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115-659: Rome and Achaea had been allies since the Second Macedonian War fifty years prior, but tensions between the two polities had been building up over the previous few decades, primarily over Roman efforts to throttle Achaean regional ambitions, particularly the long-desired assimilation of Sparta into the league, and the taking of large numbers of Achaean hostages by Rome in the aftermath of the Third Macedonian War . Tensions rose dramatically in 148 BC, when Achaea defeated and finally subjugated Sparta; in

230-606: A strategos , based on the various Thracian tribes and subtribes. At the time of the kingdom's annexation into the Roman Empire in 46 AD, there were 50 such districts, which were initially retained in the new Roman province , and only gradually fell out of use. It was not until c. 136 that the last of them were abolished. Under the Roman Republic and later through the Principate , Greek historians often used

345-647: A Macedonian army of 6,000 men into the lands controlled by the Achaean League and pillaged the territories of Pellene , Phlius , Cleonae , and Sicyon . The Achaean general, Nicostratus, who was able to muster 5,000 men, closed off the pass back to Corinth, and defeated the Macedonian forces in detail . In Acarnania, there had been attempts to switch to the Roman side before the Battle of Cynoscephalae , but

460-434: A close eye on their strategoi . Like other magistrates, at the end of their term of office they were subject to euthyna and in addition there was a vote in the ekklesia during every prytany on the question whether they were performing their duties well. If the vote went against anyone, he was deposed and as a rule tried by jury. Pericles himself in 430 was removed from office as strategos and fined, and in 406 six of

575-690: A cooperation in the previous Macedonian Wars. However, despite co-operation in the latter part of the third century and early second century, political problems in Achaea soon came to a head. Two factions began to emerge: one, championed by the Achaean statesmen Philopoemen and Lycortas , which called for Achaea to determine its own foreign policy according to its own law, and the other, championed by figures like Aristaenus and Diophanes, which believed in yielding to Rome on all matters of foreign policy. Achaea was, in addition, undergoing internal pressures beyond

690-622: A few official duties, his legal or constitutional position is not very clear. This position was featured in Orson Scott Card 's novel Ender's Game . In the novel, the position of Strategos was charged with overall command of solar system defense. The Strategos, along with the positions of Polemarch (responsible for the International Fleet of space warships), and the Hegemon (the political leader of Earth, rather like

805-601: A rapid attack through Ainis and into Dolopia , while King Amynander attacked and captured Gomphi , in the south-western corner of Thessaly. Meanwhile, Flamininus entered Epirus , which now joined the Roman side. Together with Amynander, he entered Thessaly. The army did not encounter much resistance at first, but he became caught up in a prolonged siege at Atrax . Eventually he was forced to abandon this siege and march south into Phocis in order to secure his supply lines and lodgings for winter by capturing Anticyra . He then besieged and captured Elateia . While this campaign

920-565: A stronger version of the Secretary-General of the United Nations ), was one of the three most powerful people alive. During an earlier war described in the novel, because of a belief in their inherent luck and brilliance—specifically, that no Jewish general had ever lost a war—all three positions were filled with Jewish people: an American Jew as Hegemon, an Israeli Jew as Strategos, and a Russian Jew as Polemarch. The defeat of

1035-774: Is called taxíarchos , after a táxis (in modern usage taxiarchía ), which means brigade. The ranks of antistrátigos and ypostrátigos are also used by the Hellenic Police (and the Greek Gendarmerie before), the Greek Fire Service and the Cypriot National Guard , which lack the grade of full stratigós . The oldest use of the term strategos in fiction may be found in the Callirhoe of Chariton of Aphrodisias which

1150-613: Is dated in the first century A.D. There, Hermocrates is the "strategos" of Syracuse and the father of Callirhoe, living in the 5th century B.C. In fact, he was a historical person, the victor over the Athenians in 413 B.C., an event which stopped Athenian expansion to the West. His role as a character in the novel is rather limited. Although his position in Syracuse gives Callirhoe a background, and he gives consent to her marriage and fulfills

1265-516: Is no Athenian variant of them, as they are exclusively Spartan. They are powerful units found in forts and camps, second in power only to that of the Polemarch . They wield heavy blades and shield. In Xenoblade Chronicles 3 , Strategos is the name of an optional character class, given by the character Isurd. The main protagonist in David Gemmell 's Lion of Macedon and Dark Prince ,

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1380-681: Is used in Greek to mean military general . In the Hellenistic world and the Eastern Roman Empire the term was also used to describe a military governor. In the modern Hellenic Army , it is the highest officer rank. Strategos is a compound of two Greek words: stratos and agos . Stratos (στρατός) means "army", literally "that which is spread out", coming from the proto-Indo-European root *stere- "to spread". Agos (ἀγός) means "leader", from agein (ἄγειν) "to lead", from

1495-399: The polemarchos , who had hitherto been the senior military commander. At the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC (according to Herodotus ) they decided strategy by majority vote, and each held the presidency in daily rotation. At this date the polemarchos had a casting vote , and one view among modern scholars is that he was the commander-in-chief; but from 486 onwards the polemarchos , like

1610-760: The Aetolian War in 191 BC. At the Isthmian Games of May 196 BC, Flamininus proclaimed the 'Freedom of the Greeks' met with general rejoicing of those who were attending the Games. The proclamation listed the free communities as follows: . Nevertheless, the Romans kept garrisons in key strategic cities which had belonged to Macedon – Corinth , Chalcis and Demetrias – and the legions were not completely evacuated until 194 BC. The extent of this grant of freedom

