On the Greek side:
38-505: (Redirected from Achaean ) Achaeans are the inhabitants of Achaea in Greece. However, the meaning of Achaea changed during the course of Ancient history, and thus Achaeans may refer to: Achaeans (Homer) , a name used by Homer in the Iliad for Mycenaean-era Greeks in general. Achaeans (tribe) , one of the major tribes of Greece according to
76-417: A hapax legomenon ( / ˈ h æ p ə k s l ɪ ˈ ɡ ɒ m ɪ n ɒ n / also / ˈ h æ p æ k s / or / ˈ h eɪ p æ k s / ; pl. hapax legomena ; sometimes abbreviated to hapax , plural hapaxes ) is a word or an expression that occurs only once within a context: either in the written record of an entire language , in the works of an author, or in a single text. The term
114-421: A body of text, not to either its origin or its prevalence in speech. It thus differs from a nonce word , which may never be recorded, may find currency and may be widely recorded, or may appear several times in the work which coins it, and so on. Hapax legomena in ancient texts are usually difficult to decipher, since it is easier to infer meaning from multiple contexts than from just one. For example, many of
152-578: A country", an ethnos created in the Epic tradition , has modern supporters among those who conclude that "Achaeans" were redefined in the 5th century BC, as contemporary speakers of Aeolic Greek . Karl Beloch suggested there was no Dorian invasion, but rather that the Peloponnesian Dorians were the Achaeans. Eduard Meyer , disagreeing with Beloch, instead put forth the suggestion that
190-680: A hypothetical older Greek form reflected in the Hittite form Aḫḫiyawā ; the latter is attested in the Hittite archives, e.g. in the Tawagalawa letter . However, Robert S. P. Beekes doubted its validity and suggested a Pre-Greek *Akay a- . In Homer , the term Achaeans is one of the primary terms used to refer to the Greeks as a whole. It is used 598 times in the Iliad , often accompanied by
228-508: A list of the cities and regions of the Tanaju is also mentioned in this inscription; among the cities listed are Mycenae, Nauplion , Kythera , Messenia and the Thebaid (region of Thebes ). During the 5th year of Pharaoh Merneptah , a confederation of Libyan and northern peoples is supposed to have attacked the western delta. Included amongst the ethnic names of the repulsed invaders is
266-540: A nation to the west called Ahhiyawa ( Hittite : 𒄴𒄭𒅀𒉿 Aḫḫiyawa ). In the earliest reference to this land, a letter outlining the treaty violations of the Hittite vassal Madduwatta , it is called Ahhiya . Another important example is the Tawagalawa Letter written by an unnamed Hittite king (most probably Hattusili III ) of the empire period (14th–13th century BC) to the king of Ahhiyawa , treating him as an equal and implying Miletus ( Millawanda )
304-465: A type of hapax legomenon . For example, the Classic of Poetry ( c. 1000 BC ) uses the character 篪 exactly once in the verse 「伯氏吹塤, 仲氏吹篪」 , and it was only through the discovery of a description by Guo Pu (276–324 AD) that the character could be associated with a specific type of ancient flute. It is fairly common for authors to "coin" new words to convey a particular meaning or for
342-404: A wide range of measures to look for patterns rather than relying upon single measurements. In the fields of computational linguistics and natural language processing (NLP), esp. corpus linguistics and machine-learned NLP, it is common to disregard hapax legomena (and sometimes other infrequent words), as they are likely to have little value for computational techniques. This disregard has
380-644: Is one of the names in Homer which is used to refer to the Greeks collectively. The term "Achaean" is believed to be related to the Hittite term Ahhiyawa and the Egyptian term Ekwesh which appear in texts from the Late Bronze Age and are believed to refer to the Mycenaean civilization or some part of it. In the historical period, the term fell into disuse as a general term for Greek people, and
418-583: Is sometimes incorrectly used to describe a word that occurs in just one of an author's works but more than once in that particular work. Hapax legomenon is a transliteration of Greek ἅπαξ λεγόμενον , meaning "said once". The related terms dis legomenon , tris legomenon , and tetrakis legomenon respectively ( / ˈ d ɪ s / , / ˈ t r ɪ s / , / ˈ t ɛ t r ə k ɪ s / ) refer to double, triple, or quadruple occurrences, but are far less commonly used. Hapax legomena are quite common, as predicted by Zipf's law , which states that
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#1732764837686456-465: The Hebrew Bible , only about 400 are not obviously related to other attested word forms. A final difficulty with the use of hapax legomena for authorship determination is that there is considerable variation among works known to be by a single author, and disparate authors often show similar values. In other words, hapax legomena are not a reliable indicator. Authorship studies now usually use
494-669: The Anatolian mainland, came to the conclusion that Ahhiyawa referred to the Mycenaean world, or at least to a part of it. Scholarship up to 2011 was reviewed by Gary M. Beckman et al. In this review, the increasing acceptance of the Ahhiyawa-Mycenaeans hypothesis was noted. As to the exact location of Ahhiyawa: It now seems most reasonable to identify Ahhiyawa primarily with the Greek mainland, although in some contexts
