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110-604: The earliest recorded mention of Chalcis is in the Iliad , where it is mentioned in the same line as its rival Eretria . It is also documented that the ships set for the Trojan War gathered at Aulis, the south bank of the strait near the city. Chamber tombs at Trypa and Vromousa dated to the Mycenaean period were excavated by Papavasiliou in 1910. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC, colonists from Chalcis founded thirty townships on

220-767: A Latin Church diocese , see below. A large hoard of late medieval jewellery dating from Venetian times was found in Chalcis Castle in the nineteenth century and is now in the British Museum . The synagogue dated to around 1400. Negroponte played a significant role in the history of Frankish Greece , and was attacked by the Principality of Achaea in the War of the Euboeote Succession (1257/8),

330-513: A semi-arid climate with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Iliad On the Greek side: On the Trojan side: The Iliad ( / ˈ ɪ l i ə d / ; Ancient Greek : Ἰλιάς , romanized :  Iliás , [iː.li.ás] ; lit.   ' [a poem] about Ilion (Troy) ' ) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer . It

440-582: A brilliant radiance by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Achaean wall and roars in rage. The Trojans are terrified by his appearance, and the Achaeans manage to bear Patroclus's body away. Polydamas again urges Hector to withdraw into the city; again, Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp on the plain at nightfall. Achilles mourns Patroclus, brokenhearted. Meanwhile, at Thetis's request, Hephaestus fashions

550-433: A conclusion determines the validity of evidence. Some scholars believe that the gods may have intervened in the mortal world because of quarrels they may have had with each other. Homer interprets the world at this time by using the passion and emotion of the gods to be determining factors of what happens on the human level. An example of one of these relationships in the Iliad occurs between Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite. In

660-469: A dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon heeds the dream but first decides to test the Achaean army's morale by telling them to go home. But nine years into the war, the soldiers' morale has worn thin. The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena , stops a rout . Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites , a common soldier who voices discontent about fighting Agamemnon's war. The Achaeans deploy in companies upon

770-725: A fortress by which the Macedonian rulers controlled central Greece. It was used by kings Antiochus III of Syria (192 BC) and Mithradates VI of Pontus (88 BC) as a base for invading Greece. Characteristic is the fact that in 323 BC the Stagerite philosopher Aristotle comes to Chalkida to die the following year at his mother's house. Then during the Hellenistic era, settlers from Chalkida founded Chalkida in Syria, by order of Seleucus I, from which settlers founded another Chalkida in

880-468: A new set of armor for Achilles, including a magnificently wrought shield . In the morning, Thetis brings Achilles his new set of armor, only to find him weeping over Patroclus's body. Achilles arms for battle and rallies the Achaean warriors. Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis , but Achilles is indifferent to them. The Achaeans take their meal; Achilles refuses to eat. His horse, Xanthos , prophesies Achilles's death; Achilles

990-549: A priest of Apollo , offers the Achaeans wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis , held captive by Agamemnon. Although most of the Achaean kings are in favor of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. Chryses prays for Apollo's help, and Apollo sends a plague to afflict the Achaean army. After nine days of plague, Achilles , the leader of the Myrmidon forces and aristos achaion ("best of the Greeks"), calls an assembly to deal with

1100-504: A result of this thinking, each god or goddess in polytheistic Greek religion is attributed to an aspect of the human world. For example, Poseidon is the god of the sea, Aphrodite is the goddess of beauty, Ares is the god of war, and so on and so forth for many other gods. This is how Greek culture was defined as many Athenians felt the presence of their gods through divine intervention in significant events in their lives. Oftentimes, they found these events to be mysterious and inexplicable. In

1210-763: A ruling, sentencing the revolutionaries to death. An inscription recording judicial decisions made in the Greek city of Demetrias in the mid-second century BC says that the judgements were made in accordance with local law and "the edicts and judgements of the Romans", indicating that Roman law was already considered to apply to the region only a few years after the Achaean War. In the following decades, many Greek communities sought to establish treaty relationships of "friendship and alliance" with Rome, apparently finding this preferable to free status. Treaties are attested, mostly by inscriptions, with Epidaurus and Troezen in

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1320-565: A sizeable Jewish community lived until World War II, and the more modern suburb that lies outside it, chiefly occupied by Greeks. The old town, called the Castro (citadel), was surrounded by a full circuit of defense walls until they were completely razed for urban development around the start of the 20th century. The city is served by a railway station and is the terminus for the Athens Suburban Railway to Athens. There

1430-522: A small area around the Acropolis. Although a smaller city, Athens remained a centre of Greek culture and especially of Neo-Platonist pagan philosophy. Greece was again invaded in 395 by the Visigoths under Alaric I . Stilicho , who ruled as a regent for Emperor Arcadius , evacuated Thessaly and Arcadius' chief advisor Eutropius allowed Alaric to enter Greece, where he looted Athens, Corinth and

1540-726: A special 'council of the Panhellenes', where representatives of all Greek states met to discuss religious affairs, in Athens and under Athenian leadership. Hadrian was also responsible for large scale construction projects there, such as the completion of the Temple of Olympian Zeus and the Athenians built the Arch of Hadrian in his honour nearby. Construction was also carried out by local notables, many of whom became Roman citizens and joined