1725-663: The Boeotian League and the Thessalian League had different titles, Boeotarch and Tagus respectively. In the Hellenistic empires of the Diadochi , notably Lagid Egypt , for which most details are known, strategos became a gubernatorial office combining civil with military duties. In Egypt, the strategoi were originally responsible for the Greek military colonists ( klerouchoi ) established in

1840-759: The Cycladic islands over to his side and sent embassies to the Aetolian League in the hope of bringing them into the war as well. In response to the Athenian declaration of war, Philip dispatched a force of 2,000 infantry and 200 cavalry under the command of Philokles to invade Attica and place the city of Athens under siege. On 15 March 200 BC, new consuls, Publius Sulpicius Galba and Gaius Aurelius Cotta took office in Rome. In light of reports from Laevinus and further embassies from Pergamon, Rhodes, and Athens,

1955-598: The Formics by half- Māori Mazer Rackham changed this position. Bean (Julian Delphiki) was given the title of Strategos by Peter Wiggin after he assumed the role of Hegemon. The prequel novel Earth Awakens establishes that the position of Strategos was named after the Strategoi, a group of international military commanders in charge of the Mobile Operations Police, which served as the model for

2070-768: The Peace of Phoenice in 205 BC. Very little in Philip's recent actions in Thrace and Asia Minor could be said to concern the Roman Republic directly. The Senate passed a supportive decree and Marcus Valerius Laevinus was sent to investigate. Earlier in 201 BC, Athens ' relations with Philip had suddenly deteriorated. A pair of Acarnanians had entered the Temple of Demeter during the Eleusinian Mysteries and

2185-461: The Roman period , where the epistrategos was subdivided in three to four smaller offices, and the procurator ad epistrategiam was placed in charge of the strategoi . The office largely retained its Ptolemaic functions and continued to be staffed by the Greek population of the country. The Odrysian kingdom of Thrace was also divided into strategiai ('generalships'), each headed by

2300-699: The Seleucid Empire decided to exploit the weakness of the young king by taking Ptolemaic territory for themselves and they signed a secret pact defining spheres of interest, opening the Fifth Syrian War . Philip first turned his attention to the independent Greek city states in Thrace and near the Dardanelles . His success at taking cities such as Kios worried the state of Rhodes and King Attalus I of Pergamon who also had interests in

2415-620: The War against Nabis of Sparta , which was undertaken in 195 BC, ostensibly for the sake of the freedom of Argos. The initial background to the whole war had been the alliance of Antiochus III and Philip V against Ptolemy V and while the war had been raging in Greece, Antiochus III had completely defeated the Ptolemaic forces in Syria at the Battle of Panium . Since Philip had surrendered his claim to

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2530-457: The monarchy , but has not been retained by the current Third Hellenic Republic . Under the monarchy, the rank of full stratigós in active service was reserved for the King and a few other members of the royal family, with very few retired career officers promoted to the rank as an honorary rank. Since c.  1970 , in accordance with NATO practice for the member nations' chiefs of defence ,

2645-529: The strategos of the Aetolian League, had decided that it was time to join the war on the Roman side. Together with King Amynander, he led an invasion of Magnesia and Perrhaebia , then continued to ravage Thessaly . There, Philip suddenly appeared and completely defeated their force. He spent some time besieging the Aetolian city of Thaumaci , but gave up and withdrew as winter approached. He spent

2760-621: The strategos epi tas symmorias ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰς συμμορίας ), responsible for the equipment of the warships. This was generalized in Hellenistic times, when each strategos was given specific duties. In the Roman Imperial period , the strategos epi ta hopla ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα ) became the most prominent magistrate in Athens. The other generals had disappeared by the end of the first century BC. The Athenian people kept

2875-497: The Achaean troops and most Corinthians fled the city, leaving it defenseless, allowing the Romans to secure it, though only three days after the battle, as Mummius feared an ambush. Any remaining Greek holdouts now surrendered. The consul granted freedom to all Greeks, except the Corinthians. In Corinth, however, the Romans massacred the entire adult male population and enslaved all the women and children, after which they destroyed

2990-507: The Achaeans and to supply troops to the Romans. Over the rest of the winter, Philip mobilised all the manpower of his kingdom including the aged veterans and the underage boys, which amounted to 18,000 men. To these he added 4,000 peltasts from Thrace and Illyria, and 2,500 mercenaries. All these forces were gathered at Dion . Reinforcements were sent to Flamininus from Italy, numbering 6,000 infantry, 300 cavalry, and 3,000 marines. At

3105-550: The Athenians had put them to death. In response, the Acarnanian League launched a raid on Attica , aided by Macedonian troops which they had received from Philip V. Shortly after this, King Attalus I arrived in Athens with Rhodian ambassadors and convinced the Athenians, who had maintained strict neutrality since the end of the Chremonidean War , to declare war on Macedon. Attalus sailed off, bringing most of

3220-458: The Dardanian invasion, which it did, while he himself headed south. At the same time as this land campaign set out, the Roman fleet had left Corcyra under command of Lucius Apustius, rounded Cape Malea , and rendezvoused with King Attalus near Hermione . The combined fleet then launched an assault on the Macedonian military base on the island of Andros and seized it for Pergamon. The fleet

