A general-purpose bomb is an air-dropped bomb intended as a compromise between blast damage, penetration, and fragmentation in explosive effect. They are designed to be effective against enemy troops, vehicles, and buildings.
136-455: General-purpose (GP) bombs use a thick-walled metal casing with explosive filler (typically TNT , Composition B , or Tritonal in NATO or United States service) comprising about 30% to 40% of the bomb's total weight. The British term for a bomb of this type is "medium case" or "medium capacity" (MC). The GP bomb is a common weapon of fighter bomber and attack aircraft because it is useful for
272-718: A coalition of Ba'athist and Sunni militants launched an offensive against the government, initiating full-scale war in Iraq . The climax of the campaign was an offensive in Northern Iraq by the Islamic State (ISIS) that marked the beginning of the rapid territorial expansion by the group, prompting an American-led intervention . By the end of 2017, ISIS had lost all its territory in Iraq. Iran has also intervened and expanded its influence through sectarian Khomeinist militias. In 2014, Sunni insurgents belonging to
408-399: A democratic , federal parliamentary republic . The federal government is composed of the executive , legislative , and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law. The president is
544-657: A glide ratio comparable to that of the Space Shuttle . On 20 June 2024, Russia claimed that it used, for the first time, a FAB-3000 modified with a guidance wing kit near Lyptsi in Kharkiv Oblast. Russian media claimed that it was aimed at Ukrainian soldiers, Ukraine claimed that it narrowly missed a hospital. Russia announced that it was restarting production of the FAB-3000 in March 2024. More purported uses of
680-521: A mandate over Syria . In Iraq, under British mandate, tensions were rising as local forces increasingly resisted foreign control. A rebellion erupted , challenging British authority, and the need for a new strategy became clear. In 1921, the Cairo Conference , led by British officials including Winston Churchill and T.E. Lawrence , decided that Faisal, now exiled in London , would become
816-407: A reagent in chemical synthesis , but it is best known as an explosive material with convenient handling properties. The explosive yield of TNT is considered to be the standard comparative convention of bombs and asteroid impacts. In chemistry , TNT is used to generate charge transfer salts . TNT was first synthesized in 1861 by German chemist Joseph Wilbrand and was originally used as
952-475: A 100-hour-long ground assault against Iraqi forces in southern Iraq and Kuwait. Iraq also attempted to invade Saudi Arabia and attacked Israel. Iraq's armed forces were devastated during the war. Sanctions were imposed on Iraq, following the invasion of Kuwait, which resulted economic decline. After the end of the war in 1991, Iraqi Kurds and Shi'ite Muslims in northern and southern Iraq, led several uprisings against Saddam's regime , but these were repressed. It
1088-448: A U.S. M117 bomb, nominally 750 lb (340 kg), is typically around 820 lb (370 kg). Most modern air-dropped GP bombs are designed to minimise drag for external carriage on aircraft lacking bomb bays. In low-altitude attacks, there is a danger of the attacking aircraft being caught in the blast of its own weapons. To address this problem, GP bombs are often fitted with retarders , parachutes or pop-out fins that slow
1224-543: A basic 'iron' bomb into a laser-guided bomb (like the U.S. Paveway series), an electro-optical guided bomb, or, more recently, GPS -guided weapon (like the U.S. JDAM ). The combination is cheaper than a true guided missile (and can be more easily upgraded or replaced in service), but is substantially more accurate than an unguided bomb. During WWII the British adopted a description of general-purpose bombs as medium capacity ( MC ) bombs. The 1,000 lb (450 kg) MC
1360-697: A coastline measuring 58 km (36 miles) on the northern Persian Gulf . Further north, but below the main headwaters only, the country easily encompasses the Mesopotamian Alluvial Plain . Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates , run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab , thence the Persian Gulf. Broadly flanking this estuary (known as arvandrūd : اروندرود among Iranians) are marshlands, semi-agricultural. Flanking and between
1496-567: A decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires. Since its independence, Iraq has experienced spells of significant economic and military growth alongside periods instability and conflict . The region remained a part of the Ottoman Empire until the end of World War I, after which Mandatory Iraq was established by the British Empire in 1921. It gained indepdence as
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#17327986129341632-836: A few citizens and having the state redistribute the land. In 1959, Abd al-Wahab al-Shawaf led an uprising in Mosul against Qasim. The uprising was crushed by the government forces. He claimed Kuwait as part of Iraq, when it the former was granted independence in 1961. The United Kingdom deployed its army on Iraq–Kuwait border , which forced Qasim to back down. He was overthrown by the Ba'ath Party in February 1963 coup . However internal division with Ba'athist factions caused another coup in November, which brought Colonel Abdul Salam Arif to power. The new regime recognized Kuwait's independence. After
1768-505: A hot arid climate with subtropical influence. Summer temperatures average above 40 °C (104 °F) for most of the country and frequently exceed 48 °C (118.4 °F). Winter temperatures infrequently exceed 15 °C (59.0 °F) with maxima roughly 5 to 10 °C (41.0 to 50.0 °F) and night-time lows 1 to 5 °C (33.8 to 41.0 °F). Typically, precipitation is low; most places receive less than 250 mm (9.8 in) annually, with maximum rainfall occurring during
1904-479: A member of the League of Nations . Faisal's reign was marked by his efforts to balance the pressures of external influence and internal demands for sovereignty. He was admired for his diplomatic skill and his commitment to steering Iraq toward self-determination. Untimely, he died from a heart attack on 8 September 1933, leaving his son Ghazi to inherit the throne. King Ghazi’s reign was brief and turbulent, as Iraq
2040-611: A million and 1.5 million people. Kuwait's refusal to waive Iraq's debt and reducing oil prices pushed Saddam to take military action against it. On 2 August 1990, the Iraqi forces invaded and annexed Kuwait as its 19th governorate , starting the Gulf War . This led to military intervention by the United States-led alliance . The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets and then launched
2176-641: A million were produced by the end of the war. During the Korean War and Vietnam War the U.S. used older designs like the M65 , M117 and M118 , which had an explosive content about 65% higher than most contemporary weapons. Although some of these weapons remain in the U.S. arsenal, they are little used and the M117 is primarily carried only by the B-52 Stratofortress . The primary U.S. GP bombs are
2312-821: A one-sided referendum was held in Iraq’s Kurdistan Region regarding Kurdish independence , which resulted in 92% (of those participating in the region) voting in favor of independence. The referendum was rejected by the federal government and regarded as illegal by the Federal Supreme Court . Following this, an armed conflict ensued between the federal government and the Kurdistan Regional Government which resulted in Kurdish defeat and capitulation; Kurdistan Region subsequently lost territory it had previously occupied, and
