would soon release a statement that will belie Hirsch's accusations. But then

2646-517: A human product with certain divine inspiration—providing an understanding that recognizes Biblical Criticism and also justifies major innovation in religious conduct. The first doctrine, advocated by such leaders as rabbis Ben-Zion Bokser and Robert Gordis , largely imparted that some elements within Judaism are fully divine but determining which would be impractical, and therefore received forms of interpretation should be basically upheld. Exponents of

2835-441: A modified curriculum, generally focusing on leadership and pastoral roles. These are JSLI , RSI , PRS , and Ateret Tzvi . The Wolkowisk Mesifta is aimed at community professionals with significant knowledge and experience, and provides a tailored curriculum to each candidate. Historically and until the present, recognition of a rabbi relates to a community's perception of the rabbi's competence to interpret Jewish law and act as

3024-504: A non-verbal understanding of theophany , which has become dominant in the 1970s. This was in sync with the wider trend of lowering rates of Americans who accepted the Bible as the Word of God. Dorff categorized the proponents of this into two schools. One maintains that God projected some form of message which inspired the human authors of the Pentateuch to record what they perceived. The other

3213-505: A number of modern attempts to revive the Sanhedrin have been made. So far, no such attempt has been accepted as valid among the consensus of rabbis, or persisted for longer than about a century. Since the end of classical ordination, other forms of ordination have developed which use much of the same terminology, but have a lesser significance in Jewish law. Nowadays, a rabbinical student is awarded semikhah (rabbinic ordination) after

3402-564: A particular community but may not be accepted as a credible authority on Jewish law. These debates cause great problems for recognition of Jewish marriages, conversions, and other life decisions that are touched by Jewish law. Orthodox rabbis do not recognize conversions by non-Orthodox rabbis. Conservative rabbis recognise all conversions done according to Halakha . Finally, the North American Reform and Reconstructionists recognize patrilineality , under certain circumstances, as

3591-499: A prefix in construct forms. Although the usage rabim "many" (as 1 Kings 18:25, הָרַבִּים ‎) "the majority, the multitude" occurs for the assembly of the community in the Dead Sea Scrolls , there is no evidence to support an association of this use with the later title "rabbi". The root is cognate to Arabic ربّ rabb , meaning "lord" (generally used when talking about God, but also about temporal lords), and to

3780-670: A rather uniform and mild character on what was known in Germany as "Liberal Judaism". In 1909, 63 rabbis associated with the Breslau approach founded the Freie Jüdische Vereinigung, another brief attempt at institutionalization, but it too failed soon. Only in 1925 did the Religiöse Mittelpartei für Frieden und Einheit succeed in driving the same agenda. It won several seats in communal elections, but

3969-452: A salary, as if he were relinquishing a salary from secular employment. The size of salaries varied, depending on the size of the community served, with rabbis in large cities being well-compensated while rabbis in small towns might receive a small stipend. Rabbis were able to supplement their rabbinic incomes by engaging in associated functions and accepting fees for them, like serving as the community's scribe, notary and archivist, teaching in

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4158-833: A small number of students obtain official ordination to become dayanim ("judges") on religious courts , poskim ("decisors" of Jewish law ), as well as teachers in the Hasidic schools. The same is true for the non-Hasidic Litvish yeshivas that are controlled by dynastically transmitted rosh yeshivas and the majority of students will not become rabbis, even after many years of post-graduate kollel study. Some yeshivas, such as Yeshivas Chafetz Chaim and Yeshivas Ner Yisroel in Baltimore , Maryland, may encourage their students to obtain semichah and mostly serve as rabbis who teach in other yeshivas or Hebrew day schools. Other yeshivas, such as Yeshiva Chaim Berlin ( Brooklyn , New York) or

4347-641: A small percentage of rabbis earn the yadin yadin ordination. Although not strictly necessary, many Orthodox rabbis hold that a beth din (court of Jewish law) should be made up of dayanim with this ordination. An Orthodox semikhah requires the successful completion of a program encompassing Jewish law (" Halakha ") and responsa in keeping with longstanding tradition. Orthodox rabbis typically study at yeshivas , "colleges" which provide Torah study generally, and increasingly at dedicated institutions known as kollelim ; both are also referred to as " Talmudical/Rabbinical schools or academies ". In both cases,

4536-498: A son, Denis, Baron de Eskeles (1803-1876), and a daughter, Maria Anna (Marianne) Cecilia Bernhardine Freiin von Eskeles, Countess of Wimpffen , wife of Franz Graf von Wimpffen , deserted Judaism. Denis, who succeeded his father in the management of the banking-house, married Wilhelmina, Baroness Brentano-Cimaroli, and by his death the male line of the house became extinct. Rabbi A rabbi ( / ˈ r æ b aɪ / ; Hebrew : רַבִּי ‎ , romanized :  rabbī )

4725-427: A source of legitimacy for both change and preservation, but mostly the latter. The basic moderation and traditionalism of the majority among the people were to guarantee a sense of continuity and unity, restraining the guiding rabbis and scholars who at his age were intent on reform but also allowing them manoeuvrability in adopting or discarding certain elements. Solomon Schechter espoused a similar position. He turned

4914-494: A strong background within Jewish law, liturgy, Talmudic study, and attendant languages (e.g., Hebrew , Aramaic and in some cases Yiddish ). Specifically, students are expected to have acquired deep analytic skills , and breadth, in Talmud before commencing their rabbinic studies. At the same time, since rabbinical studies typically flow from other yeshiva studies, those who seek semichah are typically not required to have completed

5103-460: A substitute fee to replace their lost earnings when they had to leave work to perform a rabbinic function ( sekhar battalah ). During the period of the Geonim ( c.  650 –1050 CE), opinions on compensation shifted. It was deemed inappropriate for the leaders of the Jewish community to appear in the marketplace as laborers or vendors of merchandise, and leading a Jewish community was becoming

5292-443: A teacher on central matters within Judaism. More broadly speaking, it is also an issue of being a worthy successor to a sacred legacy. As a result, there have always been greater or lesser disputes about the legitimacy and authority of rabbis. Historical examples include Samaritans and Karaites . The divisions between Jewish denominations may have their most pronounced manifestation on whether rabbis from one denomination recognize

5481-418: A thorough analysis of the manner in which it was practiced, accepted, rejected or modified in various periods, not necessarily in sync with the received rabbinic understanding. Archaeology, philology and Judaic Studies are employed; rabbis use comparative compendiums of religious manuscripts, sometimes discerning that sentences were only added later or include spelling, grammar and transcription errors, changing

5670-459: A two-thirds majority in the RA, was rejected. New statues require a simple majority, 13 supporters among the 25 members of the CJLS. In the 1950s and 1960s, such drastic measures—as Rabbi Arnold M. Goodman cited in a 1996 writ allowing members of the priestly caste to marry divorcees, " Later authorities were reluctant to assume such unilateral authority... fear that invoking this principle would create

5859-442: A university education. Exceptions exist, such as Yeshiva University , which requires all rabbinical students to complete an undergraduate degree before entering the program, and a Masters or equivalent before ordination. Historically, women could not become Orthodox rabbis. Starting in 2009, some Modern Orthodox institutions began ordaining women with the title of " Maharat ", and later with titles including "Rabbah" and "Rabbi". This

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6048-453: A valid claim towards Judaism, whereas Conservative and Orthodox maintain the position expressed in the Talmud and Codes that one can be a Jew only through matrilineality (born of a Jewish mother) or through conversion to Judaism . Conservative Judaism Conservative Judaism , also known as Masorti Judaism ( Hebrew : יהדות מסורתית , romanized :  Yahadut Masortit ),

6237-467: A variety of positions and convictions existed within its ranks, eschewing strict delineation of principles and often expressing conflicting views. In a 1999 special edition of Conservative Judaism dedicated to the matter, leading rabbis Elliot N. Dorff and Gordon Tucker stated that "the great diversity" within the movement "makes the creation of a theological vision shared by all neither possible nor desirable". Conservative Judaism largely upholds

6426-414: A wide range of new, thoroughgoing statues, from the famous 1950 responsum that allowed driving to the synagogue on the Sabbath and up to the 2000 decision to ban rabbis from inquiring about whether someone was a mamzer , de facto abolishing this legal category. The RA and CJLS reached many decisions through the years, shaping a distinctive profile for Conservative practice and worship. In the 1940s, when