3335-453: The Greek cities he had harmed and withdraw all his garrisons from cities outside Macedonia, including Thessaly, which had been part of the Macedonian kingdom continuously since 353 BC. Philip stormed out of the meeting in anger and Flamininus decided to attack. In the subsequent Battle of the Aous , Flamininus was victorious despite the advantage the terrain gave to the Macedonian army, when he

3450-586: The Greek east in the period following the Third Macedonian War had also become increasingly in favour of micromanagement and the forced breaking-up of large entities, seen by the regionalisation of Macedon by the general Lucius Mummius Achaicus and the Senate's mission to the magistrate Gallus, upon the application of the town Pleuron to leave the Achaean League, to sever as many cities from it as possible; Pausanias writes that Gallus "behaved towards

3565-484: The Greek model, thus marking a distinct advance in the construction of places of entertainment. The war marked the end of Greek political independence, and the beginning of the end of the Hellenistic period . Pergamon , the only significant remaining power in the Aegean, was generally pro-Roman, and its last king, Attalus III , bequeathed it to Rome through his will upon his death in 133 BC. Thus, seventy years after Rome

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3680-517: The Greek race with great arrogance, both in word and deed". In 150 BC, hostilities between Sparta and the League flared up again; Sparta demanded more autonomy, and revolted when this was refused. The Acheans swiftly defeated Sparta, but the League's strategos of 149, Damocritus, decided not to press the offensive further, either due to Roman pressure or a policy of pacifism. This was unpopular, and resulted in his exile. The strategos of 148, Diaeus,

3795-517: The Greeks" against the rule from the Macedonian kingdom , the war marked a significant stage in increasing Roman intervention in the affairs of the eastern Mediterranean , which would eventually lead to Rome's conquest of the entire region. In 204 BC, King Ptolemy IV Philopator of Egypt died, leaving the throne to his six-year-old son Ptolemy V . Philip V of Macedon and Antiochus the Great of

3910-658: The League's assembly had eventually decided against this because of their hostility to the Aetolians. Lucius Flamininus therefore sailed to the Acarnanian capital of Leucas , and launched an all-out assault, which proved very difficult. Thanks to traitors inside the city, it was eventually captured. Shortly after this, news of the Battle of Cynoscephalae arrived and the rest of the Acarnanians surrendered. In Asia Minor,

4025-581: The Rhodians led a force of 4,500 mercenaries (mostly Achaeans) into Caria to recapture the Rhodian Peraia . A battle took place with the Macedonian forces in the area at Alabanda , in which the Rhodians were victorious. The Rhodians then recaptured their Peraia, but failed to take Stratonicea . An armistice was declared, and peace negotiations were held in the Vale of Tempe . Philip agreed to evacuate

4140-520: The Rhodians, and the Athenians sent ambassadors to the Achaian League in order to bring them into the war on the Roman side. The league held an assembly at Sicyon to decide how to respond, which was extremely contentious. On the one hand, the Achaians were still at war with Sparta and they were allied to Macedonia, but on the other hand their new chief magistrate Aristaenus was pro-Roman and

4255-399: The Romans a century before. Second Macedonian War The Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC) was fought between Macedon , led by Philip V of Macedon , and Rome , allied with Pergamon and Rhodes . Philip was defeated and was forced to abandon all possessions in southern Greece , Thrace and Asia Minor . During their intervention, although the Romans declared the "freedom of

4370-421: The Romans directly in battle. In the ensuing Battle of Corinth , however, his inferior cavalry was quickly driven off by the Roman cavalry. This exposed his flank to an attack by 1,000 picked Roman infantry, routing his army. The surviving Achaean troops could have been organized to defend the city, but Diaeus abandoned them and fled to Megalopolis , where he committed suicide after killing his wife. Demoralized,

4485-488: The Romans promised to give the city of Corinth to the League. The representatives of Argos , Megalopolis , and Dyme , which all had particularly strong ties with Philip, left the meeting. The rest of the assembly voted to join the anti-Macedonian alliance. The Achaian army joined the other forces besieging Corinth, but after fierce fighting the siege had to be abandoned when 1,500 Macedonian reinforcements commanded by Philokles arrived from Boiotia . From Corinth, Philokles

4600-537: The Seleucid king Antiochus III. As a result, Attalus was not able to assist in the naval war in the Aegean until a Roman embassy forced Antiochus to withdraw. When the new consuls took office on 15 March 198, the Senate ordered the recruitment of 8,000 new infantry and 800 cavalry for the war. Command in Macedonia was allotted to Flamininus. He was not yet thirty and was a self-proclaimed Philhellene . Flamininus

4715-462: The Senate, but was left with little time to prosecute a campaign. Philip marched west and encamped on both sides of the Aoös river where it passed through a narrow ravine. Villius marched to meet him but was still considering what to do when he learnt that his successor, Titus Quinctius Flamininus had been elected and was on his way to Corcyra to assume command. In Asia Minor, Pergamon was invaded by

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4830-447: The aftermath of this, Rome tried to cow the League into halting its expansionist ambitions, but a failure of diplomacy between the two sides led to war. Rome swiftly defeated the League's main force near Scarpheia , before advancing on the League's capital of Corinth , where they defeated the remnants of the Achaean forces outside the walls and then brutally sacked the city, the same year in which they destroyed Carthage . The war marked

4945-664: The allegiance of the Illyrians under Pleuratus III , the Dardanians under Bato , and the Athamanes under Amynander . The diplomatic efforts of Philip, Sulpicius, and the Athenians centred on the Aetolian League , which seemed inclined to support the Romans but remained neutral at this stage. In the spring of 199 BC, Sulpicius led his troops east through the territory of the Dassaretii , an Illyrian tribe that occupied