2448-512: A peace treaty was signed between Saddam and Barzani, granting autonomy to Kurds . He introduced free healthcare and education, nationalized oil, promoted women's rights and developed infrastructure. Within few years, Iraq became one of the most developed countries in the world. In 1974, the second Iraqi–Kurdish war began and border clashes with Iran took place on Shatt al-Arab . Iran supported Kurdish militants. The Algiers Agreement signed in 1975, by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Saddam solved
2584-532: A pollutant whose removal is a priority. The USEPA maintains that TNT levels in soil should not exceed 17.2 milligrams per kilogram of soil and 0.01 milligrams per litre of water. Dissolution is a measure of the rate that solid TNT in contact with water is dissolved. The relatively low aqueous solubility of TNT causes solid particles to be continuously released to the environment over extended periods of time. Studies have shown that TNT dissolves more slowly in saline water than in freshwater. However, when salinity
2720-422: A pressure wave from a starter explosive, called an explosive booster . Although blocks of TNT are available in various sizes (e.g. 250 g, 500 g, 1,000 g), it is more commonly encountered in synergistic explosive blends comprising a variable percentage of TNT plus other ingredients. Examples of explosive blends containing TNT include: Upon detonation , TNT undergoes a decomposition equivalent to
2856-513: A railway and an oil pipeline to the Mediterranean . Although Faisal succeeded in securing greater autonomy for Iraq, British influence remained strong, particularly in the country’s oil industry. In 1930, Iraq signed a treaty with Britain that gave the country a measure of political independence while maintaining British control over key aspects, including military presence and oil rights. By 1932, Iraq gained formal independence, becoming
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#17327986129342992-524: A referendum with a 78% overall majority, although the percentage of support varied widely between the country's territories. The new constitution was backed by the Shia and Kurdish communities, but was rejected by Arab Sunnis. Under the terms of the constitution, the country conducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on 15 December 2005. All three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines, as did Assyrian and Turcoman minorities. Law no. 188 of
3128-403: A single nose and a single tail fuze. The bomb could be dropped from up to 39,000 ft (12,000 m) and up to 620 mph (1,000 km/h). The original, 1946-series bombs had poor ballistic characteristics at supersonic speed, and their construction was fragile. As an interim measure, upgraded versions of the bombs were built with thicker walls and no nose fuze. The thick-walled version of
3264-415: A variety of tactical applications and relatively cheap. General-purpose bombs are often identified by their weight (e.g., 500 lb or 230 kg). In many cases this is strictly a nominal weight (the counterpart to the caliber of a firearm), and the actual weight of each individual weapon may vary depending on its retardation, fusing, carriage, and guidance systems. For example, the actual weight of
3400-529: A very limited amount of mineralization of TNT in a liquid culture, though not in soil. An organism capable of the remediation of large amounts of TNT in soil has yet to be discovered. Both wild and transgenic plants can phytoremediate explosives from soil and water. Iraq Iraq , officially the Republic of Iraq , is a country in West Asia and a core country in the geopolitical region known as
3536-456: A yellow dye. Its potential as an explosive was not recognized for three decades, mainly because it was so much less sensitive than other explosives known at the time. Its explosive properties were discovered in 1891 by another German chemist, Carl Häussermann. TNT can be safely poured when liquid into shell cases, and is so insensitive that in 1910 it was exempted from the UK's Explosives Act 1875 and
3672-581: Is 14.5 GJ/t (14.5 MJ/kg or 4.027 kWh/kg), which requires that the carbon in TNT fully react with atmospheric oxygen, which does not occur in the initial event. For comparison, gunpowder contains 3 MJ/kg, dynamite contains 7.5 MJ/kg, and gasoline contains 47.2 MJ/kg (though gasoline requires an oxidant , so an optimized gasoline and O 2 mixture contains 10.4 MJ/kg). Various methods can be used to detect TNT, including optical and electrochemical sensors and explosive-sniffing dogs. In 2013, researchers from
3808-461: Is a function of their ability to associate with the mobile phase (water) and a stationary phase (soil). Materials that associate strongly with soils move slowly through soil. The association constant for TNT with soil is 2.7 to 11 L/kg of soil. This means that TNT has a one- to tenfold tendency to adhere to soil particulates than not when introduced into the soil. Hydrogen bonding and ion exchange are two suggested mechanisms of adsorption between
3944-475: Is a major process that impacts the transformation of energetic compounds. The alteration of a molecule in photolysis occurs by direct absorption of light energy or by the transfer of energy from a photosensitized compound. Phototransformation of TNT "results in the formation of nitrobenzenes , benzaldehydes , azodicarboxylic acids, and nitrophenols , as a result of the oxidation of methyl groups , reduction of nitro groups , and dimer formation." Evidence of
4080-551: Is a modified enhanced Mk 82 warhead. The Russian term for general-purpose bomb is fugasnaya aviatsionnaya bomba (FAB) and followed by the bomb's nominal weight in kilograms. Most Russian iron bombs have circular ring airfoils rather than the fins used by Western types. In 1946 the Soviet Union developed a series of freefall bombs in four sizes 550 lb (250 kg), 1,100 lb (500 kg), 3,300 lb (1,500 kg), and 6,600 lb (3,000 kg) and sharing
4216-737: Is a reactive molecule and is particularly prone to react with reduced components of sediments or photodegradation in the presence of sunlight. TNT is thermodynamically and kinetically capable of reacting with a wide number of components of many environmental systems. This includes wholly abiotic reactants, like hydrogen sulfide , Fe , or microbial communities, both oxic and anoxic and photochemical degradation. Soils with high clay contents or small particle sizes and high total organic carbon content have been shown to promote TNT transformation. Possible TNT transformations include reduction of one, two, or three nitro-moieties to amines and coupling of amino transformation products to form dimers . Formation of
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4352-510: Is altered, TNT dissolves at the same speed. Because TNT is moderately soluble in water, it can migrate through subsurface soil, and cause groundwater contamination. Adsorption is a measure of the distribution between soluble and sediment adsorbed contaminants following attainment of equilibrium. TNT and its transformation products are known to adsorb to surface soils and sediments, where they undergo reactive transformation or remained stored. The movement or organic contaminants through soils