1650-524: A stern admonition to come back to him and not to pursue the Trojans. Achilles says that after all has been made right, he and Patroclus will take Troy together. Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught, and Patroclus begins his assault by killing Zeus's son Sarpedon , a leading ally of the Trojans. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles's command, pursues and reaches

1760-558: A tyrant in Athens. The Roman consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla landed in Epirus (in western Greece) and marched on Athens. He marched through Boeotia on his way to Attica. Sulla besieged Athens and Piraeus in 87-86 BC and then sacked Athens and destroyed Piraeus. He then defeated Archelaus at the Battle of Chaeronea and the Battle of Orchomenus , both fought in Boeotia in 86 BC. Roman rule

1870-820: Is a Holocaust memorial honoring the Jewish lives lost during World War II outside of the Chalkis Jewish cemetery. The Byzantine diocese of Chalkis was initially a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Corinth , but in the 9th century was transferred to the Metropolitan of Athens, remaining in the sway of the Patriarchate of Constantinople . It was also known as Euripo, like it is mentioned in the Byzantine imperial Notitia Episcopatuum since emperor Leo VI

1980-520: Is beaten back by Hephaestus's firestorm. The gods fight amongst themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to receive the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending to be a Trojan. When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans have retreated into the city, all except for Hector. Despite the counsel of Polydamas and the pleas of his parents, Priam and Hecuba , Hector resolves to face Achilles. When Achilles approaches, however, Hector's will fails him. He flees and

2090-412: Is chased by Achilles around the city. Finally, Athena tricks him into stopping, and he turns to face his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he, too, is fated to die. Achilles strips Hector of his own armor, gloating over his death. Achilles then dishonors Hector's body by lashing it to the back of his chariot and dragging it around

2200-595: Is enraged by Poseidon's intervention. However, he reassures Hera that Troy is still fated to fall once Hector kills Patroclus. Poseidon is recalled from the battlefield, and Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans. The Trojans once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships. Patroclus cannot stand to watch any longer and goes to Achilles, weeping. He briefly admonishes him for his stubbornness and then asks him to allow him to fight in his place, wearing Achilles's armor so that he will be mistaken for him. Achilles relents and lends Patroclus his armor but sends him off with

2310-465: Is indifferent. Achilles goes into battle, with Automedon driving his chariot. Zeus lifts the ban on the gods' interference, and the gods freely help both sides. Achilles, burning with rage and grief, slays many. Achilles cuts off half the Trojans' number in the river and slaughters them, clogging the river with bodies. The river god, Scamander , confronts Achilles and commands him to stop killing Trojans, but Achilles refuses. They fight until Scamander

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2420-405: Is lost in his grief and spends his days mourning Patroclus and dragging Hector's body behind his chariot. Dismayed by Achilles's continued abuse of Hector's body, Zeus decides that it must be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes , Priam takes a wagon filled with gifts out of Troy, across the plains, and into the Achaean camp unnoticed. He clasps Achilles by the knees and begs for his son's body. Achilles

2530-437: Is moved to tears and finally relents in his anger. The two lament their losses in the war. Achilles agrees to give Hector's body back and to give the Trojans twelve days to properly mourn and bury him. Achilles apologizes to Patroclus, fearing he has dishonored him by returning Hector's body. After a meal, Priam carries Hector's body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the city mourns. Ancient Greek religion had no founder and

2640-464: Is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the Odyssey , the poem is divided into 24 books and was written in dactylic hexameter . It contains 15,693 lines in its most widely accepted version. Set towards the end of the Trojan War , a ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Mycenaean Greek states, the poem depicts significant events in

2750-559: The Athenians , who expelled the ruling aristocracy and settled a cleruchy on the site. Chalcis subsequently became a member of both the Delian Leagues . Chalkis has had a Greco-Jewish presence since antiquity, which is sometimes claimed to have been continuous and to thus form Europe's oldest Jewish community, although there is no evidence of it through the early Middle Ages. In the Hellenistic period, it gained importance as

2860-868: The Catalan Company in 1317, the Turks in 1350/1, until it was finally captured by the Ottoman Empire after a long siege in 1470. That siege is the subject of the Rossini opera Maometto II . The Ottomans made it the seat of the Admiral of the Archipelago (the Aegean Islands). In 1688, it was successfully held by the Ottomans against a strong Venetian attack. Chalkida became part of

2970-679: The East and in Italy , and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome . Roman culture was highly influenced by the Greeks; as Horace said, Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Captive Greece captured her rude conqueror"). The epics of Homer inspired the Aeneid of Virgil , and authors such as Seneca the Younger wrote using Greek styles. Some Roman nobles regarded

3080-581: The Euripus Strait : the phrase στὸν Εὔριπον 'to Evripos', was rebracketed as στὸ Νεὔριπον 'to Nevripos', and became Negroponte in Italian by folk etymology , the ponte 'bridge' being interpreted as the bridge of Chalcis to Boeotia . The town was a condominium between Venice and the Veronese barons of the rest of Euboea, known as the " triarchs ", who resided there. Chalcis or Negroponte became