5060-549: The area bordering western Macedonia. Philip gathered 20,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry, recalling the troops he had stationed in the north with Perseus, and marched west. He encamped on a hill near Athacus which overlooked Sulpicius' camp. After a series of indecisive skirmishes (in one of which Philip was nearly captured), news came that the Dardanians had invaded northern Macedonia, and the Macedonians withdrew secretly in

5175-473: The area. In 201 BC, Philip launched a campaign into Asia Minor , besieging the Ptolemaic city of Samos and capturing Miletus . Again, this disconcerted Rhodes and Attalus and Philip responded by ravaging Attalid territory and destroying the temples outside the walls of Pergamon. Philip then invaded Caria but the Rhodians and Pergamenians successfully blockaded his fleet in Bargylia , forcing him to spend

5290-580: The autumn, where he added veterans of the Second Punic War who had just returned from Africa to his forces. Then he crossed the Adriatic , landing his troops in Apollonia and stationing the navy at Corcyra . While these events had been taking place, Philip V himself had undertaken another campaign in the Dardanelles , taking a number of Ptolemaic cities in rapid succession before besieging

5405-405: The battle, either drowning in the marshes of Mount Oeta or poisoning himself. The defeat and death of Critolaos caused great confusion and panic in the Greek world, with some cities such as Elis and Messene now surrendering to the Romans. However, many elements of the League, especially Corinth , rallied around Diaeus, electing him as strategos to replace Critolaos and resolving to continue

5520-467: The beginning of direct Roman control of Greece, and the end of Greek independence, as well as the beginning of the end of the Hellenistic period . It is also noted for its significant cultural impact on Rome; the preponderance of Greek art, culture and slaves in the aftermath of the conquest accelerated the development of Greco-Roman culture. The Roman Republic had developed close ties to the Achaean League through similar religious and military beliefs and

5635-440: The city of Chalcis in Euboea , one of the key Antigonid strongholds known as the 'fetters of Greece' and inflicting serious damage and heavy casualties. Philip rushed to Chalcis with a force of 5,000 men and 300 cavalry. Finding that Claudius had already withdrawn, he sped on towards Athens, where he defeated the Athenian and Attalid troops in a battle outside the Dipylon Gate and encamped at Cynosarges . After setting fire to

5750-439: The city. This apparently needless display of cruelty in Corinth, is explained by Mommsen as due to the instructions of the Senate , prompted by the mercantile party, which was eager to dispel a dangerous commercial rival. According to Polybius , Mummius was unable to resist the pressure of those around him. According to Dio, Mummius took care not to enslave any non-Corinthians. Livy writes that Mummius did not appropriate any of

5865-406: The civil kritai ("judges"). Senior military leadership also devolved on the hands of a new class of officers titled doukes or katepano , who were placed in control of regional commands combining several themes. By the 13th century, the term strategos had reverted to the generic sense of "general", devoid of any specific technical meaning. The Byzantines also used a number of variations of

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5980-423: The civil governance of the theme. The first themes were few and very large, and in the 8th century, the provincial strategoi were in constant antagonism with the emperor at Constantinople , rising often in rebellion against him. In response, the themes were progressively split up and the number of strategoi increased, diluting their power. This process was furthered by the conquests of the 10th century, which saw

6095-410: The civilian rhetores in the later 5th century, the strategoi were limited to their military duties. Originally, the strategoi were appointed ad hoc to various assignments. On campaign, several—usually up to three— strategoi might be placed jointly in command. Unlike other Greek states, where the nauarchos commanded the navy, the Athenian strategoi held command both at sea and on land. From

6210-438: The communities in Asia Minor that had formerly been under Ptolemaic control, Antiochus III now advanced into Asia Minor to take them over for himself. The conflicts arising from this would lead to the outbreak of the Roman–Seleucid War in 192 BC. Strategos Strategos , plural strategoi , Latinized strategus , ( Greek : στρατηγός, pl. στρατηγοί ; Doric Greek : στραταγός, stratagos ; meaning "army leader")

6325-421: The compliance of Achaea during the Third Macedonian War created great resentment in Greece, and was the source of much diplomatic quarrel between Achaea and Rome; it is arguable that this contributed in large part to the souring of relations between the two powers. The sending of no fewer than five Achaean embassies to Rome seeking the return of the hostages, and Roman intransigence to Achaean concerns, demonstrate

6440-428: The contractors should be warned that if they lost them, they would have to replace them by new ones. As in the Sack of Syracuse , the sack of Corinth saw the inflow of many Greek works of art into the Roman world, exposing it further to Greek culture and paving the way for the development of the Greco-Roman world . In the immediate aftermath of the conquest, Mummius ordered the walls of all cities that had taken part in

6555-491: The country. Quickly, they assumed a role in the administration alongside the nomarches , the governor of each of the country's nomes , and the oikonomos , in charge of fiscal affairs. Already by the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus ( r.  283–246 BC), the strategos was the head of the provincial administration, while conversely his military role declined, as the klerouchoi were progressively demilitarized. Ptolemy V Epiphanes (r. 204–181 BC) established

6670-411: The eight strategoi who commanded the fleet at the Battle of Arginusae were all removed from office and condemned to death. The title of strategos appears for a number of other Greek states in the Classical period, but it is often unclear whether this refers to an actual office, or is used as a generic term for military commander. The strategos as an office is attested at least for Syracuse from