4488-400: Is among global centers for oil and gas industry . In addition, the country has been popular for its agriculture and tourism. Since its independence, it has experienced spells of significant economic and military growth alongside periods instability and conflict . The country is putting efforts to rebuild after the war with foreign support . There are several suggested origins for
4624-460: Is at risk of desertification . Nearly 40% of Iraq "has been overtaken by blowing desert sands that claim tens of thousands of acres of arable land every year". However, in 2023, Mohammed Shia al-Sudani announced that government was working on a wider "Iraqi vision for climate action". The plan would include promoting clean and renewable energy, new irrigation and water treatment projects and reduced industrial gas flaring, he said. Sudani said Iraq
4760-421: Is consumed by the manufacturing process, but the diluted sulfuric acid can be reconcentrated and reused. After nitration, TNT can either be purified by crystallization from an organic solvent or stabilized by a process called sulfitation, where the crude TNT is treated with aqueous sodium sulfite solution to remove less stable isomers of TNT and other undesired reaction products. The rinse water from sulfitation
4896-764: Is either / ɪ ˈ r ɑː k / (the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary and the first one in Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary ) or / ɪ ˈ r æ k / (listed first by MQD ), the American Heritage Dictionary , and the Random House Dictionary . When the British established the Hashemite king on 23 August 1921, Faisal I of Iraq , the official English name of
5032-676: Is estimated that as many as 100,000 people, including many civilians were killed. During the uprisings, the United States, the United Kingdom, Turkey and France, claiming authority under UNSC Resolution 688 , established the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish population from attacks and autonomy was given to Kurds. raq was also affected by the Iraqi Kurdish Civil War from 1994 to 1997. Around 40,000 fighters and civilians were killed. Between 2001 and 2003,
5168-423: Is generally saturated with the maximum amount of TNT that will dissolve in water (about 150 parts per million (ppm).) However it has an indefinite composition that depends on the exact process; in particular, it may also contain cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX) if the plant uses TNT/RDX mixtures, or HMX if TNT/HMX is used. Red water (also known as "Sellite water") is produced during the process used to purify
5304-408: Is known as red water and is a significant pollutant and waste product of TNT manufacture. Control of nitrogen oxides in feed nitric acid is very important because free nitrogen dioxide can result in oxidation of the methyl group of toluene. This reaction is highly exothermic and carries with it the risk of a runaway reaction leading to an explosion. In the laboratory, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene
5440-460: Is less a danger in a land-based facility, where the personnel can be evacuated with relative ease, and the building be the only loss. At sea, the crew and munitions share a facility (the ship), and thus are in much more danger of fire reaching munitions (which tend to be more closely packed, due to space limitations). Also, losing a munitions storage building on land is far cheaper than sacrificing an entire naval vessel, even if one could easily evacuate
5576-451: Is likely to be lower "than TNT in subsurface environments where specific adsorption to clay minerals dominates the sorption process." Thus, the mobility of TNT and its transformation products are dependent on the characteristics of the sorbent. The mobility of TNT in groundwater and soil has been extrapolated from "sorption and desorption isotherm models determined with humic acids , in aquifer sediments, and soils". From these models, it
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5712-515: Is listed as a possible human carcinogen , with carcinogenic effects demonstrated in animal experiments with rats, although effects upon humans so far amount to none (according to IRIS of March 15, 2000). Consumption of TNT produces red urine through the presence of breakdown products and not blood as sometimes believed. Some military testing grounds are contaminated with wastewater from munitions programs, including contamination of surface and subsurface waters which may be colored pink because of
5848-403: Is one of the most commonly used explosives for military, industrial, and mining applications. TNT has been used in conjunction with hydraulic fracturing (popularly known as fracking), a process used to acquire oil and gas from shale formations. The technique involves displacing and detonating nitroglycerin in hydraulically induced fractures followed by wellbore shots using pelletized TNT. TNT
5984-404: Is predicted that TNT has a low retention and transports readily in the environment. Compared to other explosives, TNT has a higher association constant with soil, meaning it adheres more with soil than with water. Conversely, other explosives, such as RDX and HMX with low association constants (ranging from 0.06 to 7.3 L/kg and 0 to 1.6 L/kg respectively) can move more rapidly in water. TNT
6120-427: Is produced by a two-step process. A nitrating mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids is used to nitrate toluene to a mixture of mono- and di-nitrotoluene isomers, with careful cooling to maintain temperature. The nitrated toluenes are then separated, washed with dilute sodium bicarbonate to remove oxides of nitrogen, and then carefully nitrated with a mixture of fuming nitric acid and sulfuric acid. TNT
6256-400: Is used as a reference point for many other explosives, including nuclear weapons, as their energy content is measured in equivalent tonnes (metric tons, t) of TNT. The energy used by NIST to define the equivalent is 4.184 GJ /t. For safety assessments, it has been stated that the detonation of TNT, depending on circumstances, can release 2.673–6.702 GJ/t. The heat of combustion however
6392-544: Is used to allow the aircraft escape the "blast pattern" in low altitude delivery. The principal modern British bombs are 540 lb (240 kg) and 1,000 lb (450 kg), and are no longer in service. The smaller 540 lb was retired with the demise of the Harrier GR9 aircraft with the larger 1000 lb being retired in Apr 2019. Currently the UK only uses the 500 lb class Paveway IV weapon system. The warhead
6528-454: Is usually considered more problematic, as TNT has very low soil mobility. Red water is significantly more toxic and as such it has always been considered hazardous waste. It has traditionally been disposed of by evaporation to dryness (as the toxic components are not volatile), followed by incineration. Much research has been conducted to develop better disposal processes. Because of its suitability in construction and demolition, TNT has become
6664-493: Is valued partly because of its insensitivity to shock and friction, with reduced risk of accidental detonation compared to more sensitive explosives such as nitroglycerin . TNT melts at 80 °C (176 °F), far below the temperature at which it will spontaneously detonate, allowing it to be poured or safely combined with other explosives. TNT neither absorbs nor dissolves in water, which allows it to be used effectively in wet environments. To detonate, TNT must be triggered by