3190-494: The Iliad as a major piece of evidence for his theory of the Bicameral Mind , which posits that until about the time described in the Iliad , humans had a far different mentality from present-day humans. He says that humans during that time were lacking what is today called consciousness. He suggests that humans heard and obeyed commands from what they identified as gods until the change in human mentality that incorporated

3300-431: The Iliad , Paris challenges any of the Achaeans to a single combat and Menelaus steps forward. Menelaus is dominating the battle and is on the verge of killing Paris. "Now he'd have hauled him off and won undying glory but Aphrodite, Zeus's daughter, was quick to the mark, snapped the rawhide strap." Aphrodite intervenes out of her own self-interest to save Paris from the wrath of Menelaus because Paris had helped her to win

3410-661: The Liberators' civil war , until their defeat by Octavian and Mark Antony of the Second Triumvirate at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. After the battle, the Second Triumvirate assigned Greece along with the rest of the East to Mark Antony, who remained in control of it until his defeat by Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. After the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium ,

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3520-486: The Oinoi–Chalcis railway , and is served by Line 3 of the Athens Suburban Railway . Chalcis also has a water polo team named NC Chalkida , a football (soccer) team named Chalkida F.C. , as well as a junior football team named Evoikos Chalkida. The Chalkida football team merged with Lilas Vasilikou for a period of two years (2004–2006). The team was finally dissolved because of financial difficulties. Although there

3630-630: The Peloponnese , including not only Sparta, but also Corinth , Argos , and the sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia . They then moved north and sacked Athens, before being defeated by a local force led by the Athenian Dexippus , whose writings were a source for later historians. In the aftermath of this invasion, much of the classical and imperial monuments of Athens were spoliated to build the Post-Herulian wall, which enclosed only

3740-520: The Peloponnese . Stilicho eventually drove him out around 397 and Alaric was made magister militum in Illyricum . Greece remained part of the relatively cohesive and robust eastern half of the empire, which eventually became the center of the remaining Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman now referred to as Byzantine Empire . Contrary to outdated visions of Late Antiquity , the Greek peninsula

3850-508: The Roman province of Macedonia , it was made into a separate province by Augustus . Achaia was a senatorial province , thus free from military men and legions, and one of the most prestigious and sought-after provinces for senators to govern. Athens was the primary center of education for the imperial elite, rivaled only by Alexandria, and one of the most important cities in the Empire. Achaia

3960-523: The 880s and its bishop is attested in the 869–70 Church council held at Constantinople . By the 12th century, the town featured a Venetian trading station, being attacked by the Venetian fleet in 1171 and eventually seized by Venice in 1209, in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade . For Westerners, its common name was Negropont or Negroponte. This name comes indirectly from the Greek name of

4070-567: The 8th century BC the increase in trade between the Chalkidian colonies in lower Italy and Sicily with the local populations resulted in the spread of the Chalkidic alphabet among the most ancient inhabitants of the peninsula. The Etruscans took this alphabet and appropriated it so that they too could express themselves in writing. Over the centuries the Romans renamed it 'Latin'.So today, at least eight letters of all Latin-derived languages are

4180-483: The Achaean, Boeotian , Locrian, and Phocaean Leagues, and levied tribute on the individual cities. However, the cities remained mostly self-governing. Athens and Sparta , which had not participated in the war remained autonomous and free. It is disputed whether Greece became part of the Roman province Macedonia or was left unincorporated. Interventions by the governor of Macedonia in Greek affairs are attested, but also

4290-493: The Emperor Augustus separated Greece, Thessaly, and part of Epirus from Macedonia in 27 BC.The new province was named Achaia and was a senatorial province (Macedonia remained a senatorial province as well). In AD 15, Emperor Tiberius , responding to complaints of mismanagement by the senatorial proconsul made Achaia and Macedonia Imperial provinces and placed both of them under the control of Gaius Poppaeus Sabinus ,

4400-615: The Gods, allows it. This motif recurs when he considers sparing Hector, whom he loves and respects. This time, it is Athena who challenges him: Father of the shining bolt, dark misted, what is this you said? Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him? Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you. Again, Zeus appears capable of altering fate, but does not, deciding instead to abide by set outcomes; similarly, fate spares Aeneas after Apollo convinces

4510-645: The Imperial procurator of Moesia . After Sabinus' death in AD 35, this situation continued under the new procurator, Publius Memmius Regulus , until AD 44, when Emperor Claudius separated Macedonia and Achaia once more and restored them to the Senate. The Roman Emperor Nero visited Greece in AD 66, and performed at the Ancient Olympic Games , despite the rules against non-Greek participation. He

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4620-582: The Imperial elite, most notably Herodes Atticus . During the Marcomannic Wars , in 170 or 171, the Costoboci invaded Roman territory, sweeping south through the Balkans to Achaia, where they sacked the sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis . Even though much of the invasion force was spent, the local resistance was insufficient and the procurator Lucius Julius Vehilius Gratus Julianus