6785-454: The establishment of several new and smaller frontier themes: while in c. 842 the Taktikon Uspensky lists 18 strategoi , the Escorial Taktikon , written c. 971–975, lists almost 90. Throughout the middle Byzantine period (7th–12th centuries), the strategos of the Anatolic theme enjoyed precedence over the others and constituted one of the highest offices of the state, and one of the few from which eunuchs were specifically barred. At

6900-410: The fall of Abydos, he learnt of the landing of Sulpicius' force in Epirus. The Athenians, who were now besieged by Macedonian forces, sent an appeal to the Roman force in Corcyra. Gaius Claudius Centho was sent with 20 ships and 1,000 men to aid them. Philokles and his troops withdrew from Attica to their base in Corinth . In response to a request from Chalcidean exiles, Claudius led a surprise raid on

7015-491: The final peace terms, including Publius Sulpicius Galba and Publius Villius Tappulus. On the advice of these men, the final peace was made with Philip in spring 196 BC. Philip had to remove all his garrisons in Greek cities in Europe and Asia, which were to be free and autonomous. Philip had to pay a war indemnity of 1,000 talents - half paid immediately and the rest in ten annual instalments of 50 talents. He had to surrender his whole navy except for his flagship, while his army

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7130-509: The forced reduction of the Achaean League to its original, narrow grouping - effectively crippling it and ending its territorial ambitions once and for all. This may have been an attempted negotiation tactic, but it backfired, and the embassy was almost mobbed. A Roman effort at restoring peace, led by Orestes' former co-consul Sextus Julius Caesar , went badly, and the Achaeans, outraged at Rome's actions, and whipping up populist sentiment, declared war on Sparta, electing Critolaos as strategos of

7245-405: The important city of Abydos . Polybius reports that during the siege of Abydos, Philip had grown impatient and sent a message to the besieged that the walls would be stormed and that if anybody wished to commit suicide or surrender they had three days to do so. The citizens promptly killed all the women and children of the city, threw their valuables into the sea and fought to the last man. During

7360-421: The late 5th century BC, Erythrae , and in the koinon of the Arcadians in the 360s BC. The title of strategos autokrator was also used for generals with broad powers, but the extent and nature of these powers was granted on an ad hoc basis. Thus Philip II of Macedon was elected as strategos autokrator (commander-in-chief with full powers) of the League of Corinth . Under Philip II of Macedon ,

7475-434: The league. There is debate as to how this declaration sparked the war: whether it was an implicit declaration against Rome as well, or Rome reacted to the declaration. The Achaeans were aware that they were entering a suicidal war of defiance, as Rome had just soundly conquered Macedon, a much more powerful kingdom. Two Roman armies were sent to put down the uprising - one under Mummius, who was now consul, sent from Italy, and

7590-416: The loosest resemblance to what they originally meant. The position of 'Strategos' was also featured in the English version of the Sunrise anime The Vision of Escaflowne ; the character Folken occupied the position when he served the Zaibach empire. It is also used in the webcomic Ava's Demon for Strategos Six. The term is also used in the 2018 Ubisoft video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey . There

7705-409: The middle of the 4th century, the strategoi increasingly were given specific assignments, such as the strategos epi ten choran ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὴν χώραν ) for the defence of Attica ; the strategos epi tous hoplitas ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τοὺς ὁπλίτας ), in charge of expeditions abroad; the two strategoi epi ton Peiraia ( στρατηγοὶ ἐπὶ τὸν Πειραιᾶ ), responsible for the war harbour of Piraeus ; and

7820-431: The negotiations until he learnt that his command had been prorogued and then had his friends in Rome scupper the meeting in the Senate. Once this had become clear, Philip attempted to free up his forces by handing the city of Argos over to Nabis of Sparta, but Nabis then engineered a revolution in the city and organised a conference with Flamininus, Attalus and the Achaeans at Mycenae , at which he agreed to stop attacking

7935-418: The newly created International Fleet. The first Strategos was Lieutenant Colonel Yulian Robinov of the Russian Ministry of Defense, who served as the chair of the Strategoi during the First Invasion. The dystopian slave-empire of the Draka , in the series of books by S. M. Stirling , also uses "Strategos" together with many other military ranks and terms drawn from Classical Antiquity , though often with only

8050-427: The night. When he realised what had happened, Sulpicius set out in pursuit through Pelagonia , found Philip blocking the pass to Eordaea and forced it. Sulpicius ravaged Eordaea, then Elimeia to the south, and then followed the Haliacmon river valley up to Orestis , where he conquered Celetrum and Pelion and then returned to his base. Philip split his force, sending a contingent of his army north to deal with

8165-420: The number of the tribes was increased, the number of strategoi remained constant at ten. In the early part of the 5th century, several strategoi combined their military office with a political role, with Themistocles , Aristides , Cimon , or Pericles among the most notable; nevertheless their power derived not from their office, but from their own personal political charisma. As political power passed to

8280-495: The office of epistrategos ( ἐπιστράτηγος , lit.   ' over-general ' ) to oversee the individual strategoi . The latter had become solely civilian officials, combining the role of the nomarches and the oikonomos , while the epistrategos retained powers of military command. In addition, hypostrategoi (sing. hypostrategos , ὐποστράτηγος , 'under-general') could be appointed as subordinates. The Ptolemaic administrative system survived into