6800-510: The 14 July Revolution in 1958 was led by the Brigadier General and nationalist Abd al-Karim Qasim . This revolt was strongly anti-imperial and anti-monarchical in nature and had strong socialist elements. King Faysal II , Prince Abd al-Ilah , and Nuri al-Sa'id , along with the royal family were killed brutally. Qasim controlled Iraq through military rule and in 1958 he began a process of forcibly reducing surplus land owned by
6936-408: The 1967 USS Forrestal fire , United States Navy and United States Marine Corps GP bombs are distinguished by a thick ablative fire-retardant coating, which is designed to delay any potential accidental explosion in the event of a shipboard fire. Land-based air forces typically do not use such coatings, largely because they add some 30 lb (14 kg) to the weight of the complete weapon. Fire
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#17327986129347072-407: The 6th millennium BC , the fertile alluvial plains between Iraq's Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, referred to as the region of Mesopotamia , gave rise to some of the world's earliest cities , civilizations , and empires . It was known as a " Cradle of Civilisation " that saw the inventions of a writing system , mathematics , timekeeping , a calendar , astrology , and a law code . Following
7208-496: The Fragile States Index , Iraq was the world's 31st most politically unstable country. Transparency International ranks Iraq's government as the 23rd most corrupt government in the world. Under Saddam, the government employed 1 million employees, but this increased to around 7 million in 2016. In combination with decreased oil prices, the government budget deficit is near 25% of GDP as of 2016 . In September 2017,
7344-543: The Indian Institutes of Technology using noble-metal quantum clusters could detect TNT at the sub- zeptomolar (10 mol/m ) level. TNT is poisonous, and skin contact can cause skin irritation, causing the skin to turn a bright yellow-orange color. During the First World War , female munition workers who handled the chemical found that their skin turned bright yellow, which resulted in their acquiring
7480-643: The Iraqi National Alliance . The Iraqi National Movement is led by Iyad Allawi , a secular Shia widely supported by Sunnis. The party has a more consistent anti-sectarian perspective than most of its rivals. The Kurdistan List is dominated by two parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party led by Masood Barzani and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan headed by Jalal Talabani . Baghdad is Iraq's capital, home to
7616-422: The Islamic State group seized control of large swathes of land including several major cities, like Tikrit , Fallujah and Mosul , creating hundreds of thousands of internally displaced persons amid reports of atrocities by ISIL fighters. An estimated 500,000 civilians fled from Mosul. Around 5,000 Yazidis were killed in the genocide by ISIS, as a part of the war. With the help of US-led intervention in Iraq ,
7752-525: The Kingdom of Iraq in 1932. Following a coup d'état in 1958 , Iraq became a republic, led by Abdul Karim Qasim followed by Abdul Salam Arif and then Abdul Rahman Arif. The Ba'ath Party came to power in the 1968 and ruled as one-party state , under the leadership of Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr , followed by Saddam Hussein , who started major wars against Iran and Kuwait . In 2003, the Iraq War started after
7888-628: The Kurdistan Regional Government and Ansar al-Islam engaged in conflict, which would merge with the upcoming war. After the September 11 attacks , George W. Bush began planning the overthrow of Saddam in what is now widely regarded as a false pretense . Saddam's Iraq was included in Bush's " axis of evil ". The United States Congress passed joint resolution , which authorized the use of armed force against Iraq. In November 2002. The UN Security Council passed resolution 1441 . On 20 March 2003,
8024-547: The Mark 80 series . This class of weapons uses a shape known as Aero 1A, designed by Ed Heinemann of Douglas Aircraft as the result of studies in 1946 . It has a length-to-diameter ratio of about 8:1, and results in minimal drag for the carrier aircraft. The Mark 80 series was not used in combat until the Vietnam War, but has since replaced most earlier GP weapons. It includes four basic weapon types: Vietnam service showed
8160-1021: The Middle East . With a population exceeding 46 million, it is the 35th-most populous country. It consists of 18 governorates . The country is bordered by Turkey to the north , Saudi Arabia to the south , Iran to the east , the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast , Jordan to the southwest , and Syria to the west . The capital and largest city is Baghdad . Iraqi people are diverse; mostly Arabs , as well as Kurds , Turkmen , Yazidis , Assyrians , Armenians , Mandaeans , Persians and Shabakis with similarly diverse geography and wildlife . Most Iraqis are Muslims – minority faiths include Christianity , Yazidism , Zoroastrianism , Mandaeism , Yarsanism and Judaism . The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish ; others also recognized in specific regions are Assyrian , Turkish , and Armenian . Starting as early as
8296-729: The Muslim conquest , Baghdad became the capital and the largest city of the Abbasid Caliphate . During the time of the Islamic Golden Age , the city evolved into a significant cultural and intellectual center, and garnered a worldwide reputation for its academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom . It was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258 during the siege of Baghdad , resulting in
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#17327986129348432-806: The Neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great , who declared himself the " King of Babylon ." The city of Babylon , the ancient seat of Babylonian power, became one of the key capitals of the Achaemenid Empire. Ancient Iraq, known as the Mesopotamia, is home to world's first Jewish diaspora community, which emerged during the Babylonian exile. The Babylonians were defeated by
8568-539: The Sharif of Makkah , the European powers had different plans for the region. Following the British withdrawal of support for a unified Arab state , Hussein's son, Faisal , briefly declared the Kingdom of Syria in 1920, encompassing parts of what are now Lebanon , Palestine , Jordan , and Syria . However, the kingdom was short-lived, crushed by local opposition and the military might of France, which had been granted
8704-1183: The Société des Ateliers Mécaniques de Pont-sur-Sambre . The acronym “SAMP” identifies these bombs, along with various type codes such as EU2 and T200. Since 2019, bomb casings are made at a new factory in Rouvignies and are filled with explosives at another factory in Sorgues . India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has developed the High Speed Low Drag Bomb or HSLD series of general-purpose bombs. Size variations of these bombs are 100 kg (220 lb), 250 kg (550 lb), 450 kg (990 lb) and 500 kg (1,100 lb). The 450 kg and 500 kg bombs have precision-guided versions as well. The bombs are manufactured by Munitions India Limited . Other countries, including Australia, Azerbaijan, Brazil, Chile, Greece, Israel, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Romania, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, and Turkey, manufacture their own bombs, most of which are either licensed versions of