4730-654: The Latin see was united in commendam (as an 'additional benefice') with the Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople , so that the exiled Patriarch, excluded from Constantinople itself since the Byzantine reconquest of the city, could have actual jurisdiction on Greek soil and exercise a direct role as head of the Latin clergy in what remained of Latin Greece . The church of Saint Paraskevi (the patron saint of

4840-530: The Lebanon Valley, as well as another Chalkida in Arabia. Under Roman rule, Chalcis retained a measure of commercial prosperity within the province of Achaea (southern Greece). It is recorded as a city in the 6th-century Synecdemus and mentioned by the contemporary historian Procopius of Caesarea , who recorded that a movable bridge linked the two shores of the strait. In Byzantine times, Chalcis

4950-525: The Romans were usually favoured. The First Mithridatic War (89–85 BC) was fought in Attica and Boeotia, two regions which were to become part of the province of Achaia. In 89 BC, Mithradates VI Eupator , king of Pontus, seized the Roman Province of Asia (in western Anatolia ). Mithridates then sent Archelaus (his leading military commander) to southern Greece, where he established Aristion as

5060-608: The Three Fates set the destiny of Man. Kleos ( κλέος , "glory, fame") is the concept of glory earned in heroic battle. Yet Achilles must choose only one of the two rewards, either nostos or kleos . In Book 9 (9.410–16), he poignantly tells Agamemnon's envoys—Odysseus, Phoenix, and Ajax—begging his reinstatement to battle about having to choose between two fates ( διχθαδίας κήρας , 9.411). The passage reads: Achaea (Roman province) Achaia ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἀχαΐα ), sometimes spelled Achaea ,

5170-477: The Trojan Dolon , and wreak havoc in the camps of some Thracian allies of Troy. In the morning, the fighting is fierce, and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus are all wounded. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire about the Achaean casualties, and while there, Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech by Nestor . Nestor asks Patroclus to beg Achilles to rejoin the fighting, or if he will not, to lead

5280-530: The Trojan archer Pandarus to shoot Menelaus. Menelaus is wounded, and the truce is broken. Fighting breaks out, and many minor Trojans are killed. In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans, including Pandarus, and defeats Aeneas . Aphrodite rescues him before he can be killed, but Diomedes attacks her and wounds the goddess's wrist. Apollo faces Diomedes and warns him against warring with gods, which Diomedes ignores. Apollo sends Ares to defeat Diomedes. Many heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and

5390-411: The Trojan plain. When news of the Achaean deployment reaches King Priam , the Trojans respond in a sortie upon the plain. The armies approach each other, but before they meet, Paris offers to end the war by fighting a duel with Menelaus , urged by Hector , his brother and hero of Troy . Here, the initial cause of the entire war is explained: Helen , wife of Menelaus, and the most beautiful woman in

5500-433: The Trojans back. Poseidon's nephew Amphimachus is killed in the battle; Poseidon imbues Idomeneus with godly power. Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back because of a bad omen but is ignored. Hera seduces Zeus and lulls him to sleep, allowing Poseidon to help the Greeks. The Trojans are driven back onto the plain. Ajax wounds Hector, who is then carried back to Troy. Zeus awakes and

5610-510: The Wise (886-912). Several of its Greek bishops are recorded, but some are disputed : At the establishment of the crusader state Lordship of Negroponte , Chalcis or Negroponte (seat of the central one of its three 'triarchies' constituent baronies) became a Latin Church diocese , the first bishop being Theodorus, the Greek bishop of the see, who entered communion with the see of Rome , installed by papal legate . On 8 February 1314,

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5720-423: The army wearing Achilles's armor. The Trojans attack the Achaean wall on foot. Hector leads the terrible fighting, despite an omen that their charge will fail. The Achaeans are overwhelmed and routed, the wall's gate is broken, and Hector charges in. The Achaeans fall back to their ships. Poseidon pities the Achaeans and decides to disobey Zeus and help them. He rallies the Achaeans' spirits, and they begin to push

5830-432: The beauty pageant. The partisanship of Aphrodite towards Paris induces constant intervention by all of the gods, especially to give motivational speeches to their respective protégés, while often appearing in the shape of a human being they are familiar with. This connection of emotions to actions is just one example out of many that occur throughout the poem. Fate ( κήρ , kēr , 'fated death') propels most of

5940-428: The body. When Achilles hears of Patroclus's death, he screams so loudly in his grief that his mother, Thetis, hears him from the bottom of the ocean. Thetis grieves too, knowing that Achilles is fated to die young if he kills Hector. Though he knows it will seal his own fate, Achilles vows to kill Hector in order to avenge Patroclus. Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus's body but has no armor to wear. Bathed in

6050-564: The cities of the Achaean League for encouraging a rash decision and inciting a suicidal war. The League was quickly defeated by Lucius Mummius and its main city, Corinth , was destroyed. After the war, the Romans annexed mainland Greece. A group of ten commissioners "put down democracies" in the Greek cities ( Pausanias ) through a programme of "constitutional restructuring" which involved the introduction of property qualifications for participating in civic politics, temporarily abolished