8395-462: The other archontes , was appointed by lot. The annual election of the strategoi was held in the spring, and their term of office coincided with the ordinary Athenian year, from midsummer to midsummer. If a strategos died or was dismissed from office, a by-election might be held to replace him. The strict adherence to the principle of a strategos from each tribe lasted until c.  440 BC , after which two strategoi could be selected from

8510-548: The other under praetor Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus , who had recently defeated Andriscus and put down the Macedonian uprising. Critolaos was besieging Heraclea in Trachis , which had rebelled from the League, when he learnt that Metellus was marching from Macedonia to fight him. He retreated to Scarpheia , but Metellus caught up with him and decisively defeated him at the Battle of Scarpheia , after which he put his army into winter quarters. Critolaos died during or after

8625-505: The pelasgic root *ag- "to drive, draw out or forth, move". In its most famous attestation, in Classical Athens , the office of strategos existed already in the 6th century BC, but it was only with the reforms of Cleisthenes in 501 BC that it assumed its most recognizable form: Cleisthenes instituted a board of ten strategoi who were elected annually, one from each tribe ( phyle ). The ten were of equal status, and replaced

8740-496: The power difference between the two. The diplomatic stand-off would trigger a chain of events that ultimately led to the Achaean War. Achaean domestic politics at the time played a large part in the coming about of the war. Upon the election of the populist generals Critolaos and Diaeus , economic proposals were made which would relieve the debt burden of the poor, free native-born and native-bred slaves, and increase taxes on

8855-575: The proceedings, Flamininus insisted that all his allies should be present at the negotiations. He then reiterated his demands that Philip should withdraw all his garrisons from Greece, Illyria, and Asia Minor. Philip was not prepared to go this far and he was persuaded to send an embassy to the Roman Senate. When this embassy reached Rome, the Senate demanded that Philip surrender the "fetters of Greece," Demetrias, Chalcis, and Corinth, but Philip's envoys claimed they had no permission to agree to this, so

8970-417: The question over the nature of the influence of Rome. The withdrawal of Messene from the Achaean League and further disputes with Sparta over the nature of its position in the League led to growing amounts of micromanagement by the Romans, including the sending in 184 of a Roman, Appius Claudius , to judge the case between Sparta and Achaea. The taking of thousands of hostages by Rome in order to guarantee

9085-635: The rank is held in active service by the Chief of the General Staff of National Defence , when he is an Army officer, and is granted to the retiring Chief of the Hellenic Army General Staff . All but one of the other Greek general officer ranks are derivations of this word: antistrátigos (Antistrategos) and ypostrátigos (Hypostrategos), for Lieutenant General and Major General , respectively. A Brigadier General however

9200-521: The return of a number of cities that they had previously controlled in Thessaly but Flamininus refused to back them. The Aetolians began to claim that the Romans planned to retain garrisons in the "fetters of Greece" and replace the Macedonians as overlords of Greece. The growing Aetolian hostility to the Romans was expressed openly to one of the ten Roman commissioners at a meeting of Delphian Amphictyony in 196 BC. This conflict would ultimately lead to

9315-405: The revolt to be torn down, and forced all cities to hand over their weapons and military equipment. Soon, the senate dispatched ten commissioners to Achaea to aid the consul in the task of reorganising Greece. The Greeks had to pay war indemnities and tributes, all leagues and other political entities were dissolved, and power was given to pro-Roman elites. Eventually, however, some financial relief

9430-584: The rich, all of which, according to Polybius, had the desired effect of increasing support for a nationalistic dispute with Rome amongst the lower classes of Achaea. An uprising around this time by the pretender Andriscus in the Fourth Macedonian War may also have spread to Achaea, giving hope that Rome, engaged in the Third Punic War to the West, would be too busy to deal with Greek rebellions against Roman rule. Roman foreign policy in

9545-639: The same time, the Eastern (Anatolian) themes were senior to the Western (European) ones. This distinction was especially marked in the pay of their presiding strategoi : while those of the Eastern themes received their salary directly from the state treasury, their counterparts in the West had to raise their—markedly lower—pay from the proceeds of their provinces. During the 11th century, the strategoi were gradually confined to their military duties, their fiscal and administrative responsibilities being taken over by

9660-410: The same tribe and another tribe be left without its own strategos , perhaps because no suitable candidate might be available. This system continued at least until c.  356/7 BC , but by the time Aristotle wrote his Constitution of the Athenians in c.  330 BC , the appointments were made without any reference to tribal affiliation. Hence, during the Hellenistic period , although

9775-548: The sanctuaries and tombs outside the city walls, Philip departed to Corinth. From there, Philip went down to Argos where the Achaean League was holding an assembly, which he attempted to bring onto his side in exchange for supporting them in their ongoing conflict with Nabis of Sparta , but he was rebuffed. Joining up with a force of 2,000 men brought by his general Philokles, Philip made a series of three unsuccessful assaults on Eleusis , Piraeus , and Athens and ravaged

9890-633: The settlements on the Sporades islands of Peparethos and Skiathos destroyed to prevent enemies using them as naval bases. The Macedonian army was gathered at Demetrias . During this time Sulpicius had established a firm base by the Seman river in Illyria. A force under Lucius Apustius was sent to raid the western border of Macedonia, capturing or razing a number of cities, including Antipatrea and Codrion . Following this expedition, Sulpicius received

10005-471: The siege of Abydos, in the autumn of 200 BC, Philip was met by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , a Roman ambassador on his way back from Egypt, who urged him not to attack any Greek state or to seize any territory belonging to Ptolemy and to go to arbitration with Rhodes and Pergamon. Philip protested that he was not in violation of any of the terms of the Peace of Phoenice, but in vain. As he returned to Macedonia after