8840-606: The Umayyads in 661. Karbala is considered as one of the holiest cities in Shia Islam, following the Battle of Karbala , which took place in 680. With the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate in the mid-8th century, Iraq became the center of Islamic rule, with Baghdad , founded in 762, serving as the capital. Baghdad flourished during the Islamic Golden Age , becoming a global center for culture, science, and intellectualism. However,
8976-528: The alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. As an Arabic word, عراق ʿirāq means "hem", "shore", "bank", or "edge", so that the name by folk etymology came to be interpreted as "the escarpment ", such as at the south and east of the Jazira Plateau, which forms the northern and western edge of the "al-Iraq arabi" area. The Arabic pronunciation is [ʕiˈrɑːq] . In English, it
9112-410: The king of Iraq . This decision was seen as a way to maintain British influence in the region while placating local demands for leadership. Upon his coronation, he focused on unifying a land formerly divided into three Ottoman provinces — Mosul , Baghdad , and Basra . He worked hard to gain the support of Iraq's diverse population, including both Sunnis and Shiites , and paid special attention to
9248-475: The steric hindrance of the NO 2 group in the ortho position . Research has shown that in freshwater environments, with high abundances of Ca , the adsorption of TNT and its transformation products to soils and sediments may be lower than observed in a saline environment, dominated by K and Na . Therefore, when considering the adsorption of TNT, the type of soil or sediment and the ionic composition and strength of
9384-482: The withdrawal of US troops in 2011, the occupation ceased and war ended. The war in Iraq has resulted in between 151,000 and 1.2 million Iraqis being killed . The subsequent efforts to rebuild the country amidst sectarian violence and the rise of the Islamic State began after the war. Iraq was galvanized by the civil war in Syria. Continuing discontent over Nouri al-Maliki 's government led to protests , after which
9520-611: The 1980s, Soviet Tupolev Tu-16 and Tupolev Tu-22M bombers used massive FAB-1500, FAB-3000, FAB-5000NG , and FAB-9000 bombs to devastating effect during the Panjshir offensives . More recently, many Russian FAB-500 and FAB-1500 general-purpose bombs were converted to precision munitions through the addition of mass-produced so-called UMPK kits, which add battery-powered electrically-actuated pop-out wings and flight control surfaces as well as guidance electronics, all of whose addition turns unguided gravity bombs into smart bombs with
9656-426: The 2003–2011, flow is restored and the ecosystem has begun to recover. Iraqi corals are some of the most extreme heat-tolerant as the seawater in this area ranges between 14 and 34 °C. Aquatic or semi-aquatic wildlife occurs in and around these, the major lakes are Lake Habbaniyah , Lake Milh , Lake Qadisiyah and Lake Tharthar . The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as
9792-527: The 20th century amatol , a mixture of TNT with ammonium nitrate , was a widely used military explosive. TNT can be detonated with a high velocity initiator or by efficient concussion. For many years, TNT used to be the reference point for the Figure of Insensitivity . TNT had a rating of exactly 100 on the "F of I" scale. The reference has since been changed to a more sensitive explosive called RDX , which has an F of I rating of 80. The energy density of TNT
9928-676: The Ba'ath Army and expelling Ba'athists from the new government. The insurgents fought against the coalition forces and the newly installed government. Saddam was captured and executed. The Shia–Sunni civil war took place from 2006 to 2008. The coalition forces were criticized for war crimes such as the Abu Ghraib torture , the Fallujah massacre , the Mahmudiyah rape and killings and the Mukaradeeb wedding party massacre . Following
10064-824: The FAB-100, FAB-250, FAB-500, and FAB-1500, roughly corresponding to the U.S. Mark 80 series. These have seen widespread service in Russia, Warsaw Pact nations, and various export countries. Larger bombs with less streamlined shapes also remained in the Soviet arsenal, primarily for use by heavy bombers. In the Iran–Iraq War , FAB-5000 (11,000 lb or 5,000 kg) and FAB-9000 (20,000 lb or 9,000 kg) bombs were dropped by Iraqi Air Force Tupolev Tu-22 bombers, generally against large, fixed targets in Iran. In Afghanistan in
10200-528: The Iraqi forces successfully defeated ISIS. The war officially ended in 2017, with the Iraqi government declaring victory over ISIS. In October 2022, Abdul Latif Rashid was elected president after winning the parliamentary election. In 2022, Mohammed Shia al-Sudani became Prime Minister . The electrical grid faces systemic pressures due to climate change, fuel shortages, and an increase in demand. Corruption remains endemic throughout Iraqi governance while
10336-579: The Mamluk regime and reimposed their direct control over Iraq. Iraq's modern history began in the wake of World War I, as the region emerged from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Arab forces, inspired by the promise of independence, had helped dismantle the Ottoman hold on the Middle East, but the dream of a united, sovereign Arab state was soon dashed. Despite agreements made with Hussein ibn Ali ,
10472-559: The Mk 81 "Firecracker" to be sub par, and it was withdrawn from U.S. service. However, recently, precision-guided variants of the Mk ;81 bomb have begun a return to service, based on U.S. experience in Iraq after 2003, and the desire to reduce collateral damage compared to Mk 82 and larger bombs (e.g., when attacking a single small building in a populated area). Since the Vietnam War and
10608-641: The Persian Empire, under the leadership of Cyrus the Great . Following the fall of Babylon, the Achaemenid Empire took control of the Mesopotamian region. Enslaved Jews were freed from the Babylonian captivity, though many remained in the land and thus the Jewish community grew in the region. Iraq is the location of numerous Jewish sites, which are also revered by the Muslims and Christians. In
10744-412: The U.S. Mark 80 series or close copies. Trinitrotoluene Trinitrotoluene ( / ˌ t r aɪ ˌ n aɪ t r oʊ ˈ t ɒ lj u iː n / ), more commonly known as TNT (and more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene , and by its preferred IUPAC name 2-methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene ), is a chemical compound with the formula C 6 H 2 (NO 2 ) 3 CH 3 . TNT is occasionally used as
10880-494: The United States-endorsed sectarian political system has driven increased levels of violent terrorism and sectarian conflicts. Climate change is driving wide-scale droughts while water reserves are rapidly depleting. The country has been in a prolonged drought since 2020 and experienced its second-driest season in the past four decades in 2021. Water flows in the Tigris and Euphrates are down 30-40%. Half