6160-459: The city walls. He then rejoins the battle. Hector duels with Ajax , but nightfall interrupts the fight, and both sides retire. The Trojans quarrel about returning Helen. Paris offers to return the treasure he took and give further wealth as compensation, but not Helen, and the offer is refused. Both sides agree to a day's truce to burn the dead. The Achaeans also build a wall and trench to protect their camp and ships. The next morning, Zeus prohibits

6270-406: The city. The Trojans grieve. The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream, urging him to carry out the burial rites so that his spirit can move on to the underworld. Patroclus asks Achilles to arrange for their bones to be entombed together in a single urn; Achilles agrees, and Patroclus's body is cremated. The Achaeans hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the prizes. Achilles

6380-509: The colonization with the establishment of many important cities in the West, but also in the Greek area. The first recorded settlement in the West, which paved the way for the 2nd Greek colonization, is Pithecusae on the island of Ischia, in front of Naples, from Chalcidians and Eretrians around 770 BC. The etymology of the toponym "Pithikousa" comes from the pithos (pitharia) that the first settlers had with them to transport their products. Because of

6490-418: The contemporary Greeks as backwards and petty, while still embracing the Greeks' literature , philosophy , and heritage. During this time, Greece and much of the rest of the Roman east came under the influence of Early Christianity . The apostle Paul of Tarsus preached in Philippi , Corinth and Athens, and Greece soon became one of the most highly Christianized areas of the empire. Under Diocletian ,

6600-414: The dispatch of separate legates direct from Rome. Roman governance over the following century remained "rather ad hoc." In the Dyme Affair of 144 BC, a faction in the city of Dyme passed laws "contrary to the type of government granted by the Romans," staged a revolution, and destroyed their town hall and official records. At the request of the Dymaean town councillors, Quintus Fabius Maximus issued

6710-407: The emperor. Cases could only be appealed to these authorities if they involved more than a certain amount of money, involved status, or carried the death penalty. The Pax Romana was the longest period of peace in Greek history, and Greece became a major crossroads of maritime trade between Rome and the Greek speaking eastern half of the empire. The Greek language served as a lingua franca in

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6820-415: The events of the Iliad . Once set, gods and men abide it, neither truly able nor willing to contest it. How fate is set is unknown, but it is told by the Fates and by Zeus through sending omens to seers such as Calchas . Men and their gods continually speak of heroic acceptance and cowardly avoidance of one's slated fate. Fate does not determine every action, incident, and occurrence, but it does determine

6930-467: The existing "sliding bridge"; the construction works of the 19th century destroyed the most part of the medieval castle built across the bridge. The Euripus Bridge or Chalcis Bridge, a cable-stayed suspension bridge opened in 1993, joins Chalcis to the mainland to the south. A special tidal phenomenon takes place in the strait, as strong tidal currents reverse direction once every six hours, creating strong currents and maelstroms. The municipality Chalcis

7040-399: The fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus receive the embassy well. However, considering the slight to his honor too great, Achilles angrily refuses Agamemnon's offer and declares that he will only return to battle if the Trojans reach his ships and threaten them with fire. The embassy returns empty-handed. Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill

7150-414: The final book of the poem, Homer writes, "He offended Athena and Hera—both goddesses." Athena and Hera are envious of Aphrodite because of a beauty pageant on Mount Olympus in which Paris chose Aphrodite to be the most beautiful goddess over both Hera and Athena. Wolfgang Kullmann further goes on to say, "Hera's and Athena's disappointment over the victory of Aphrodite in the Judgement of Paris determines

7260-414: The first Chalcidian settlers, the Romans initially called all Greeks "Chalcidians", as they were the first Greeks they came into contact with.A few years later, the Chalcidian Antimnestos founds Rigio in 730-720 BC. and Crataimenis' fellow-citizen Zagli (later Messina) in 730 BC, thus wanting to control the sea strait between Sicily and Italy, just as the Metropolis of Chalkida controlled the Euboean gulfs. In

7370-408: The first writers to name and describe the gods' appearance and character. Mary Lefkowitz discusses the relevance of divine action in the Iliad , attempting to answer the question of whether divine intervention is a discrete occurrence (for its own sake) or if such godly behaviors are mere human character metaphors. The intellectual interest of Classic-era authors, such as Thucydides and Plato ,

7480-428: The gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus kills Hector's brother Cebriones , is set upon by Apollo and Euphorbos , and is finally killed by Hector. Hector takes Achilles's armor from the fallen Patroclus. The Achaeans fight to retrieve Patroclus's body from the Trojans, who attempt to carry it back to Troy at Hector's command. Antilochus is sent to tell Achilles the news and asks him to help retrieve

7590-532: The gods from interfering, and fighting begins anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Achaeans back to their wall. Hera and Athena are forbidden to help. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Achaean wall. They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like stars. Meanwhile, the Achaeans are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error and sends an embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix , and two heralds to offer Briseis and extensive gifts to Achilles, if only he will return to