6615-564: Is a Jewish religious movement that regards the authority of Jewish law and tradition as emanating primarily from the assent of the people through the generations, more than from divine revelation . It therefore views Jewish law, or Halakha , as both binding and subject to historical development. The conservative rabbinate employs modern historical-critical research, rather than only traditional methods and sources, and lends great weight to its constituency, when determining its stance on matters of practice. The movement considers its approach as

6804-454: Is a greater proclivity to base rulings on earlier sources, in the Rishonim or before them, as far back as the Talmud. Conservative decisors frequently resort to less canonical sources, isolated responsa or minority opinions. They demonstrate more fluidity in regards to established precedent and continuum in rabbinic literature, mainly those by the later authorities, and lay little stress on

6993-540: Is a shortened form of rebbe that can be used by, or applied to, any married Jewish male as the situation applies. Note: A rebbetzin (a Yiddish usage common among Ashkenazim ) or a rabbanit (in Hebrew and used among Sephardim ) is the official "title" used for, or by, the wife of any Orthodox, Haredi, or Hasidic rabbi. Rebbetzin may also be used as the equivalent of Reb and is sometimes abbreviated as such as well. Conservative Judaism confers semikhah after

7182-521: Is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism . One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as semikha —following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud . The basic form of the rabbi developed in the Pharisaic (167 BCE–73 CE) and Talmudic (70–640 CE) eras, when learned teachers assembled to codify Judaism's written and oral laws. The title "rabbi"

7371-463: Is also a commandment for teachers and rabbis to honor their students. Rabbis and Torah scholars, in order to ensure discipline within the Jewish community, have the authority to place individuals who insult them under a ban of excommunication. The first recorded examples of ordination are Moses transmitting his authority to Joshua and the 70 elders. Similarly, Elijah transmitted his authority to Elisha . According to Pirkei Avot , ordination

7560-457: Is also possible to engage in the rabbinate part-time, e.g. at a synagogue with a small membership; the rabbi's salary will be proportionate to the services rendered and he or she will likely have additional employment outside the synagogue. The practical basis for rabbinic authority involves the acceptance of the rabbinic individual and their scholarly credentials. In practical terms, Jewish communities and individuals commonly proffer allegiance to

7749-400: Is also the smaller Va'ad ha-Halakha (Law Committee) of Israel's Masorti Movement. Every responsa must receive a minimum of six voters to be considered an official position of the CJLS. Conservative Judaism explicitly acknowledges the principle of halakhic pluralism, enabling the panel to adopt more than one resolution in any given subject. The final authority in each Conservative community is

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7938-543: Is called in the Bible "Ezra, the priest, the scribe, a scribe of the words of God's commandments and of His statutes unto Israel." "Rabbi" as a title does not appear in the Hebrew Bible, though later rabbinic sources occasionally use it as a title for wise Biblical figures. With the destruction of the two Temples in Jerusalem , the end of the Jewish monarchy, and the decline of the dual institutions of prophets and

8127-454: Is currently a contested issue for many Orthodox institutions, leading some to seek alternate clerical titles and roles for women (see Women rabbis and Torah scholars § Orthodox Judaism , Toanot Rabniyot , and Yoetzet Halacha ). While some Haredi (including Hasidic ) yeshivas do grant official ordination to many students wishing to become rabbis, most of the students within the yeshivas engage in learning Torah or Talmud without

8316-536: Is estimated that some third of religiously affiliated Canadian Jews are Conservative. In 2008, the more traditional Canadian Council of Conservative Synagogues seceded from the parent organization. It numbered seven communities as of 2014. According to the Pew Research Center survey in 2013, 18 per cent of Jews in the United States and in 2020 13 per cent identified with the movement, making it

8505-402: Is first recorded among Ashkenazim with Meir ben Baruch Halevi (late 14th century), who issued the formal title Moreinu (our teacher) to scholars, though it likely existed somewhat earlier. By the 15th century, this formal ordination (known as semicha ) became necessary in order to be recognized as a rabbi. Initially some Sephardic communities objected to such formal ordination, but over time

8694-786: Is known as NOAM, an acronym for No'ar Masorti; its North American organization is called United Synagogue Youth . Marom Israel is the Masorti movement's organization for students and young adults, providing activities based on religious pluralism and Jewish content. The Women's League for Conservative Judaism is also active in North America. The USCJ maintains the Solomon Schechter Day Schools , comprising 76 day schools in 17 American states and 2 Canadian provinces serving Jewish children. Many other "community day schools" that are not affiliated with Schechter take

8883-463: Is marginalized among senior leadership. A small but influential segment within the JTS and the movement adhered, from the 1930s, to Mordecai Kaplan's philosophy that denied any form of revelation but viewed all scripture as a purely human product. Along with other Reconstructionist tenets, it dwindled as the latter consolidated into a separate group. Kaplan's views and the permeation of Higher Criticism gradually swayed most Conservative thinkers towards

9072-447: Is no hierarchy and no central authority in Judaism that either supervises rabbinic education or records ordinations; each branch of Judaism regulates the ordination of the rabbis affiliated with it. The most common formula used on a certificate of semikhah is Yore yore ("He may teach, he may teach", sometimes rendered as a question and answer, "May he teach? He may teach."). Most Rabbis hold this qualification; they are sometimes called

9261-457: Is often strongly influenced by Franz Rosenzweig and other existentialists , but also attracted many Objectivists who consider human reason paramount. The second school states that God conferred merely his presence on those he influenced, without any communication, and the experience drove them to spiritual creativity. While they differ in the theoretical level surrounding revelation, both practically regard all scripture and religious tradition as

9450-496: Is the first woman elected to this position in the history of JTS. The current dean of the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies is Bradley Shavit Artson . The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards is chaired by Rabbi Elliot N. Dorff , serving since 2007. The Rabbinical Assembly is headed by President Rabbi Debra Newman Kamin, as of 2019, and managed by Chief Executive Officer, Rabbi Jacob Blumenthal . Rabbi Blumenthal holds

9639-437: Is the task of the historian to examine the beginnings and developments of customs and observances; practical Judaism, on the other hand, is not concerned with origins but regards the institutions as they have come to be. This discrepancy between scientific criticism and insistence on heritage had to be compensated by a conviction that would forestall either deviation from accepted norms or laxity and apathy. A key doctrine which

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9828-611: The Acharonim and the more prominent Rishonim , but based on many opinions of the lesser Rishonim which is derived from a minority view in the Talmud—that the Sabbatical Year is not obligatory in present times at all (neither de'Oraita nor de'Rabanan ) but rather an act of piety . Ethical considerations and the weight due to them in determining halakhic issues, mainly to what degree may modern sensibilities shape

10017-529: The Tur . Building on this, is the study of those sections of the Shulchan Aruch (codified Jewish law)—together with its main commentaries —that pertain to daily-life questions (such as the laws of keeping kosher , Shabbat , and the laws of family purity ). An element of shimush , or "apprenticeship", is often also required. Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox rabbinical students, such as those at

10206-460: The Halakha ." The liberal Rabbi Gordon Tucker , along with Gillman and other progressives, supported a far-reaching implementation of this approach, making Conservative Judaism much more Aggadic and allowing moral priorities an overriding authority at all occasions. This idea became very popular among the young generation, but it was not fully embraced either. In the 2006 resolution on homosexuals,

10395-503: The Hesder yeshivot and Yeshiva University respectively, additionally formally study hashkafa , i.e. the major elements of theology and philosophy and their application to contemporary questions, proceeding systematically through the classical rabbinic works here ; other students will have studied these works independently (see Yeshiva § Ethics, mysticism and philosophy ). The entrance requirements for an Orthodox yeshiva include

10584-580: The Kingdom of Saxony in 1836, gradually rose to become the leader of those who stood at the middle. Besides working for the civic betterment of local Jews and educational reform, he displayed keen interest in Wissenschaft . But Frankel was always cautious and deeply reverent towards tradition, privately writing in 1836 that "The means must be applied with such care and discretion... that forward progress will be reached unnoticed, and seem inconsequential to

10773-670: The Mishnaic Hebrew construct רְבִּי ‎ rǝbbī , meaning "Master [Name]"; the standard Hebrew noun is רב ‎ rav "master". רב ‎ rav is also used as a title for rabbis, as are rabbeinu ("our master") and ha-rav ("the master"). See also Rav and Rebbe . The Hebrew root in turn derives from the Semitic root ר-ב-ב ‎ (R-B-B), which in Biblical Aramaic means "great" in many senses, including "revered", but appears primarily as