11016-470: The United States-led coalition forces invaded Iraq and overthrew Saddam. The war subsequently turned into an insurgency and sectarian civil war , with American troops withdrawing in 2011. Between 2013 and 2017, Iraq was once more in a state of war, with the rise and subsequent fall of Islamic State . Today post-war conflict in Iraq continues at a lower scale, which has been an obstacle to
11152-577: The United States-led coalition invaded Iraq, as part of global war on terror . Within weeks, coalition forces occupied much of Iraq, with the Iraqi Army adopting guerrilla tactics to confront coalition forces. Following the fall of Baghdad in the first week of April, Saddam's regime had completely lost control of Iraq. A statue of Saddam was toppled in Baghdad, symbolizing the end of his rule. The Coalition Provisional Authority began disbanding
11288-477: The bomb in the same region took place in the next days with videos appeared online. The Russian Ministry of Defense officially announced the use of the bomb on 14 July 2024 by publishing a video which showed a Su-34 tactical bomber launching it. France produces or has produced numerous types of general-purpose bombs with weights ranging from 50 kg (110 lb) to 1,000 kg (2,200 lb), including US Mark 80 models. Until 2011, bomb casings were made by
11424-427: The bomb's descent to allow the aircraft time to escape the detonation. GP bombs can be fitted with a variety of fuzes and fins for different uses. One notable example is the " daisy cutter " fuze used in Vietnam War era American weapons, an extended probe designed to ensure that the bomb would detonate on contact (even with foliage) rather than burying itself in earth or mud, which would reduce its effectiveness. (This
11560-413: The bomb's stabilizers. The smaller (less than 6,600 lb or 3,000 kg) bombs had a single nose and a single tail fuze, while the larger weapons shared a single nose fuze and two base fuzes. The FAB-9000 (20,000 lb or 9,000 kg) weapon was roughly comparable to the wartime Grand Slam bomb . It was used by Soviet aircraft designers as a substitute for early nuclear weapons when determining
11696-403: The bombs was built until 1956. The 1954 series of high-drag bombs was built in six sizes: 550 lb (250 kg), 1,100 lb (500 kg), 3,300 lb (1,500 kg), 6,600 lb (3,000 kg), 11,000 lb (5,000 kg), and 20,000 lb (9,000 kg). A feature of the 1954 series of bombs is the ballistic ring on the nose of the bomb which acts as a vortex generator to aid
11832-653: The city's prosperity declined following the Buwayhid and Seljuq invasions in the 10th century and suffered further with the Mongol invasion of 1258. Iraq later came under the control of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. During the years 1747–1831, Iraq was ruled by a Mamluk dynasty of Georgian origin, who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow
11968-515: The country changed from Mesopotamia to the endonymic Iraq . Since January 1992, the official name of the state is "Republic of Iraq" ( Jumhūriyyat al-ʿIrāq ), reaffirmed in the 2005 Constitution . Iraq largely coincides with the ancient region of Mesopotamia , often referred to as the cradle of civilization . The history of Mesopotamia extends back to the Lower Paleolithic period, with significant developments continuing through
12104-569: The country's Shiite communities, symbolically choosing the date of his coronation to coincide with Eid al-Ghadeer , a key day for Shiite Muslims. His reign laid the foundations of modern Iraq. Faisal worked to establish key state institutions and fostered a sense of national identity. His education reforms included the founding of Ahl al-Bayt University in Baghdad, and he encouraged the migration of Syrian exiles to Iraq to serve as doctors and educators. Faisal also envisioned infrastructural links between Iraq, Syria, and Jordan , including plans for
12240-411: The country's capacity to produce energy with four oil, gas and renewables projects. According to experts, the project will "accelerate Iraq’s path to energy self-sufficiency and advance Iraq’s collective climate change objectives". The wildlife of Iraq includes its flora and fauna and their natural habitats . Iraq has multiple and diverse biomes which include the mountainous region in the north to
12376-408: The country's farmland is at risk of desertification . Nearly 40% of Iraq "has been overtaken by blowing desert sands that claim tens of thousands of acres of arable land every year." Iraq lies between latitudes 29° and 38° N , and longitudes 39° and 49° E (a small area lies west of 39°). Spanning 437,072 km (168,754 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It has
12512-724: The country's stability. A federal parliamentary republic country, Iraq is considered an emerging middle power . It is a founding member of the United Nations , the OPEC as well as of the Arab League , the Organization of Islamic Cooperation , Non-Aligned Movement , and the International Monetary Fund . With a strategic location, the country has one of the largest oil reserves in the world and
12648-596: The crew. All Mk 80 bombs have both nose and tail fuze wells and can accept a variety of fuzes. Various nose and tail kits can be fitted to adapt the weapon for a variety of roles. Mk 80 series bomb bodies are also used in the following weapons: On August 14, 2020, Kaman Precision Products received roughly $ 57.3 million for a "cockpit-selectable" bomb fuze to be used on Mark 80 warheads (guided and unguided). The contract involved foreign military sales ( FMS ) to 25 unnamed countries. Dumb Mk 80 bombs could be converted to smart bombs with attached kits: The retarder
12784-405: The crude TNT. It has a complex composition containing more than a dozen aromatic compounds, but the principal components are inorganic salts ( sodium sulfate , sodium sulfite , sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate ) and sulfonated nitroaromatics . Pink and red water are colorless at the time of generation; the color is produced by photolytic reactions under the influence of sunlight. Despite
12920-596: The dispute and Iran withdrew support for the Kurds, resulting their defeat in the war. In 1973, Iraq participated in the Yom Kippur War against Israel, alongside Syria and Egypt . An attempt to ban an annual pilgrimage Karbala caused an uprising by Shia Muslims across Iraq . Another Shia uprising took place from 1979 to 1980, as a followup to the Islamic Revolution in Iran. On 16 July 1979, Saddam
13056-642: The eastern part of the Syrian Desert . Rocky deserts cover about 40 percent of Iraq. Another 30 percent is mountainous with bitterly cold winters. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611 m (11,847 ft). Iraq is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Zagros Mountains forest steppe , Middle East steppe , Mesopotamian Marshes , Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests , Arabian Desert , Mesopotamian shrub desert , and South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert . Much of Iraq has
13192-545: The establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, after which the region became known as Iraq. Within its borders lies the ancient land of Sumer , which emerged between 6000 and 5000 BC during the Neolithic Ubaid period . Sumer is recognized as the world's earliest civilization, marking the beginning of urban development, written language, and monumental architecture. Iraq's territory also includes