7700-471: The gods supporting each side try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts him out of action. Hector rallies the Trojans and prevents a rout. Diomedes and the Trojan Glaucus find common ground after a duel and exchange unequal gifts, while Glaucus tells Diomedes the story of Bellerophon . Hector enters the city, urges prayers and sacrifices, incites Paris to battle, and bids his wife Andromache and son Astyanax farewell on

7810-440: The hands of Aiakos' great son, Achilleus. Here, Patroclus alludes to his fated death by Hector's hand and to Hector's fated death by Achilles's hand. Each accepts the outcome of his life, yet no one knows if the gods can alter fate. The first instance of this doubt occurs in Book 16. Seeing Patroclus about to kill Sarpedon, his mortal son, Zeus says: Ah me, that it is destined that the dearest of men, Sarpedon, must go down under

7920-399: The hands of Menoitios' son Patroclus. About his dilemma, Hera asks Zeus: Majesty, son of Kronos, what sort of thing have you spoken? Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him? Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you. In deciding between losing a son or abiding fate, Zeus, King of

8030-707: The height of their prosperity. This war was one of the first known major wars between ancient Greek cities and took pan-Hellenic dimensions as the warring Chalcidians and Eretrians allied themselves with other Greek cities. As Herodotus mentions, the Samians allied with the Chalcidians, while the Milesians allied with the Eretrians. The Thessalians also allied with the Chalcidians, a fact mentioned by Plutarch. The historical sources provide evidence for only one battle of

8140-607: The interior. The territories of Achaia remaining in Byzantine hands were grouped into the theme of Hellas . In 150–148 BC the Romans fought the Fourth Macedonian War , after which they annexed Macedon , formerly the largest and most powerful state in mainland Greece. In 146 BC the Achaean League initiated the Achaean War against Rome. The contemporary historian Polybius blames the demagogues of

8250-539: The island ) was the church of the Dominican Priory of Negroponte, one of the first two houses authorized for the Order of Preachers' Province of Greece in 1249. Started about 1250, this is among the oldest examples of early Dominican architecture surviving, and is one of the only early Dominican churches to retain its original form until the present. The central arch over the iconostasis and the ceiling and walls of

8360-562: The late 8th or early 7th century BC. Homer's authorship was infrequently questioned in antiquity , but contemporary scholarship predominantly assumes that the Iliad and the Odyssey were composed independently and that the stories formed as part of a long oral tradition . The poem was performed by professional reciters of Homer known as rhapsodes . Critical themes in the poem include kleos (glory), pride, fate and wrath. Despite being predominantly known for its tragic and serious themes,

8470-416: The late second century BC, Astypalaea in 105 BC, Thyrium in 94 BC. The cities probably sought these treaties as a way of safeguarding their territory from their larger neighbours. Rome was increasingly called upon by the Greek communities to arbitrate in disputes between them, instead of seeking inter-state arbitration as had been common in the Hellenistic period. In these disputes, "friends and allies" of

8580-566: The literary Trojan War of the Iliad , the Olympian gods, goddesses, and minor deities fight among themselves and participate in human warfare, often by interfering with humans to counter other gods. Unlike their portrayals in Greek religion, Homer's portrayal of gods suits his narrative purpose. The gods in traditional thought of 4th-century Athenians were not spoken of in terms familiar to the works of Homer. The Classical-era historian Herodotus says that Homer and Hesiod , his contemporary, were

8690-412: The motivating force into the conscious self. He points out that almost every action in the Iliad is directed, caused, or influenced by a god and that earlier translations show an astonishing lack of words suggesting thought, planning, or introspection. Those that do appear, he argues, are misinterpretations made by translators imposing a modern mentality on the characters, a form of reverse logic by which

8800-719: The mysterious origin of fate is a power beyond the gods. Fate implies the primeval, tripartite division of the world that Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades effected in deposing their father, Cronus , for its dominion. Zeus took the Air and the Sky, Poseidon the Waters, and Hades the Underworld , the land of the dead—yet they share dominion of the Earth. Despite the earthly powers of the Olympic gods, only

8910-511: The newborn Greek state after the Greek War of Independence . The modern town received an impetus in its export trade from the establishment of railway connection with Athens and its port Piraeus in 1904. In the early 20th century it was composed of two parts—the old walled town at the bridge over the Euripus, where a number of Turkish families continued to live until the late 19th century, and

9020-474: The outcome of life—before killing him, Hector calls Patroclus a fool for cowardly avoidance of his fate, by attempting his defeat; Patroclus retorts: No, deadly destiny, with the son of Leto, has killed me, and of men it was Euphorbos; you are only my third slayer. And put away in your heart this other thing that I tell you. You yourself are not one who shall live long, but now already death and powerful destiny are standing beside you, to go down under

9130-555: The overmatched Trojan to fight Achilles. Poseidon cautiously speaks: But come, let us ourselves get him away from death, for fear the son of Kronos may be angered if now Achilleus kills this man. It is destined that he shall be the survivor, that the generation of Dardanos shall not die… Divinely aided, Aeneas escapes the wrath of Achilles and survives the Trojan War. Whether or not the gods can alter fate, they do abide by it, despite its countering their human allegiances; thus,