10962-608: The Sanhedrin in the first century. Early recipients of the title rabbi include Rabbi Zadok and Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob , beginning in the time of the disciples of Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai . The title "Rabbi" occurs (in Greek transliteration ῥαββί rabbi ) in the books of Matthew , Mark , and John in the New Testament , where it is used in reference to "Scribes and Pharisees " as well as to Jesus . According to some,

11151-686: The Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies in Jerusalem . A Conservative institution that does not grant rabbinic ordination but which runs along the lines of a traditional yeshiva is the Conservative Yeshiva , located in Jerusalem . The Neolog Budapest University of Jewish Studies also maintains connections with Conservative Judaism. The current chancellor of the JTS is Shuly Rubin Schwartz , in office since 2020. She

11340-517: The Shulchan Aruch themselves, criticize the Orthodox for relatively rarely venturing beyond it and overly canonizing Rabbi Joseph Karo 's work. In several occasions, Conservative rabbis discerned that the Shulchan Aruch ruled without firm precedent, sometimes deriving his conclusions from the Kabbalah . An important example is the ruling of Rabbi Golinkin—contrary to the majority consensus among

11529-610: The Syriac word ܪܒܝ rabi . Some communities, especially Sephardic and Yemenite Jews , historically pronounced the title רִבִּי ‎ rībbī ; this pronunciation competed with רְבִּי ‎ rǝbbī and רַבִּי rabbī in Ashkenaz until the modern period. Rabbi is not an occupation found in the Hebrew Bible , and ancient generations did not employ related titles such as Rabban , Rabbi , or Rav to describe either

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11718-463: The Tosafists ' opinion, as "redundant labour" ( Sh’eina Tzricha L’gufa ) and be permitted. The validity of this argument was heavily disputed within the movement. In 1952, members of the priestly caste were allowed to marry divorcees, conditioned on forfeiture of their privileges, as termination of marriage became widespread and women who underwent it could not be suspected of unsavory acts. In 1967,

11907-847: The United Synagogue of America , renamed the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism in 1991, was founded as a congregational arm of the RA. The movement established the World Council of Conservative Synagogues in 1957. Offshoots outside North America mostly adopted the Hebrew name "Masorti" ("traditional"), as did the Israeli Masorti Movement, founded in 1979, and the British Assembly of Masorti Synagogues, formed in 1985. The World Council eventually changed its primary designation to " Masorti Olami ." Besides

12096-506: The banking -house of Arnstein and Eskeles , which came into great prominence during the Congress of Vienna . They were patrons of Mozart and also of Ignaz Moscheles who gave piano lessons to Caecilie. At this period Eskeles's drawing-room was the rendezvous of men like Talleyrand , Wellington , Castlereagh , Hardenberg , and Theodor Körner . Eskeles's name is often mentioned in the memoirs of this time. His advice in financial matters

12285-512: The theistic notion of a personal God . Emet ve-Emunah stated that "we affirm our faith in God as the Creator and Governor of the universe. His power called the world into being; His wisdom and goodness guide its destiny." Concurrently, the platform also noted that His nature was "elusive" and subject to many options of belief. A naturalistic conception of divinity, regarding it as inseparable from

12474-420: The " trefa banquet ", it purportedly made some guests abandon the hall in disgust, but little is factually known about the incident. In 1885, the traditionalist forces were bolstered upon the arrival of Rabbi Alexander Kohut , an adherent of Frankel. He publicly excoriated Reform for disdaining ritual and received forms, triggering a heated polemic with Kohler. The debate was one of the main factors which motivated

12663-658: The 1859 publication of his Darke ha-Mishna (Ways of the Mishna ). He heaved praise on the Beatified Sages , presenting them as bold innovators, but not once affirmed the divinity of the Oral Torah . On the ordinances classified as Law given to Moses at Sinai , he quoted Asher ben Jehiel that stated several of those were only apocryphally dubbed as such; he applied the latter's conclusion to all, noting they were "so evident as if given at Sinai". Hirsch branded Frankel

12852-573: The 1940s and 1950s, when Kaplan's influence grew, his superiors rabbis Louis Ginzberg , Louis Finkelstein and Saul Lieberman espoused a very conservative line. Since the 1970s, with the strengthening of the liberal wing within the movement, the majority in the Rabbinic Assembly opted for quite radical reformulations in religious conduct, but rejected the Reconstructionist Non-Halakhic approach, insisting that

13041-597: The Babylonian sages or the sages in Israel. For example, Hillel I and Shammai (the religious leaders of the early first century) had no rabbinic title prefixed to their names. The titles "Rabban" and "Rabbi" are first mentioned in Jewish literature in the Mishnah . Rabban was first used for Rabban Gamaliel the elder , Rabban Simeon his son , and Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai , all of whom were patriarchs or presidents of

13230-516: The Breslau School (the students of which were often more lenient on matters of headcovering for women, Chalav Yisrael and other issues). Hildesheimer was concerned that Jewish public opinion perceived no practical difference between them; though he cared to distinguish the observant acolytes of Frankel from the Reform camp, he noted in his diary: "How meager is the principal difference between

13419-457: The Breslau School, who don silk gloves at their work, and Geiger who wields a sledgehammer." In 1863, when Breslau faculty member Heinrich Graetz published an article where he appeared to doubt the Messianic belief , Hildesheimer immediately seized upon the occasion to prove once more the dogmatic, rather than practical, divide. He denounced Graetz as a heretic. The Positive-Historical School

13608-401: The CJLS chose a middle path: they agreed that the ethical consideration of human dignity was of supreme importance, but not sufficient to uproot the express Biblical prohibition on not to lie with mankind as with womankind (traditionally understood as banning full anal intercourse). All other limitations, including on other forms of sexual relations, were lifted. A similar approach is manifest in

13797-472: The Chancellor of Breslau issued an ambiguous defence, writing that his book was not concerned with theology and avoiding giving any clear answer. Now even Rapoport joined his critics. Hirsch succeeded, severely tarnishing Frankel's reputation among most concerned. Along with fellow Orthodox Rabbi Azriel Hildesheimer , Hirsch launched a protracted public campaign through the 1860s. They ceaselessly stressed

13986-612: The Dead are maintained, English translations of the prayers obscure the issue. In Emet , it was stated that death is not tantamount to the end of one's personality. Relating to the Messianic ideal , the movement rephrased most petitions for the restoration of the Sacrifices into past tense, rejecting a renewal of animal offerings, though not opposing a Return to Zion and even a New Temple . The 1988 platform announced that "some" believe in classic eschatology, but dogmatism in this matter

14175-506: The JTS. The contribution was solicited by Professor Cyrus Adler . It was conditioned on the appointment of Solomon Schechter as Chancellor. In 1901, the Rabbinical Assembly was established as the fraternity of JTS alumni. Schechter arrived in 1902, and at once reorganized the faculty, dismissing both Pereira Mendes and Drachman for lack of academic merit. Under his aegis, the institute began to draw famous scholars, becoming

14364-460: The Jewish community new and vexatious measures were introduced which, according to his contemporaries, he might have prevented had he used his influence. He was, however, the founder of several charitable institutions. He also established, with an initial contribution of 50,000 florins , a fund for the maintenance of poor students. He was married to Caecilie (Zipperche) Itzig (1760–1836), daughter of Daniel Itzig of Berlin . They had two children,

14553-569: The Jewish community. Hence their functions vary as the needs of the Jewish community vary over time and from place to place. In antiquity those who performed rabbinic functions, such as judging a case or teaching Torah to students, did not receive compensation for their services. Being a rabbi was not a full-time profession and those who served had other occupations to support themselves and their families, such as woodchopper, sandal-maker, carpenter, water-carrier, farmer and tanner. A respected scholar, Rabbi Zadok (1st cent. CE), had said "never to use

14742-452: The Jewish partner to maintain his/her Jewish identity, and raise their children as Jews." Despite the centralization of legal deliberation on matters of Jewish law in the CJLS individual synagogues and communities must, in the end, depend on their local decision-makers. The rabbi in his or her or their community is regarded as the Mara D'Atra , or the local Halakhic decisor. Rabbis trained in

14931-529: The Land of Israel. Sherira Gaon summarized the relationship between these titles as follows: "Rabbi is greater than Rav, Rabban is greater than Rabbi, one's name is greater than Rabban". However, some modern scholars argue that "Rabbi" and "Rav" are the same title, pronounced differently due to variations in dialect. After the suppression of the Patriarchate and Sanhedrin by Theodosius II in 425, there