13328-516: The exudated liquid into the fuze screw thread can form fire channels , increasing the risk of accidental detonation. Fuze malfunction can also result from the liquid migrating into the fuze mechanism. Calcium silicate is mixed with TNT to mitigate the tendency towards exudation. Pink water and red water are two distinct types of wastewater related to trinitrotoluene. Pink water is produced from equipment washing processes after munitions filling or demilitarization operations, and as such
13464-482: The federal government has been severely punishing it both politically and economically. In gradual steps, the federal government has consistently weakened Kurdistan Region’s ability to administer its own affairs by revoking crucial authorities that had previously defined its autonomy. Furthermore, since it won a pivotal ICC arbitration case, the federal government has also been refusing Kurdistan Region access to its most important source of income, namely, oil exports, and
13600-517: The following centuries, the regions constituting modern Iraq came under the control of several empires, including the Greeks , Parthians , and Romans , establishing new centers like Seleucia and Ctesiphon . By the 3rd century AD, the region fell under Persian control through the Sasanian Empire , during which time Arab tribes from South Arabia migrated into Lower Mesopotamia, leading to
13736-617: The formation of the Sassanid-aligned Lakhmid kingdom . The Arabic name al-ʿIrāq likely originated during this period. The Sasanian Empire was eventually conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century, bringing Iraq under Islamic rule after the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636. The city of Kufa , founded shortly thereafter, became a central hub for the Rashidun dynasty until their overthrow by
13872-432: The ground water are important factors. The association constants for TNT and its degradation products with clays have been determined. Clay minerals have a significant effect on the adsorption of energetic compounds. Soil properties, such as organic carbon content and cation exchange capacity have significant impacts on the adsorption coefficients. Additional studies have shown that the mobility of TNT degradation products
14008-537: The head of state, the prime minister is the head of government, and the constitution provides for two deliberative bodies, the Council of Representatives and the Council of Union. The judiciary is free and independent of the executive and the legislature. The National Alliance is the main Shia parliamentary bloc, and was established as a result of a merger of Prime Minister Nouri Maliki's State of Law Coalition and
14144-622: The heartlands of the Akkadian , Neo-Sumerian , Babylonian , Neo-Assyrian , and Neo-Babylonian empires, which dominated Mesopotamia and much of the Ancient Near East during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Iraq was a center of innovation in antiquity, producing early written languages , literary works , and significant advancements in astronomy , mathematics , law , and philosophy . This era of indigenous rule ended in 539 BC when
14280-406: The latter has had no other option but to concede. Some have argued that this signals the Iraqi government’s intention to abandon federalism and return to a centralized political system , and in a leaked letter sent in 2023 to the U.S president, the prime minister of Kurdistan region wrote of an impending collapse of Kurdistan Region. In October 2005, the new Constitution of Iraq was approved in
14416-598: The latter's death in 1966, he was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif . Under his rule, Iraq participated in the Six Day War in 1967. Arif was overthrown in the 17 July Revolution in 1968. The Ba'ath Party came to power, with Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr as the president of Iraq. However, the government gradually came under the control of Saddam Hussein , Iraq's then vice-president. Saddam sought to achieve stability between Iraq's ethnic and religious groups. The first Iraqi–Kurdish war ended in 1970, after which
14552-546: The most widely used explosive and thus its toxicity is the most characterized and reported. Residual TNT from manufacture, storage, and use can pollute water, soil, the atmosphere , and the biosphere . The concentration of TNT in contaminated soil can reach 50 g/kg of soil, where the highest concentrations can be found on or near the surface. In September 2001, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) declared TNT
14688-562: The name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin. Another possible etymology for the name is from the Middle Persian word erāq , meaning "lowlands." An Arabic folk etymology for the name is "deeply rooted, well-watered; fertile ". During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī ("Arabian Iraq") for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿAjamī ("Persian Iraq"), for
14824-520: The names, red and pink water are not necessarily different shades; the color depends mainly on the duration of solar exposure. If exposed long enough, "pink" water may turn various shades of pink, red, rusty orange, or black. Because of the toxicity of TNT, the discharge of pink water to the environment has been prohibited in the US and many other countries for decades, but ground contamination may exist in very old plants. However, RDX and tetryl contamination
14960-514: The nation remained divided. Iraq's Sunni-dominated monarchy struggled to reconcile the diverse ethnic and religious groups, particularly the Shiite, Assyrian, Jewish and Kurdish populations, who felt marginalized. In 1958, these tensions culminated in a military coup, inspired by the revolutionary wave sweeping across the Arab world, particularly the 1952 Egyptian Revolution . A coup d'état known as
15096-592: The next six years Iran was on the offensive. The Sunni-led Arab countries and the United States supported Iraq throughout the war . In 1981, Israel destroyed a nuclear reactor of Iraq. In midst of the war, between 1983 to 1986, Kurds led rebellion against the regime . In retaliation, the government coordinated Anfal campaign , led to the killing of 50,000–100,000 civilians. During the war, Saddam extensively used chemical weapons against Iranians. The war, which ended in stalemate in 1988, killed between half
15232-400: The nickname " canary girls " or simply "canaries". People exposed to TNT over a prolonged period tend to experience anemia and abnormal liver functions. Blood and liver effects, spleen enlargement and other harmful effects on the immune system have also been found in animals that ingested or breathed trinitrotoluene. There is evidence that TNT adversely affects male fertility . TNT
15368-514: The nitro functional groups and soil colloids. The number of functional groups on TNT influences the ability to adsorb into soil. Adsorption coefficient values have been shown to increase with an increase in the number of amino groups. Thus, adsorption of the TNT decomposition product 2,4-diamino-6-nitrotoluene (2,4-DANT) was greater than that for 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-ADNT), which was greater than that for TNT. Lower adsorption coefficients for 2,6-DNT compared to 2,4-DNT can be attributed to
15504-455: The photolysis of TNT has been seen due to the color change to pink of TNT-containing wastewaters when exposed to sunlight. Photolysis is more rapid in river water than in distilled water. Ultimately, photolysis affects the fate of TNT primarily in the aquatic environment but could also affect the fate of TNT in soil when the soil surface is exposed to sunlight. The ligninolytic physiological phase and manganese peroxidase system of fungi can cause