10120-449: The spoils for himself, and praises him for his integrity. Polybius mentions the carelessness of Roman soldiers, who destroyed works of art or treated them like objects of entertainment. However, they did show respect to the statues of Philopoemen , both for his fame and as he was the first ally of Rome in Greece. Mummius was extremely ignorant in matters of art - when transporting priceless statues and paintings to Italy, he gave orders that

10235-605: The start of spring, Flamininus and Attalus went to Thebes to bring the Boeotian League into the coalition. Because Flamininus had managed to sneak 2,000 troops into the city, the assembly of the League had no choice but to join the Roman coalition. At the assembly, King Attalus suddenly suffered a stroke while giving a speech and was left paralysed on one side. He was eventually evacuated back to Pergamon, where he died later that year. In June 197 BC, Flamininus marched north from Elateia through Thermopylae . En route, he

10350-546: The task of dealing with the troubles in Macedonia was allotted to Sulpicius. He called an assembly of the Comitia centuriata , the body with the legal power to make declarations of war. The Comitia nearly unanimously rejected his proposed war, an unprecedented act which was attributed to war weariness . At a second session, Sulpicius convinced the Comitia to vote for war. Sulpicius recruited troops and departed to Brundisium in

10465-646: The term strategos when referring to the Roman political/military office of praetor . Such a use can be found in the New Testament : Acts of the Apostles 16:20 refers to the magistrates of Philippi as strategoi . Correspondingly, antistrategos ( ἀντιστράτηγος , 'vice-general') was used to refer to the office of propraetor . The term continued in use in the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire . Initially,

10580-514: The term hypostrategos ( ὐποστράτηγος , "under-general") denoted a second-in-command, effectively a lieutenant general . The city of Messina in Sicily also had a Strategos. In 1345 Orlando d'Aragona , illegitimate son of Frederick II of Sicily , held that position. In the modern Hellenic Army , a stratigós (the spelling remains στρατηγός ) is the highest officer rank. The superior rank of stratárchis ( Field Marshal ) existed under

10695-545: The term was used along with stratelates and, less often, stratopedarches , to render the supreme military office of magister militum (the general in command of a field army ), but could also be employed for the regional duces . In the 7th century, with the creation of the Theme system , their role changed: as the field armies were resettled and became the basis for the territorial themes, their generals too assumed new responsibilities, combining their military duties with

10810-442: The territory of Athens. Then he ravaged the sanctuaries throughout Attica and withdrew to Boeotia . The damage to the rural and deme sanctuaries of Attica was severe and marks the permanent end of their use. Philip spent the rest of the winter preparing for the Roman assault. He sent his young son Perseus with a force to prevent the Romans and Dardanians from advancing over the Šar Mountains into northern Macedonia. Philip had

10925-481: The title strategos : strategetes (στρατηγέτης, "army leader") was an infrequently used alternative term; the term monostrategos (μονοστράτηγος, "single-general") designated a general placed in command over other strategoi or over the forces of more than one theme; the terms strategos autokrator , archistrategos ( ἀρχιστράτηγος , "chief-general") and protostrategos (πρωτοστράτηγος, "first-general") designated commanders vested with supreme authority; and

11040-400: The title of strategos was used for commanders on detached assignments as the quasi-representatives of the king, often with a title indicating their area of responsibility, e.g. strategos tes Europes ('general of Europe'). In several Greek city leagues the title strategos was reserved for the head of state. In the Aetolian League and the Achaean League , where the strategos

11155-400: The war continued. According to Polybius and Plutarch, these negotiations were manipulated by Flamininus - Philip's overtures had come just as elections were being held in Rome. Flamininus was eager to take the credit for ending the war, but he did not yet know whether his command would be prolonged and had intended to make a quick peace deal with Philip, if it was not. He therefore dragged out

11270-513: The war, the legions of Flamininus defeated Philip's Macedonian phalanx . Philip himself fled on horseback, collected the survivors, and withdrew to Macedonia. Philip was forced to sue for peace on Roman terms. At the same time as this campaign was taking place in Thessaly, three other campaigns occurred in Achaea, Acarnania, and Caria - in all of which the Macedonians were defeated. In the Peloponnese, Androsthenes set out from Corinth with

11385-650: The war, with harsh levies and confiscations of property and wealth. Metellus now advanced through Boeotia , capturing Thebes , which had been allied to the Achaeans. He made an offer of peace to the League, but was rebuffed by Diaeus, who also had pro-peace and pro-Roman politicians arrested or killed. Mummius now arrived, and after ordering Metellus back to Macedonia, gathered all available Roman forces - 23,000 infantry and 3,500 cavalry - for an assault on Corinth. Diaeus also rallied what forces he could, amounting to 13,500 infantry and 650 cavalry. After success in an initial skirmish, Diaeus gained confidence and decided to engage

11500-527: The whole of Greece and relinquish his conquests in Thrace and Asia Minor. Philip had to rush off almost immediately after the agreement of terms to deal with an invasion of Upper Macedonia by the Dardanians. The treaty was sent to Rome for ratification. Despite the efforts of the consul-elect Marcus Claudius Marcellus to prolong the war, the Roman Tribal Assembly voted unanimously to make peace. The Senate sent ten commissioners to advise on