532-547: The Boghazköy tablets in Berlin, said the Achaeans of pre-Homeric Greece were directly associated with the term "Land of Ahhiyawa" mentioned in the Hittite texts. His conclusions at the time were challenged by other Hittitologists (i.e. Johannes Friedrich in 1927 and Albrecht Götze in 1930), as well as by Ferdinand Sommer, who published his Die Ahhijava-Urkunden ( The Ahhiyawa Documents ) in 1932. The exact relationship of
570-739: The Cadmeans ( the Thebans ), Hellen of the Hellenes (not to be confused with Helen of Troy ), Aeolus of the Aeolians , Ion of the Ionians , and Dorus of the Dorians . Cadmus from Phoenicia , Danaus from Egypt , and Pelops from Anatolia each gained a foothold in mainland Greece and were assimilated and Hellenized. Hellen, Graikos, Magnes, and Macedon were sons of Deucalion and Pyrrha ,
608-782: The Ekwesh or Eqwesh, whom some have seen as Achaeans, although Egyptian texts specifically mention these Ekwesh to be circumcised. Homer mentions an Achaean attack upon the delta, and Menelaus speaks of the same in Book IV of the Odyssey to Telemachus when he recounts his own return home from the Trojan War . Some ancient Greek authors also say that Helen had spent the time of the Trojan War in Egypt, and not at Troy , and that after Troy
646-461: The Greeks went there to recover her. In Greek mythology , the perceived cultural divisions among the Hellenes were represented as legendary lines of descent that identified kinship groups, with each line being derived from an eponymous ancestor. Each of the Greek ethne were said to be named in honor of their respective ancestors: Achaeus of the Achaeans, Danaus of the Danaans, Cadmus of
684-477: The Hesiodic foundation myth Achaea Phthiotis , a region of ancient Thessaly Achaea , the modern Greek administrative unit See also [ edit ] Achaea (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Achaeans . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to
722-666: The Mycenaean world is in the Annals of Thutmosis III ( c. 1479 –1425 BC), which refers to messengers from the king of the Tanaju, c. 1437 BC , offering greeting gifts to the Egyptian king, in order to initiate diplomatic relations, when the latter campaigned in Syria. Tanaju is also listed in an inscription at the Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III . The latter ruled Egypt in c. 1382 –1344 BC. Moreover,
760-713: The Pastoral Epistles, all of these variables are quite different from those in the rest of the Pauline corpus, and hapax legomena are no longer widely accepted as strong indicators of authorship; those who reject Pauline authorship of the Pastorals rely on other arguments. There are also subjective questions over whether two forms amount to "the same word": dog vs. dogs, clue vs. clueless, sign vs. signature; many other gray cases also arise. The Jewish Encyclopedia points out that, although there are 1,500 hapaxes in
798-607: The added benefit of significantly reducing the memory use of an application, since, by Zipf's law , many words are hapax legomena. The following are some examples of hapax legomena in languages or corpora . In the Qurʾān : Classical Chinese and Japanese literature contains many Chinese characters that feature only once in the corpus, and their meaning and pronunciation has often been lost. Known in Japanese as kogo ( 孤語 ) , literally "lonely characters", these can be considered
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#1732764837686836-620: The aforementioned terms were used synonymously to denote a common Greek identity. In some English translations of the Iliad , the Achaeans are simply called the Greeks throughout. Later, by the Archaic and Classical periods, the term "Achaeans" referred to inhabitants of the much smaller region of Achaea . Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of
874-581: The earlier, Homeric Achaeans. According to Pausanias , writing in the 2nd century AD, the term "Achaean" was originally given to those Greeks inhabiting the Argolis and Laconia . Pausanias and Herodotus both recount the legend that the Achaeans were forced from their homelands by the Dorians , during the legendary Dorian invasion of the Peloponnese. They then moved into the region later called Achaea. A scholarly consensus has not yet been reached on
912-491: The epithet "long-haired". Other common names used in Homer are Danaans ( / ˈ d æ n eɪ . ən z / ; Δαναοί Danaoi ; used 138 times in the Iliad ) and Argives ( / ˈ ɑːr ɡ aɪ v z / ; Ἀργεῖοι Argeioi ; used 182 times in the Iliad ) while Panhellenes ( Πανέλληνες Panhellenes, "All of the Greeks") and Hellenes ( / ˈ h ɛ l iː n z / ; Ἕλληνες Hellenes ) both appear only once ; All of
950-482: The frequency of any word in a corpus is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table. For large corpora, about 40% to 60% of the words are hapax legomena , and another 10% to 15% are dis legomena . Thus, in the Brown Corpus of American English, about half of the 50,000 distinct words are hapax legomena within that corpus. Hapax legomenon refers to the appearance of a word or an expression in
988-569: The intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Achaeans&oldid=1176611566 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Achaeans (Homer) On the Trojan side: The Achaeans or Akhaians ( / ə ˈ k iː ən z / ; Ancient Greek : Ἀχαιοί , romanized : Akhaioí , "the Achaeans" or "of Achaea ")