15120-570: The Law of the Land. In December 1843 Frankel launched the magazine Zeitschrift für die Religiösen Interessen des Judenthums . In the preamble, he attempted to present his approach to the present plight: "The further development of Judaism cannot be done through Reform that would lead to total dissipation... But must be involved in its study... pursued via scientific research, on a positive, historical basis." The term Positive-Historical became associated with him and his middle way. The Zeitschrift was, along

15309-599: The Mirrer Yeshiva (in Brooklyn and Jerusalem ), do not have an official "semichah/rabbinical program" to train rabbis, but provide semichah on an "as needed" basis if and when one of their senior students is offered a rabbinical position but only with the approval of their rosh yeshivas . Haredim will often prefer using Hebrew names for rabbinic titles based on older traditions, such as: Rav (denoting "rabbi"), HaRav ("the rabbi"), Moreinu HaRav ("our teacher

15498-536: The Modern Orthodox community, many rabbis still mainly deal with teaching and questions of Jewish law, but many are increasingly dealing with these same pastoral functions. Traditionally, rabbis have never been an intermediary between God and humans. This idea was traditionally considered outside the bounds of Jewish theology . Unlike spiritual leaders in many other faiths, they are not considered to be imbued with special powers or abilities. Rabbis serve

15687-460: The Movement. The term Conservative Judaism was used, still generically and not yet as a specific label, already in the 1887 dedication speech of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America by Rabbi Alexander Kohut . By 1901, the JTS alumni formed the Rabbinical Assembly , of which all ordained Conservative clergy in the world are members. As of 2010, there were 1,648 rabbis in the RA. In 1913,

15876-505: The Positive-Historical school, for example, sought to demonstrate the continuity and cohesiveness of Judaism over the years—still challenged Conservative leaders. They regarded tradition and received mores with reverence, especially the continued adherence to the mechanism of Religious Law ( Halakha ), opposing indiscriminate modification, and emphasized they should be changed only with care and caution and remain observed by

16065-461: The RA, the international Cantors Assembly supplies prayer leaders for congregations worldwide. The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, covering the United States, Canada and Mexico, is by far the largest constituent of Masorti Olami. While most congregations defining themselves as "Conservative" are affiliated with the USCJ, some are independent. While accurate information of Canada is scant, it

16254-556: The Reform Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums maintained very different approaches; but on the communal level, the former's alumni failure to organize or articulate a coherent agenda, coupled with the declining prestige of Breslau and the conservatism of the Hochschule's alumni—a necessity in heterogeneous communities which remained unified, especially after the Orthodox gained the right to secede in 1876—imposed

16443-503: The Reform movement, were overwhelmingly dismissed. Unconverted spouses were largely barred from community membership and participation in rituals; clergy are banned from any involvement in interfaith marriage on pain of dismissal. However, as the rate of such unions rose dramatically, Conservative congregations began describing gentile family members as K'rov Yisrael (Kin of Israel) and be more open toward them. The Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism stated in 1995: "we want to encourage

16632-636: The Torah as a spade for digging," and this was understood to mean never to use one's Torah knowledge for an inappropriate purpose, such as earning a fee. Still, as honored members of the community, Torah sages were allowed a series of privileges and exemptions that alleviated their financial burdens somewhat. These included such things as tax exemption from communal levies, marketplace priority (first in, first out regarding their trade), receiving personal services from their students ( shimush talmedei hakhamim ), silent business partnerships with wealthy merchants, and

16821-417: The Torah, the CJLS agreed that the ordinance under which women were banned from this due to respect for the congregation ( Kvod ha'Tzibur ) was no longer relevant. In 1972 it was decreed that rennet , even if derived from unclean animals, was so transformed that it constituted a wholly new item ( Panim Chadashot ba'u l'Khan ) and therefore all hard cheese could be considered kosher . The 1970s and 1980s saw

17010-610: The UAHC was also home to more conservative elements. President Isaac Meyer Wise , a pragmatist intent on compromise, hoped to forge a broad consensus that would turn a moderate version of Reform to dominant in America. He kept the dietary laws at home and attempted to assuage traditionalists. On 11 July 1883, apparently due to negligence by the Jewish caterer, non-kosher dishes were served to UAHC rabbis in Wise's presence. Known to posterity as

17199-723: The United States during the mid-20th century. Its largest center is in North America, where its main congregational arm is the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism , and the New York–based Jewish Theological Seminary of America operates as its largest rabbinic seminary. Globally, affiliated communities are united within the umbrella organization Masorti Olami . Conservative Judaism is the third-largest Jewish religious movement worldwide, estimated to represent close to 1.1 million people, including over 600,000 registered adult congregants and many non-member identifiers. Conservative Judaism, from its earliest stages,

17388-512: The atmosphere of weekdays, like loud noise reminiscent of work). The need to encourage arrival at synagogue also motivated the CJLS, during the same year, to issue a temporal statue allowing driving on that day, for that purpose alone; it was supported by decreeing that the combustion of fuel did not serve any of the acts prohibited during the construction of the Tabernacle , and could therefore be classified, according to their interpretation of

17577-447: The authentic and most appropriate continuation of Halakhic discourse, maintaining both fealty to received forms and flexibility in their interpretation. It also eschews strict theological definitions, lacking a consensus in matters of faith and allowing great pluralism. While regarding itself as the heir of Rabbi Zecharias Frankel 's 19th-century positive-historical school in Europe, Conservative Judaism fully institutionalized only in

17766-465: The authority of the rabbi they have chosen. Such a rabbinic leader is sometimes called the "Master of the Locale" ( mara d'atra ). Jewish individuals may acknowledge the authority of others but will defer legal decisions to the mara d'atra . The rabbi derives authority from achievements within a meritocratic system. Rabbis' authority is neither nominal nor spiritual—it is based on credentials. Typically

17955-470: The average spectator." He soon found himself embroiled in the great disputes of the 1840s. In 1842, during the second Hamburg Temple controversy , he opposed the new Reform prayerbook, arguing the elimination of petitions for a future Return to Zion led by the Messiah was a violation of an ancient tenet. But he also opposed the ban placed on the tome by Rabbi Bernays, stating this was a primitive behaviour. In

18144-474: The ban on priests marrying converts was also lifted. In 1954, the issue of agunot (women refused divorce by their husbands) was largely settled by adding a clause to the prenuptial contract under which men had to pay alimony as long as they did not concede. In 1968, this mechanism was replaced by a retroactive expropriation of the bride price , rendering the marriage void. In 1955, more girls were celebrating Bat Mitzvah and demanded to be allowed ascents to

18333-467: The brink of Reform; to describe what the seminary intended to espouse, he used the term "Conservative Judaism", which had no independent meaning at the time and was only in relation to Reform. In 1898, Pereira Mendes, Schneeberger and Drachman also founded the Orthodox Union , which maintained close ties with the seminary. The JTS was a small, fledgling institution with financial difficulties, and

18522-582: The canon, not merely as expounders and interpreters of a legal system given in its entirety to Moses on Mount Sinai. Yet he also vehemently rejected utilizing these disciplines on the Pentateuch, maintaining it was beyond human reach and wholly celestial in origin. Frankel never elucidated his beliefs, and the exact correlation between human and divine in his thought is still subject to scholarly debate. A similar negative approach toward Higher Criticism , while accepting an evolutionary understanding of Oral Law, defined Rabbi Alexander Kohut , Solomon Schechter and

18711-491: The chasm between an Orthodox understanding of Halakha as derived and revealed, applied differently to different circumstances and subject to human judgement and possibly error, yet unchanging and divine in principle—as opposed to an evolutionary, historicist and non-dogmatic approach in which past authorities were not just elaborating but consciously innovating, as taught by Frankel. Hildesheimer often repeated that this issue utterly overshadowed any specific technical argument with

18900-406: The community. However, Hasidic communities do not have a mere rabbi: they have a Rebbe , who plays a similar role but is thought to have a special connection to God. The Rebbes' authority, then, is based on a spiritual connection to God and so they are venerated in a different way from rabbis. According to the Talmud, it is a commandment ( mitzvah ) to honor a rabbi and a Torah scholar, along with