9240-547: The peninsula of Chalcidice and several important cities in Magna Graecia and Sicily , such as Naxos , Rhegion , Zankle and Cumae . Its mineral produces, metal-work, purple , and pottery not only found markets among these settlements but were distributed over the Mediterranean in the ships of Corinth and Samos . The development of the city led consequently to the increase of the population and finally to

9350-444: The plague. In the meantime, Agamemnon's messengers take Briseis away. Achilles becomes very upset and prays to his mother, Thetis , a minor goddess and sea nymph. Achilles asks his mother to ask Zeus to allow the Achaeans to be beaten back by the Trojans until their ships are at risk of burning. Only then will Agamemnon realize how much the Achaeans need Achilles and restore his honor. Thetis does so, and Zeus agrees. Zeus then sends

9460-441: The poem also contains instances of comedy and laughter. The poem is frequently described as a masculine or heroic epic, especially compared with the Odyssey . It contains detailed descriptions of ancient war instruments and battle tactics, and fewer female characters. The Olympian gods also play a major role in the poem, aiding their favoured warriors on the battlefield and intervening in personal disputes. Their characterisation in

9570-665: The poem humanised them for Ancient Greek audiences, giving a concrete sense of their cultural and religious tradition. In terms of formal style, the poem's repetitions and use of similes and epithets are often explored by scholars. The story begins with an invocation to the Muse . The events begin in medias res towards the end of the Trojan War, fought between the Trojans and the besieging Achaeans . The Achaean forces consist of armies from many different Greek kingdoms, led by their respective kings or princes. Agamemnon , king of Mycenae , acts as commander for these united armies. Chryses ,

9680-422: The problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father but decides to take Achilles's slave, Briseis , as compensation. Because war prizes were correlated with honor, Agamemnon's decision dishonors Achilles in front of the assembled Achaean forces. Achilles furiously declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon. Odysseus returns Chryseis to her father, causing Apollo to end

9790-622: The province of Achaia became a subdivision of the new diocese of Moesia . Under Constantine, the diocese was split and Achaia became part of the Diocese of Macedonia , which was itself assigned to the Praetorian prefecture of Italy or Illyricum at different points in the fourth century AD. In 267, the Heruli led a naval invasion of the Aegean , before landing near Sparta and plundering

9900-423: The provincial governor as time went on. Legal cases could be appealed to the governor. He was advised by a "council" ( consilium ) and often delegated judicial powers to members of the council or other officials. There were also juries of provincials, composed of both Greeks and Roman citizens resident in the province. Cases regarding borders between provinces, free cities, and Roman colonies were usually decided by

10010-401: The same as their ancient Euboic counterparts. They are C, D, F, P, R, S and X (pronounced ks). The transmission of the Chalkidic alphabet to the west is the most important cultural contribution of ancient Chalkida to the world culture. The Lelantine War was a war fought in the late 8th century BC. between the two powerful ancient states of Evia, Chalkida and Eretria, which at that time were at

10120-528: The siege's final weeks. In particular, it depicts a fierce quarrel between King Agamemnon and a celebrated warrior, Achilles . It is a central part of the Epic Cycle . The Iliad is often regarded as the first substantial piece of European literature . The Iliad and the Odyssey were likely written down in Homeric Greek , a literary mixture of Ionic Greek and other dialects, probably around

10230-459: The south chapel are the best examples of Italian Gothic stone-carving in Greece. Images of the Dominican saints, Dominic and Peter Martyr, stand at the base of the central arch. The north chapel holds the tomb of the founder of the senatorial Lippamano family of Venice. Some of the column capitals are Byzantine. The town is now connected to mainland Greece by two bridges, the "Sliding Bridge" in

10340-535: The war, undoubtedly the last, with the reference point being the death of the Thessalian Amphidamandas, who was praised by Hesiod. In this battle the help from the Thessalian cavalry resulted in victory for Chalkida, by which it acquired the best agricultural district of Euboea and became the chief city of the island. Late in the 6th century BC, its prosperity was broken by a disastrous war with

10450-430: The west at the narrowest point of the Euripus Strait and a suspension bridge. The Euripus Strait which separates the city and the island from the mainland was bridged in 411 BC with a wooden bridge. In the time of Justinian the fixed bridge was replaced with a movable structure. The Turks replaced this once again with a fixed bridge. In 1856, a wooden swing bridge was built; in 1896, an iron swing bridge, and in 1962,

10560-568: The whole conduct of both goddesses in The Iliad and is the cause of their hatred for Paris, the Judge, and his town Troy." Hera and Athena then continue to support the Achaean forces throughout the poem because Paris is part of the Trojans, while Aphrodite aids Paris and the Trojans. The emotions between the goddesses often translate to actions they take in the mortal world. For example, in Book 3 of