1026-557: The last three totals (for the Pastoral Epistles) are not out of line with the others. To take account of the varying length of the epistles, Workman also calculated the average number of hapax legomena per page of the Greek text , which ranged from 3.6 to 13, as summarized in the diagram on the right. Although the Pastoral Epistles have more hapax legomena per page, Workman found the differences to be moderate in comparison to
1064-619: The only people who survived the Great Flood ; the ethne were said to have originally been named Graikoi after the elder son but later renamed Hellenes after Hellen who was proved to be the strongest. Sons of Hellen and the nymph Orseis were Dorus, Xuthos, and Aeolus . Sons of Xuthos and Kreousa, daughter of Erechthea, were Ion and Achaeus. According to Hyginus , 22 Achaeans killed 362 Trojans during their ten years at Troy . Male Female Deity Hapax legomenon In corpus linguistics ,
1102-476: The origin of the historic Achaeans relative to the Homeric Achaeans and is still hotly debated. Former emphasis on presumed race, such as John A. Scott's article about the blond locks of the Achaeans as compared to the dark locks of "Mediterranean" Poseidon , on the basis of hints in Homer, has been rejected by some. The contrasting belief that "Achaeans", as understood through Homer, is "a name without
1140-428: The real-life Achaeans were mainland pre-Dorian Greeks. His conclusion is based on his research on the similarity between the languages of the Achaeans and pre-historic Arcadians. William Prentice disagreed with both, noting archeological evidence suggests the Achaeans instead migrated from "southern Asia Minor to Greece, probably settling first in lower Thessaly " probably prior to 2000 BC. Some Hittite texts mention
1178-583: The remaining undeciphered Mayan glyphs are hapax legomena , and Biblical (particularly Hebrew ; see § Hebrew ) hapax legomena sometimes pose problems in translation. Hapax legomena also pose challenges in natural language processing . Some scholars consider Hapax legomena useful in determining the authorship of written works. P. N. Harrison , in The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles (1921) made hapax legomena popular among Bible scholars , when he argued that there are considerably more of them in
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1216-465: The sake of entertainment, without any suggestion that they are "proper" words. For example, P.G. Wodehouse and Lewis Carroll frequently coined novel words. Indexy , below, appears to be an example of this. According to classical scholar Clyde Pharr , "the Iliad has 1097 hapax legomena , while the Odyssey has 868". Others have defined the term differently, however, and count as few as 303 in
1254-500: The term Ahhiyawa to the Achaeans beyond a similarity in pronunciation was hotly debated by scholars, even following the discovery that Mycenaean Linear B is an early form of Greek ; the earlier debate was summed up in 1984 by Hans G. Güterbock of the Oriental Institute . More recent research based on new readings and interpretations of the Hittite texts, as well as of the material evidence for Mycenaean contacts with
1292-708: The term "Ahhiyawa" may have had broader connotations, perhaps covering all regions that were settled by Mycenaeans or came under Mycenaean control. In fact, the authors state that "there is now little doubt that Ahhiyawa was a reference by the Hittites to some or all of the Bronze Age Mycenaean world", and that Forrer was "largely correct after all". It has been proposed that Ekwesh of the Egyptian records may relate to Achaea (compared to Hittite Ahhiyawa ), whereas Denyen and Tanaju may relate to Classical Greek Danaoi . The earliest textual reference to
1330-457: The three Pastoral Epistles than in other Pauline Epistles . He argued that the number of hapax legomena in a putative author's corpus indicates his or her vocabulary and is characteristic of the author as an individual. Harrison's theory has faded in significance due to a number of problems raised by other scholars. For example, in 1896, W. P. Workman found the following numbers of hapax legomena in each Pauline Epistle : At first glance,
1368-405: The variation among other Epistles. This was reinforced when Workman looked at several plays by Shakespeare , which showed similar variations (from 3.4 to 10.4 per page of Irving's one-volume edition), as summarized in the second diagram on the right. Apart from author identity, there are several other factors that can explain the number of hapax legomena in a work: In the particular case of
1406-529: Was generally reserved for inhabitants of the region of Achaea , a region in the north-central part of the Peloponnese . The city-states of this region later formed a confederation known as the Achaean League , which was influential during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. According to Margalit Finkelberg the name Ἀχαιοί ( earlier Ἀχαιϝοί) is possibly derived, via an intermediate form *Ἀχαϝyοί, from
1444-419: Was under his control. It also refers to an earlier " Wilusa episode" involving hostility on the part of Ahhiyawa . Ahhiya(wa) has been identified with the Achaeans of the Trojan War and the city of Wilusa with the legendary city of Troy (note the similarity with early Greek Ϝιλιον Wilion , later Ἴλιον Ilion , the name of the acropolis of Troy). Emil Forrer , a Swiss Hittitologist who worked on
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