19089-609: The completion of a learning program in a yeshiva or modern rabbinical seminary or under the guidance of an individual rabbi. The exact course of study varies by denomination, but most are in the range of 3–6 years. The programs all include study of Talmud, the codes of Jewish law and responsa to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the branch of Judaism. In addition to rabbinical literature, modern seminaries offer courses in pastoral subjects such as counseling, education, comparative religion and delivering sermons. Most rabbinical students will complete their studies in their mid-20s. There

19278-510: The completion of a program in the codes of Jewish law and responsa in keeping with Jewish tradition. In addition to knowledge and mastery of the study of Talmud and halakhah , Conservative semikhah also requires that its rabbinical students receive intensive training in Tanakh , classical biblical commentaries, biblical criticism , Midrash , Kabbalah and Hasidut , the historical development of Judaism from antiquity to modernity, Jewish ethics,

19467-512: The completion of an undergraduate university degree. In accordance with national collegiate accreditation requirements, Conservative rabbinical students earn a Master of Arts in Rabbinic Literature in addition to receiving ordination. See List of rabbinical schools § Conservative In Reform Judaism rabbinic studies are mandated in pastoral care, the historical development of Judaism, academic biblical criticism, in addition to

19656-481: The contemporary equivalents of Talmudic Aggadah , should supersede the legalistic forms when the two came into conflict and there was a pivotal ethical concern. Rabbi Elliot Dorff concluded that in contrast to the Orthodox, Conservative Judaism maintains that the juridical details and processes mainly serve higher moral purposes and could be modified if they no longer do so: "In other words, the Aggadah should control

19845-489: The convictions of its publisher, neither dogmatically orthodox nor overly polemic, wholly opposing Biblical criticism and arguing for the antiquity of custom and practice. In 1844, Geiger and like-minded allies arranged a conference in Braunschweig that was to have enough authority (since 1826, Rabbi Aaron Chorin called for the convocation of a new Sanhedrin ) to debate and enact thoroughgoing revisions. Frankel

20034-415: The core tenets of the faith. The new academic, critical study of Judaism ( Wissenschaft des Judentums ) soon became a source of controversy. Rabbis and scholars argued to what degree, if at all, its findings could be used to determine present conduct. The modernized Orthodox in Germany, like rabbis Isaac Bernays and Azriel Hildesheimer , were content to cautiously study it while stringently adhering to

20223-493: The details of preparing Sabbath ritual enclosures , it draws directly on the opinions of the Shulchan Aruch and Rabbi Hayim David HaLevi . Another tendency prevalent among the movement's rabbis, yet again not particular to it, is the adoption of the more lenient positions on the matters at question—though this is not universal, and responsa also took stringent ones not infrequently. A more distinctive characterization

20412-407: The early 19th century heralded the end of Jewish judicial autonomy and social seclusion. Their communal corporate rights were abolished, and the process of emancipation and acculturation that followed quickly transformed the values and norms of the public. Estrangement and apathy toward Judaism were rampant. The process of communal, educational and civil reform could not be restricted from affecting

20601-444: The early generation of American Conservative Judaism. When JTS faculty began to embrace Biblical criticism in the 1920s, they adapted a theological view consistent with it: an original, verbal revelation did occur at Sinai, but the text itself was composed by later authors. The latter, classified by Dorff as a relatively moderate metamorphosis of the old one, is still espoused by few traditionalist right-wing Conservative rabbis, though it

20790-470: The elderly, as it is written in Leviticus 19:32, "Rise up before the elderly, and honor the aged." One should stand in their presence and address them with respect. Kohanim (priests) are required to honor rabbis and Torah scholars like the general public. However, if one is more learned than the rabbi or the scholar there is no need to stand. The spouse of a Torah scholar must also be shown deference. It

20979-504: The elementary school or yeshivah, publishing books, arbitrating civil litigations, or even serving as a matchmaker. With the formation of rabbinical seminaries starting in the nineteenth century, the rabbinate experienced a degree of professionalization that is still underway. At the present time, an ordained graduate of a rabbinical seminary that is affiliated with one of the modern branches of Judaism, Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist, or modern Orthodox, will find employment—whether as

21168-567: The emergence of Karaism , Jews who still followed the Talmudic traditions became known as "rabbanites". Initially communities might have a religious judge appointed by the central geonate , often possessing a certification known as pitka dedayanuta or bearing the title chaver (short for chaver besanhedrin hagedolah , used in Israel) or aluf (used in Babylonia). By the 11th century, as

21357-690: The emergence of women's rights on the main agenda. Growing pressure led the CJLS to adopt a motion that females may be counted as part of a quorum, based on the argument that only the Shulchan Aruch explicitly stated that it consist of men. While accepted, this was very controversial in the Committee and heavily disputed. A more complete solution was offered in 1983 by Rabbi Joel Roth , and was also enacted to allow women rabbinic ordination. Roth noted that some decisors of old acknowledged that women may bless when performing positive time-bound commandments (from which they are exempted, and therefore unable to fulfill

21546-663: The entire understanding of certain passages. This critical approach is central to the movement, for its historicist underpinning stresses that all religious literature has an original meaning relevant in the context of its formulation. This meaning may be analyzed and discerned, and is distinct from the later interpretations ascribed by traditional commentators. Decisors are also far more prone to include references to external scientific sources in relevant fields, like veterinarian publications in Halakhic matters concerning livestock. Conservative authorities, as part of their promulgation of

21735-465: The geonate weakened it was common for Jewish communities to elect a local spiritual authority. In the 11th–12th century, some local rabbinic authorities in Spain received formal certification known as ketav masmich or ketav minui in preparation for their leadership role. Maimonides ruled that every congregation is obliged to appoint a preacher and scholar to admonish the community and teach Torah, and

21924-427: The goal of becoming rabbis or holding any official positions. The curriculum for obtaining ordination as rabbis for Haredi scholars is the same as described above for all Orthodox students wishing to obtain the official title of "Rabbi" and to be recognized as such. Within the Hasidic world, the positions of spiritual leadership are dynastically transmitted within established families, usually from fathers to sons, while

22113-431: The great weight ascribed to sociological changes in deciding religious policy. The CJLS and the Rabbinical Assembly members frequently state that circumstances were profoundly transformed in modern times, fulfilling the criteria mandating new rulings in various fields (based on general talmudic principles like Shinui ha-I'ttim , "Change of Times"). This, along with the ethical aspect, was a main argument for revolutionizing

22302-473: The halakhic methodology of Conservative responsa , classical and modern works of Jewish theology and philosophy, synagogue administration, pastoral care , chaplaincy , non-profit management, and navigating the modern world in a Jewish context. Entrance requirements to Conservative rabbinical study centers include a background within Jewish law and liturgy, familiarity with rabbinic literature , Talmud, etc., ritual observance according to Conservative halakha, and

22491-498: The hardline Agudas HaRabbanim , founded by emigrant clergy, opposed secular education or vernacular sermons, and its members spoke almost only Yiddish . The Eastern Europeans were alienated by the local Jews, who were all assimilated in comparison, and especially aghast by the mores of Reform. The need to find a religious framework that would both accommodate and Americanize them motivated Jacob Schiff and other rich philanthropists, all Reform and of German descent, to donate $ 500,000 to

22680-416: The idea became obsolete due to the great alienation of many from received forms, that had to be countered by innovative measures to draw them back. The Conservative rabbinate often vacillated on to which degree may the non-practicing, religiously apathetic strata be included as a factor within Catholic Israel, providing impulse for them in determining religious questions; even avant-garde leaders acquiesced that

22869-615: The ideal aspirations and the religious needs of the age, best able to determine... This living body, however, is not represented by... Priesthood, or Rabbihood, but by the collective conscience of Catholic Israel." The scope, limits and role of this corpus were a matter for contention in Conservative ranks. Schechter himself used it to oppose any major break with either traditionalist or progressive elements within American Jewry of his day, while some of his successors argued that

23058-406: The ideal. But circumstances had changed. Jewish communities required full-time rabbis, and the rabbis themselves preferred to spend their days studying and teaching Torah rather than working at a secular trade. By the fifteenth century it was the norm for Jewish communities to compensate their rabbis, although the rabbi's contract might well refer to a "suspension fee" ( sekhar battalah ) rather than

23247-603: The joint position as CEO of the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism . The current USCJ President is Ned Gladstein. In South America, Rabbi Ariel Stofenmacher serves as chancellor in the Seminary and Rabbi Marcelo Rittner as president of Masorti AmLat. In Britain, the Masorti Assembly is chaired by Senior Rabbi Jonathan Wittenberg . In Israel, the Masorti movement's executive director is Yizhar Hess and chair Sophie Fellman Rafalovitz. The global youth movement