10670-476: The world, is either through seduction or by force, taken by Paris from Menelaus's home in Sparta . Menelaus and Paris agree to duel; Helen will marry the victor. However, when Paris is beaten, Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus can kill him. The gods deliberate over whether the war should end here, but Hera convinces Zeus to wait for the utter destruction of Troy. Athena prompts

10780-636: Was a province of the Roman Empire , consisting of the Peloponnese , Attica , Boeotia , Euboea , the Cyclades and parts of Phthiotis , Aetolia and Phocis . In the north, it bordered on the provinces of Epirus vetus and Macedonia . The region was annexed by the Roman Republic in 146 BC following the sack of Corinth by the Roman general Lucius Mummius , who was awarded the surname " Achaicus " ('conqueror of Achaia'). Initially part of

10890-525: Was a team created with the same name (AOX) it does not represent the glorious team of the past. Chalcis also has a basketball team ( AGEX ), which previously played in the Greek A2 Basketball League . For a while, Chalkida hosts the basketball team Ikaros Chalkidas that played in the top Greek Basket League . Chalcis is twinned with: Chalcis has a mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa ), closely bordering

11000-498: Was among the most prosperous and peaceful parts of the Roman world until late antiquity , when it first suffered from barbarian invasions. The province remained prosperous and highly urbanized, however, as attested in the 6th-century Synecdemus . The Slavic invasions of the 7th century led to widespread destruction, with much of the population fleeing to fortified cities, the Aegean islands and Italy, while some Slavic tribes settled

11110-414: Was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of Chalcis city itself with four former municipalities, which also became municipal units: The municipality has an area of 424.766 km, the municipal unit 30.804 km. In 2003, a bypass of Chalcis was opened from the southern part of the bridge to connect with GR-77, also with access to GR-44. Chalcis station is the northern terminus of

11220-505: Was highly urbanised and contained approximately eighty cities. This view of extreme prosperity is widely accepted today, and it is assumed between the 4th and 7th centuries AD, Greece may have been one of the most economically active regions in the eastern Mediterranean . Copper, lead, and silver mines were exploited in Achaia, though production was not as great as the mines of other Roman-controlled areas, such as Noricum , Britannia , and

11330-731: Was honoured with a victory in every contest, and in the following year, he proclaimed the freedom of the Greeks at the Isthmian Games in Corinth, just as Flamininus had over 200 years previously. This grant of freedom was cancelled by Vespasian , who is meant to have quipped that "the Greeks had forgotten how to be free." Hadrian (117–138) was particularly fond of the Greeks, particularly Athens. He saw himself as an heir to Theseus and Pericles and had served as an eponymous archon of Athens before he became emperor. He carried out constitutional reforms at Athens in 126 and instituted

11440-436: Was limited to their utility as "a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth", because, if the gods remain religious figures, rather than human metaphors, their "existence"—without the foundation of either dogma or a bible of faiths—then allowed Greek culture the intellectual breadth and freedom to conjure gods fitting any religious function they required as a people. Psychologist Julian Jaynes uses

11550-471: Was most likely one of the most prosperous regions of the Roman Empire. Older scenarios of poverty, depopulation, barbarian destruction, and civil decay have been revised in light of recent archaeological discoveries. In fact the polis , as an institution, appears to have remained prosperous until at least the 6th century. Contemporary texts such as Hierokles' Syndekmos affirm that late antiquity Greece

11660-536: Was not the creation of an inspired teacher. Rather, the religion arose out of the diverse beliefs of the Greek people. These beliefs coincide to the thoughts about the gods in polytheistic Greek religion. Adkins and Pollard agree with this by saying, "The early Greeks personalized every aspect of their world, natural and cultural, and their experiences in it. The earth, the sea, the mountains, the rivers, custom-law (themis), and one's share in society and its goods were all seen in personal as well as naturalistic terms." As

11770-751: Was preserved. Following the war, Sulla pardoned the Greek cities that had followed Mithridates and restored the legal systems that had been given to them by the Romans previously. As the part of the Roman East closest to Italy, Greece was a central theatre of the civil wars of the Late Republic . The war between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great culminated in Caesar's victory at the Battle of Pharsalus in Thessaly in 48 BC. in 46 BC, southern Greece

11880-411: Was sent to Greece with a small force to clear out the remnants of the invaders. Many of the cities in the province, including Athens, Delphi , Thespis , and Plataea , were "free cities" and did not fall under the authority of the governor. From some time in the reign of Trajan a separate official the corrector was appointed to oversee their affairs. This office was increasingly merged with that of

11990-404: Was separated out from Macedonia as a separate province for first time by Julius Caesar , who placed it under a proconsul , but this was reversed at some point after his assassination in 44 BC. Caesar also ordered the refoundation of Corinth, abandoned since 146 BC, as a Roman colony . Caesar's assassins, led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus , based themselves in Greece during

12100-434: Was usually called Euripos , a name also applied to the entire island of Euboea, although the ancient name survived in administrative and ecclesiastical usage until the 9th century; alternatively, it is possible that the name was given anew to a settlement that was founded in the 9th century in the location of the ancient city, after the latter had been abandoned in the early Middle Ages. The town survived an Arab naval raid in

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