11615-601: The winter training his army and engaging in diplomacy, particularly with the Achaean League. In Rome, the new consuls took office on 15 March 199 BC, Publius Villius Tappulus was allotted Macedonia as his province. He crossed the Adriatic to Corcyra, where he replaced Sulpicius in command of the army. On his arrival, Villius faced a mutiny by 2,000 troops, veterans of the Second Punic War who wished to be demobilised. He resolved this, by forwarding their concerns to

11730-511: The winter with his army in a country which offered very few provisions. At this point, although they appeared to have the upper hand, Rhodes and Pergamon still feared Philip so much that they sent an appeal to the rising power of Rome , which had just emerged victorious from the Second Punic War against Carthage. The Romans had previously fought the First Macedonian War against Philip V over Illyria , which had been resolved by

11845-477: Was a strong popular backlash, resulting in the murder of about 500 Roman soldiers who had been billeted in Boeotia. Roman forces invaded Boeotia, but the Athenians and Achaeans managed to negotiate a settlement. At the initial peace negotiations, a rift opened up between Flamininus and the Aetolians, since the latter wanted harsher peace terms imposed on Philip than Flamininus was willing to countenance and desired

11960-540: Was annually elected, he was the eponymous chief of civil government and the supreme military commander at the same time. Two of the most prominent leaders re-elected many times to the office in the Achaean League, were Aratus of Sicyon and Philopoemen of Megalopolis . Strategoi are also reported in the Arcadian League , in the Epirote League and in the Acarnanian League , whereas the leaders of

12075-503: Was delayed by religious matters for some time, but then he recruited the new forces, crossed the Adriatic, and dismissed Villius. The army encamped in the Aous Valley, across the river from Philip's for forty days. At a peace conference, Flamininus announced the Romans' new peace terms. Up to this point, the Romans had merely ordered Philip to stop attacking the Greek cities. Now Flamininus demanded that he should make reparations to all

12190-456: Was elected on a platform of aggression and League unity, and hence swiftly pressed home the attack, and subjugated Sparta by the end of the year. During this war, Rome did not intervene beyond sending a few mild requests for peace, as the Fourth Macedonian War and the Third Punic War had become serious, requiring their attention. In 147, however, Rome sent a fresh embassy, led by former consul Lucius Aurelius Orestes . Orestes tried to announce

12305-520: Was first involved in Greek affairs in the First Macedonian War , it was now in control of all of the classical Greek world , and had cemented its position as the dominant power in the Mediterranean. The annexation would also mark the beginning of a new, Greco-Roman culture, as Greek and Roman culture intermingled, a process that had begun in the wake of the conquest of Greek cities in Sicily by

12420-422: Was given, and autonomy was granted to some cities, including Athens and Sparta . Politically, the Greek states were grouped into the Roman province of Macedonia , though Achaea would become a separate province under Augustus in 27 BC. Mummius celebrated a triumph and gained the agnomen Achaicus . With wealth from his Greek campaigns, he erected a theatre with improved acoustical conditions and seats after

12535-511: Was invited to take control of Argos by pro-Macedonians in the city, which he did without a fight. Over the winter of 198/197 BC, Philip declared his willingness to make peace. The parties met at Nicaea in Locris in November 198 - Philip sailed from Demetrias, but he refused to disembark and meet Flamininus and his allies on the beach, so he addressed them from the prow of his ship. To prolong

12650-522: Was joined by forces from Aetolia, Gortyn in Crete, Apollonia, and Athamania. Philip marched south into Thessaly and the two armies encamped opposite each other near Pherae . Both armies relocated to the hills around Scotussa . Contingents of the opposing armies came into contact with one another in the Cynoscephalae hills , leading to a full battle . In what proved to be the decisive engagement of

12765-508: Was joined by further ships from Issa and Rhodes and headed north to the Chalkidike peninsula where an assault on Cassandreia was a complete failure. They withdrew to northern Euboea, where they besieged and captured Oreus , another key Macedonian naval base. Since it was now autumn and the sailing season was drawing to a close, the contingents of the fleet dispersed back to their home ports. As these campaigns progressed, Damocritus ,

12880-399: Was limited to a maximum of 5,000 men, could not include elephants, and could not be led beyond his borders without permission of the Roman Senate. Over the winter of 197/196 BC, while the peace negotiations were still ongoing, conflict had broken out in Boeotia, leading to the assassination of the pro-Macedonian Boeotarch Brachylles by the pro-Roman leaders Zeuxippus and Peisistratus. There

12995-405: Was not entirely clear. Although Flamininus' proclamation had included a list of the communities formerly under Philip's control to which it applied, the Romans quickly assumed (or were thrust into) the role of protector of Greek freedom more generally. The rhetoric of Greek freedom was almost immediately employed by the Romans and their allies to justify diplomatic and military action elsewhere, with

13110-401: Was shown a pass through the mountains which allowed him to send a force to attack the Macedonians from the rear. The Macedonian force collapsed and fled, suffering 2,000 casualties. Philip was able to gather up the survivors and retreat to Thessaly. There he destroyed the city of Tricca to prevent it falling into Roman hands and withdrew to Tempe . After the Roman victory, the Aetolians led

13225-508: Was taking place, the consul's brother, Lucius Quinctius Flamininus had taken control of the Roman fleet and sailed to Athens. He rendezvoused with the Attalid and Rhodian fleets near Euboea. Eretria was taken after fierce fighting and Carystus surrendered, meaning that the entire island of Euboea was now under Roman control. The fleet travelled back around Attica to Cenchreae and placed Corinth under siege. From there, Lucius, Attalus,

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