23436-897: The large Jewish denominations; these are the Academy for Jewish Religion in New York City, AJR in California , ALEPH Ordination Program, the Jewish Renewal Seminary online, Hebrew College in Boston, and Hebrew Seminary in Illinois . The structure and curricula here are largely as at other non-Orthodox yeshivot. More recently established are several non-traditional, and nondenominational (also called "transdenominational" or "postdenominational") seminaries. These grant semicha with lesser requirements re time, and with

23625-556: The latter did not consider sufficiently devout, or who tolerated mixed seating in their synagogues (though some of those he still regarded as Orthodox). Mendes, president of the Orthodox Union, therefore refused to join. He began to distinguish between the "Modern Orthodoxy" of himself and his peers in the OU, and "Conservatives" who tolerated what was beyond the pale for him. However, this first sign of institutionalization and separation

23814-560: The latter to compose the Pittsburgh Platform , which unambiguously declared the principles of Reform Judaism: "to-day we accept as binding only the moral laws, and maintain only such ceremonies as elevate and sanctify our lives." The explicit wording alienated a handful of conservative UAHC ministers: Henry Hochheimer , Frederick de Sola Mendes , Aaron Wise , Marcus Jastrow , and Benjamin Szold . They joined Kohut, Morais and

24003-457: The latter view, among them rabbis Louis Jacobs and Neil Gillman , also emphasized the encounter of God with the Jews as a collective and the role of religious authorities through the generations in determining what it implied. The stress on the supremacy of community and tradition, rather than individual consciousness, defines the entire spectrum of Conservative thought. The Conservative mainstay

24192-660: The latter. Likewise, while most Conservative synagogues approved of egalitarianism for women in religious life, some still maintain traditional gender roles and do not count females for prayer quorums . The Conservative treatment of Halakha is defined by several features, though the entire range of its Halakhic discourse cannot be sharply distinguished from either the Traditional or Orthodox one. Rabbi David Golinkin , who attempted to classify its parameters, stressed that quite often rulings merely reiterate conclusions reached in older sources or even Orthodox ones. For example, in

24381-536: The legalistic method be maintained. The Halakhic commitment of Conservative Judaism has been subject to much criticism, from within and without. Right-wing discontents, including the Union for Traditional Judaism which seceded in protest of the 1983 resolution to ordain women rabbis—adopted at an open vote, where all JTS faculty regardless of qualification were counted—contested the validity of this description, as well as progressives like Rabbi Neil Gillman , who exhorted

24570-474: The legitimacy or authority of rabbis in another. As a general rule within Orthodoxy and among some in the Conservative movement, rabbis are reluctant to accept the authority of other rabbis whose Halakhic standards are not as strict as their own. In some cases, this leads to an outright rejection of even the legitimacy of other rabbis; in others, the more lenient rabbi may be recognized as a spiritual leader of

24759-556: The liberal Neolog public in Hungary, which formally separated from the Orthodox, was also permeated with the "Breslau spirit". Many of its members studied there, and its Jewish Theological Seminary of Budapest was modeled after it, though the assimilationist congregants cared little for rabbinic opinion. In Germany itself, Breslau alumni founded in 1868 a short-lived society, the Jüdisch-Theologische Verein. It

24948-568: The local rabbi, the Mara D'Atra (Lord of the Locality, in traditional terms), enfranchised to adopt either minority or majority opinions from the CJLS or maintain local practice. Thus, on the issue of admitting openly homosexual rabbinic candidates, the Committee approved two resolutions, one in favour and one against; the JTS took the lenient position, while the Seminario Rabinico Latinoamericano still adheres to

25137-431: The majority could not serve that function. Right-wing critics often charged that the movement allowed its uncommitted laity an exaggerated role, conceding to its demands and successively stretching halakhic boundaries beyond any limit. The Conservative leadership had limited success in imparting their worldview to the general public. While the rabbinate perceived itself as bearing a unique, original conception of Judaism,

25326-445: The masses lacked much interest, regarding it mainly as a compromise offering a channel for religious identification that was more traditional than Reform Judaism yet less strict than Orthodoxy. Only a low percentage of Conservative congregants actively pursue an observant lifestyle: in the mid-1980s, Charles Liebman and Daniel J. Elazar calculated that barely 3 to 4 per cent held to one quite thoroughly. This gap between principle and

25515-462: The most aged group: among those aged under 30 only 11 per cent identified as such, and there are three people over 55 for every single one aged between 35 and 44. As of November 2015, the USCJ had 580 member congregations (a sharp decline from 630 two years prior), 19 in Canada and the remainder in the United States. In 2011 the USCJ initiated a plan to reinvigorate the movement. Beyond North America,

25704-529: The motto adopted by the movement since the 1950s—and the need to balance them were always a topic of intense debate within Conservative Judaism. In its early stages, the leadership opposed pronounced innovation, mostly adopting a relatively rigid position. Mordecai Kaplan 's Reconstructionism raised the demand for thoroughgoing modification without much regard for the past or Halakhic considerations, but senior rabbis opposed him vigorously. Even in

25893-1082: The movement has little presence—in 2011, Rela Mintz Geffen appraised there were only 100,000 members outside the U.S. (and the former figure including Canada). "Masorti AmLat", the MO branch in Latin America , is the largest with 35 communities in Argentina , 7 in Brazil , 6 in Chile and further 11 in the other countries. The British Assembly of Masorti Synagogues has 13 communities and estimates its membership at over 4,000. More than 20 communities are spread across Europe, and there are 3 in Australia and 2 in Africa. The Masorti Movement in Israel incorporates some 70 communities and prayer groups with several thousand full members. In addition, while Hungarian Neolog Judaism , with

26082-469: The movement to cease describing itself as Halakhic in 2005, stating that after repeated concessions, "Our original claim has died a death by a thousand qualifications... It has lost all factual meaning." The main body entrusted with formulating rulings, responsa and statues is the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS), a panel with 25 voting legalistic specialists and further 11 observers. There

26271-570: The mundane world, once had an important place within the movement, especially represented by Mordecai Kaplan . After Kaplan's Reconstructionism fully coalesced into an independent movement, these views were marginalized. A similarly inconclusive position is expressed toward other precepts. Most theologians adhere to the Immortality of the Soul , but while references to the Resurrection of

26460-520: The new country. The rapid ascendancy of Reform Judaism by the 1880s left few who opposed it, merely a handful of congregations and ministers remained outside the Union of American Hebrew Congregations . These included Sabato Morais and Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes of the elitist Sephardi congregations, along with rabbis Bernard Drachman (ordained at Breslau, though he regarded himself as Orthodox) and Henry Schneeberger. While spearheaded by radical and principled Reformers like Rabbi Kaufmann Kohler ,

26649-577: The obligation for others), especially citing the manner in which they assumed upon themselves the Counting of the Omer . He suggested that women voluntarily commit to pray thrice a day et cetera, and his responsa was adopted. Since then, female rabbis were ordained at JTS and other seminaries. In 1994, the movement accepted Judith Hauptman 's principally egalitarian argument, according to which equal prayer obligations for women were never banned explicitly and it

26838-399: The old rabbinic concept of K'lal Yisrael , which he translated as "Catholic Israel", into a comprehensive worldview. For him, the details of divine Revelation were of secondary significance, as historical change dictated its interpretation through the ages notwithstanding: "The centre of authority is actually removed from the Bible", he surmised, "and placed in some living body... in touch with

27027-433: The others in seeking to establish a traditional rabbinic seminary that would serve as a counterweight to Hebrew Union College . In 1886, they founded the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York City. Kohut, professor of Talmud who held to the Positive-Historical ideal, was the main educational influence in the early years, prominent among the founders who encompassed the entire spectrum from progressive Orthodox to

27216-408: The outcome, are subject to much discourse. Right-wing decisors , like Rabbi Joel Roth , maintained that such elements are naturally a factor in formulating conclusions, but may not alone serve as a justification for adopting a position. The majority, however, basically subscribed to the opinion evinced already by Rabbi Seymour Siegel in the 1960s, that the cultural and ethical norms of the community,

27405-479: The people. Rabbi Louis Ginzberg , summarizing his movement's position, wrote: We may now understand the apparent contradiction between theory and practice... One may conceive of the origin of Sabbath as the professor at university would, yet observe the smallest detail known to strict Orthodoxy... The sanctity of the Sabbath reposes not upon the fact that it was proclaimed on Sinai, but on the fact that it found for thousands of years its expression in Jewish souls. It

27594-499: The perceived hierarchy between major and minor legalists of the past. They are far more inclined to contend ( machloket ) with old rulings, to be flexible towards custom or to wholly disregard it. This is especially expressed in less hesitancy to rule against or notwithstanding the major codifications of Jewish Law, like Mishneh Torah , Arba'ah Turim and especially the Shulchan Aruch with its Isserles Gloss and later commentaries. Conservative authorities, while often relying on

27783-525: The priesthood, the focus of scholarly and spiritual leadership within the Jewish people shifted to the sages of the Men of the Great Assembly ( Anshe Knesset HaGedolah ). This assembly was composed of the earliest group of "rabbis" in the more modern sense of the word, in large part because they began the formulation and explication of what became known as Judaism's " Oral Law " ( Torah SheBe'al Peh ). This

27972-557: The procedures. "Opponents of the conference, who feared he went to the other side," noted historian Michael A. Meyer, "now felt reassured of his loyalty". The rabbi of Saxony had many sympathizers, who supported a similarly moderate approach and change only on the basis of the authority of the Talmud. When Geiger began preparing a third conference in Breslau, Hirsch Bär Fassel convinced Frankel to organize one of his own in protest. Frankel invited colleagues to an assembly in Dresden , which

28161-459: The program is effectively post-graduate , comprising two years on average, following at least four years' yeshiva study. In achieving semikhah , rabbinical students work to gain knowledge in specific and relevant Talmudic sugyas , and their development in the Rishonim and Acharonim (early and late medieval commentators), leading to their application in Halakha —particularly as traced by

28350-440: The proverbial slippery slope, thereby weakening the entire halakhic structure... thus imposed severe limitations on the conditions and situations where it would be appropriate"—were carefully drafted as temporal, emergency ordinances ( Horaat Sha'ah ), grounded on the need the avoid a total rift of many nonobservant Jews. Later on, these ordinances became accepted and permanent on the practical level. The Conservative movement issued

28539-427: The public demanded mixed seating of both sexes in synagogue, some rabbis argued there was no precedent but obliged on the ground of dire need ( Eth la'asot ), others noted that archaeological research showed no partitions in ancient synagogues. Mixed seating became commonplace in almost all congregations. In 1950, it was ruled that using electricity (that is, closure of an electrical circuit ) did not constitute kindling

28728-431: The public, more pronounced than in any other Jewish movement, is often credited at explaining the decline of the Conservative movement. While some 41 per cent of American Jews identified with it in the 1970s, it had shrunk to an estimated 18 per cent (and 11 per cent among those under 30) in 2013. Fidelity and commitment to Halakha , while subject to criticism as disingenuous both from within and without, were and remain

28917-547: The rabbi in some respects became increasingly similar to the duties of other clergy, like the Protestant Christian minister , and the title " pulpit rabbis" appeared to describe this phenomenon. Sermons , pastoral counseling, representing the community to the outside, all increased in importance. Non-Orthodox rabbis, on a day-to-day business basis, now spend more time on these functions than they do teaching or answering questions on Jewish law and philosophy. Within

29106-400: The rabbi receives an institutional stamp of approval. It is this authority that allows them to engage in the halakhic process and make legal prescriptions. The same pattern is true within broader communities, ranging from Hasidic communities to rabbinical or congregational organizations: there will be a formal or de facto structure of rabbinic authority that is responsible for the members of

29295-659: The rabbi"), Moreinu ("our teacher"), Moreinu VeRabeinu HaRav ("our teacher and our rabbi/master the rabbi"), Moreinu VeRabeinu ("our teacher and our rabbi/master"), Rosh yeshiva ("[the] head [of the] yeshiva"), Rosh HaYeshiva ("head [of] the yeshiva"), "Mashgiach" (for Mashgiach ruchani ) ("spiritual supervisor/guide"), Mora DeAsra ("teacher/decisor" [of] the/this place"), HaGaon ("the genius"), Rebbe ("[our/my] rabbi"), HaTzadik ("the righteous/saintly"), "ADMOR" ("Adoneinu Moreinu VeRabeinu") ("our master, our teacher and our rabbi/master") or often just plain Reb which

29484-481: The reading practices of Conservative Jewish approaches, historical evaluation of Jewish law and interpretation of Biblical and Rabbinic texts may align directly with the CJLS decisions or themselves opine on matters based on precedents or readings of text that shine light on congregants' questions. So, for instance, a rabbi may or may not choose to permit video streaming on Shabbat despite a majority ruling that allows for use of electronics. A local Mara D'Atra may rely on

29673-406: The reasoning found in the majority or minority opinions of the CJLS or have other textual and halakhic grounds, i.e., prioritizing Jewish values or legal concepts, to rule one way or another on matters of ritual, family life or sacred pursuits. This balance between a centralization of Halakhic authority and maintaining the authority of local rabbis reflects the commitment to pluralism at the heart of

29862-442: The role of women in religious life and embracing egalitarianism. The most distinctive feature of Conservative legalistic discourse, in which it is conspicuously and sharply different from Orthodoxy, is the incorporation of critical-scientific methods into the process. Deliberations almost always delineate the historical development of the specific issue at hand, from the earliest known mentions until modern times. This approach enables

30051-493: The same year, he and the moderate conservative S.L. Rapoport were the only ones of nineteen respondents who negatively answered the Breslau community's enquiry on whether the deeply unorthodox Geiger could serve there. In 1843, Frankel clashed with the radical Reform rabbi Samuel Holdheim , who argued that the act of marriage in Judaism was a civic ( memonot ) rather than sanctified ( issurim ) matter and could be subject to

30240-432: The sanctity of holy texts and refusing to grant Wissenschaft any say in religious matters. On the other extreme were Rabbi Abraham Geiger , who would emerge as the founding father of Reform Judaism , and his supporters. They opposed any limit on critical research or its practical application, laying more weight on the need for change than on continuity. The Prague -born Rabbi Zecharias Frankel , appointed chief rabbi of

30429-460: The second largest in the country. Steven M. Cohen calculated that as of 2013, 962,000 U.S. Jewish adults considered themselves Conservative: 570,000 were registered congregants and further 392,000 were not members in a synagogue but identified. In addition, Cohen assumed in 2006 that 57,000 unconverted non-Jewish spouses were also registered (12 per cent of member households had one at the time): 40 per cent of members intermarry. Conservatives are also

30618-471: The social institution he describes is the germ of the modern congregational rabbinate. Until the Black Death , Ashkenazi communities typically made religious decisions by consensus of scholars on a council, rather than the decision of a single authority. In the 14th century, the concept arose of a single person who served as religious authority for particular area (the mara de'atra ). Formal ordination

30807-455: The study of traditional rabbinic texts. Rabbinical students also are required to gain practical rabbinic experience by working at a congregation as a rabbinic intern during each year of study from year one onwards. All Reform seminaries ordain women and openly LGBT people as rabbis and cantors . See List of rabbinical schools § Reform There are several possibilities for receiving rabbinic ordination in addition to seminaries maintained by

30996-420: The subject with "The Indispensability of Halakha", stating that " Halakha in its developing form is an indispensable element of a traditional Judaism which is vital and modern." Conservative Judaism regards itself as the authentic inheritor of a flexible legalistic tradition, charging the Orthodox with petrifying the process and Reform with abandoning it. The tension between "tradition and change"—which were also

31185-405: The system became adopted by them too. A dramatic change in rabbinic functions occurred with Jewish emancipation . Tasks that were once the primary focus for rabbis, such as settling disputes by presiding over a Jewish court, became less prominent, while other tasks that were secondary, like delivering sermons, increased in importance. In 19th-century Germany and the United States, the duties of

31374-493: The title "rabbi" or "rabban" was first used after 70 CE to refer to Yochanan ben Zakkai and his students, and references in rabbinic texts and the New Testament to rabbis earlier in the 1st century are anachronisms or retroactive honorifics. Other scholars believe that the term "rabbi" was a well-known informal title by the beginning of the first century CE, and thus that the Jewish and Christian references to rabbis reflect

31563-636: The titles in fact used in this period. The governments of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah were based on a system that included the Jewish kings , the Jewish prophets, the legal authority of the high court of Jerusalem, the Great Sanhedrin , and the ritual authority of the priesthood . Members of the Sanhedrin had to receive their ordination ( semicha ) in an uninterrupted line of transmission from Moses , yet rather than being referred to as rabbis they were called priests or scribes, like Ezra, who

31752-501: The various Jewish denominations , there are different requirements for rabbinic ordination and differences in opinion regarding who is recognized as a rabbi. Non-Orthodox movements (i.e., the Conservative , Reform , Reconstructionist , and Renewal movements) have chosen to do so for what they view as halakhic reasons (Conservative Judaism) as well as ethical reasons (Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism). The word comes from

31941-468: Was "philosophically unjustified". The notions of Election of Israel and God's covenant with it were basically retained as well. Conservative conception of Revelation encompasses an extensive spectrum. Zecharias Frankel himself applied critical-scientific methods to analyze the stages in the development of the Oral Torah , pioneering modern study of the Mishnah . He regarded the Beatified Sages as innovators who added their own, original contribution to

32130-414: Was a breach with the past and that Hebrew was of dire importance and great sentimental value. The others immediately began quoting all passages in rabbinic literature allowing prayer in the vernacular. Frankel could not contend with the halakhic validity of their decision, but he perceived it as a sign of profound differences between them. On the 17th he formally withdrew, publishing a lambasting critique of

32319-559: Was dissolved within a year, boycotted by both Reform and Orthodox. Michael Sachs led the Berlin congregation in a very conservative style, eventually resigning when an organ was introduced in services. Manuel Joël , another of the Frankelist party, succeeded Geiger in Breslau. He maintained his predecessor's truncated German translation of the liturgy for the sake of compromise, but restored the full Hebrew text. The Breslau Seminary and

32508-579: Was eventually encoded and codified within the Mishnah and Talmud and subsequent rabbinical scholarship, leading to what is known as Rabbinic Judaism . The traditional explanation is that from the 1st to 5th centuries, the title "Rabbi" was given to those sages of the Land of Israel who received formal ordination ( semicha ), while the lesser title "Rav" was given to sages who taught in the Babylonian academies , as ordination could not be performed outside

32697-566: Was far from conclusive. Mendes himself could not clearly differentiate between the two groups, and many he viewed as Orthodox were members of the USoA. The epithets "Conservative" and "Orthodox" remained interchangeable for decades to come. JTS graduates served in OU congregations; many students of the Orthodox Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary and members of the OU's Rabbinical Council of America , or RCA, attended it. In 1926, RIETS and

32886-404: Was first used in the first century CE. In more recent centuries, the duties of a rabbi became increasingly influenced by the duties of the Protestant Christian minister , hence the title " pulpit rabbis", and in 19th-century Germany and the United States rabbinic activities including sermons , pastoral counseling, and representing the community to the outside, all increased in importance. Within

33075-635: Was frequently sought by Emperors Joseph II , and later by Francis II and I , who entrusted him with many important missions to foreign countries. He was sent to Paris and Holland in 1810. Eskeles was the founder of the Austrian National Bank (1816), and its director for 23 years. He was raised to the Austrian nobility in 1797, and became a knight in 1811, and a baron in 1822. Eskeles took little interest in Jewish affairs, and during his short term of office as representative of

33264-416: Was impossible and he would only damage his reputation among the traditionalists. On the 16th, the issue of Hebrew in the liturgy arose. Most present were inclined to retain it, but with more German segments. A small majority adopted a resolution stating there were subjective, but no objective, imperatives to keep it as the language of service. Frankel then astounded his peers by vehemently protesting, stating it

33453-458: Was influential, but never institutionalized itself as thoroughly as its opponents. Apart from the many graduates of Breslau, Isaac Noah Mannheimer , Adolf Jellinek and Rabbi Moritz Güdemann led the central congregation in Vienna along a similar path. In Jellinek's local seminary, Meir Friedmann and Isaac Hirsch Weiss followed Frankel's moderate approach to critical research. The rabbinate of

33642-471: Was mainly concerned with teaching Jewish Law. The hardline Orthodox Samson Raphael Hirsch , who fiercely opposed Wissenschaft and emphasized the divine origin of the entire halakhic system in the Theophany at Sinai, was deeply suspicious of Frankel's beliefs, use of science and constant assertions that Jewish Law was flexible and evolving. The final schism between Frankel and the Orthodox occurred after

33831-420: Was marked by ambivalence and ambiguity in all matters theological. Rabbi Zecharias Frankel , considered its intellectual progenitor, believed the very notion of theology was alien to traditional Judaism. He was often accused of obscurity on the subject by his opponents, both Reform and Orthodox . The American movement largely espoused a similar approach, and its leaders mostly avoided the field. Only in 1985 did

34020-423: Was no more formal ordination in the strict sense. A recognised scholar could be called Rav or Hacham , like the Babylonian sages. The transmission of learning from master to disciple remained of tremendous importance, but there was no formal rabbinic qualification as such. In the early Middle Ages "rabbi" was not a formal title, but was used as a term of respect for Jews of great scholarship and reputation. After

34209-479: Was only their inferior status that hindered participation. In 2006, openly gay rabbinic candidates were also to be admitted into the JTS. In 2012, a commitment ceremony for same-sex couples was devised, though not defined as kiddushin . In 2016, the rabbis passed a resolution supporting transgender rights. Conservative Judaism in the United States held a relatively strict policy regarding intermarriage. Propositions for acknowledging Jews by patrilineal descent, as in

34398-550: Was ordaining merely a rabbi per year. But soon after Chancellor Morais' death in 1897, its fortunes turned. Since 1881, a wave of Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe was inundating the country—by 1920, 2.5 million of them had arrived, increasing American Jewry tenfold. They came from regions where civil equality or emancipation were never granted, while acculturation and modernization made little headway. Whether devout or irreligious, they mostly retained strong traditional sentiments in matters of faith, accustomed to old-style rabbinate;

34587-401: Was postponed indefinitely. In 1854, Frankel was appointed chancellor in the new Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau , the first modern rabbinical seminary in Germany. His opponents on both flanks were incensed. Geiger and the Reform camp long accused him of theological ambiguity, hypocrisy and attachment to stagnant remnants, and now protested the "medieval" atmosphere in the seminary, which

34776-419: Was small and of little influence. Jewish immigration to the United States bred an amalgam of loose communities, lacking strong tradition or stable structures. In this free-spirited environment, a multitude of forces was at work. As early as 1866, Rabbi Jonas Bondi of New York wrote that a Judaism of the "golden middleway, which was termed Orthodox by the left and heterodox or reformer by the right" developed in

34965-652: Was the adoption of the historical-critical method in understanding Judaism and setting its future course. In accepting an evolutionary approach to the religion, as something that developed over time and absorbed considerable external influences, the movement distinguished between the original meaning implied in traditional sources and the manner they were grasped by successive generations, rejecting belief in an unbroken chain of interpretation from God's original Revelation, immune to any major extraneous effects. This evolutionary perception of religion, while relatively moderate in comparison with more radical modernizers—the scholarship of

35154-532: Was to be held on 21 October 1846. He announced that one measure he was willing to countenance was the possible abolition of the second day of festivals , though only if a broad consensus will be reached and not before thorough deliberation. Attendants were to include Rapoport, Fassel, Adolf Jellinek , Leopold Löw , Michael Sachs , Abraham Kohn and others. However, the Dresden assembly soon drew heated Orthodox resistance, especially from Rabbi Jacob Ettlinger , and

35343-459: Was to fulfil this capacity was the collective will of the Jewish people. Conservatives lent great weight in determining religious practice, both in historical precedent and as a means to shape present conduct. Zecharias Frankel pioneered this approach; as Michael A. Meyer commented, "the extraordinary status which he ascribed to the ingrained beliefs and practices of the community is probably the most original element of his thought." He turned it into

35532-635: Was transmitted without interruption from Moses to Joshua, to the elders, to the prophets, to the men of the Great Assembly , to the Zugot , to the Tannaim . The chain of semikhah was probably lost in the 4th or 5th century, though possibly as late as the 12th century. According to Maimonides (12th century), if it were possible to gather the greatest sages of the generation, a reconstituted court could confer classic semikhah or ordination. Since then,

35721-528: Was willing to agree only to a meeting without any practical results, and refused the invitation. When the protocols, which contained many radical statements, were published, he denounced the assembly for "applying the scalpel of criticism" and favouring the spirit of the age over tradition. However, he later agreed to attend the second conference, held in Frankfurt am Main on 15 July 1845—in spite of warnings from Rapoport, who cautioned that compromise with Geiger

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