15640-404: The political system has exacerbated sectarian conflict. Climate change is driving wide-scale droughts across the country while water reserves are rapidly depleting. The country has been in a prolonged drought since 2020 and experienced its second-driest season in the past four decades in 2021. Water flows in the Tigris and Euphrates are down between 30 and 40%. Half of the country's farmland
15776-409: The presence of TNT. Such contamination, called "pink water", may be difficult and expensive to remedy . TNT is prone to exudation of dinitrotoluenes and other isomers of trinitrotoluene when projectiles containing TNT are stored at higher temperatures in warmer climates. Exudation of impurities leads to formation of pores and cracks (which in turn cause increased shock sensitivity). Migration of
15912-483: The president of Kurdistan Region officially resigned, and finally, the regional government announced that it would respect the Federal Supreme Court's ruling that no Iraqi province is allowed to secede, effectively abandoning the referendum. According to a report published by The Washington Institute for Near East Policy , a U.S-based think tank, since Kurdistan Region’s failed bid to gain independence,
16048-542: The reaction plus some of the reactions and The reaction is exothermic but has a high activation energy in the gas phase (~62 kcal/mol). The condensed phases (solid or liquid) show markedly lower activation energies of roughly 35 kcal/mol due to unique bimolecular decomposition routes at elevated densities. Because of the production of carbon , TNT explosions have a sooty appearance. Because TNT has an excess of carbon, explosive mixtures with oxygen-rich compounds can yield more energy per kilogram than TNT alone. During
16184-523: The region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the plain south of the Hamrin Mountains and did not include the northernmost and westernmost parts of the modern territory of Iraq. Prior to the middle of the 19th century, the term Eyraca Arabica was commonly used to describe Iraq. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of
16320-520: The seat of government. Located in the Green Zone , which contains governmental headquarters and the army, in addition to containing the headquarters of the American embassy and the headquarters of foreign organizations and agencies for other countries. According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Iraq was the third most electoral democratic country in the Middle East . In 2023, according to
16456-647: The ship. The British started replacing Lyddite with TNT in 1907. The United States Navy continued filling armour-piercing shells with explosive D after some other nations had switched to TNT, but began filling naval mines , bombs , depth charges , and torpedo warheads with burster charges of crude grade B TNT with the color of brown sugar and requiring an explosive booster charge of granular crystallized grade A TNT for detonation. High-explosive shells were filled with grade A TNT, which became preferred for other uses as industrial chemical capacity became available for removing xylene and similar hydrocarbons from
16592-401: The size and clearances of bomb bays. In 1962 a new series of streamlined, low-drag bombs was introduced, designed for external carriage by fighter-bomber aircraft rather than in internal bays. They come in only two sizes, 550 lb (250 kg) and 1,100 lb (500 kg). Both bombs have a single nose fuze. Both the 54 and 62 series designs remain in use. The most common of these are
16728-548: The subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War , the United Kingdom invaded Iraq for fear that the government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of its links to the Axis powers . The war started on 2 May, and the British, together with loyal Assyrian Levies , defeated the forces of Al-Gaylani, forcing an armistice on 31 May. Regency of King Faisal II began in 1953. The hopes for Iraq’s future under Faisal II were high, but
16864-518: The toluene feedstock and other nitrotoluene isomer byproducts from the nitrating reactions. In industry, TNT is produced in a three-step process. First, toluene is nitrated with a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acid to produce mononitrotoluene (MNT). The MNT is separated and then renitrated to dinitrotoluene (DNT). In the final step, the DNT is nitrated to trinitrotoluene (TNT) using an anhydrous mixture of nitric acid and oleum . Nitric acid
17000-465: The two major rivers are fertile alluvial plains , as the rivers carry about 60,000,000 m (78,477,037 cu yd) of silt annually to the delta . The central part of the south, which slightly tapers in favour of other countries, is natural vegetation marsh mixed with rice paddies and is humid, relative to the rest of the plains. Iraq has the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range and
17136-472: The two monoamino transformation products, 2-ADNT and 4-ADNT, is energetically favored, and therefore is observed in contaminated soils and ground water. The diamino products are energetically less favorable, and even less likely are the triamino products. The transformation of TNT is significantly enhanced under anaerobic conditions as well as under highly reducing conditions. TNT transformations in soils can occur both biologically and abiotically. Photolysis
17272-473: The wet marshlands along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, while western part of the country comprises mainly desert and some semi-arid regions. Many of Iraq's bird species were endangered, including seven of Iraq's mammal species and 12 of its bird species. The Mesopotamian marches in the middle and south are home to approximately 50 species of birds, and rare species of fish. At risk are some 50% of
17408-665: The winter months. Rainfall during the summer is rare, except in northern parts of the country. The northern mountainous regions have cold winters with occasional heavy snows, sometimes causing extensive flooding. Iraq is highly vulnerable to climate change . The country is subject to rising temperatures and reduced rainfall, and suffers from increasing water scarcity for a human population that rose tenfold between 1890 and 2010 and continues to rise. The country's electrical grid faces systemic pressures due to climate change, fuel shortages, and an increase in demand. Corruption remains endemic throughout all levels of Iraqi governance while
17544-473: The world's marbled teal population that live in the marshes, along with 60% of the world's population of Basra reed-warbler . The Asiatic lion , in the present-day extinct in the region, has remained a prominent symbol of the country throughout history. Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes , during the time of Saddam's government, caused there a significant drop in biological life. Since
17680-474: The year 1959 (Personal Status Law) made polygamy extremely difficult, granted child custody to the mother in case of divorce, prohibited repudiation and marriage under the age of 16. Article 1 of Civil Code also identifies Islamic law as a formal source of law. Iraq had no Sharia courts but civil courts used Sharia for issues of personal status including marriage and divorce. In 1995 Iraq introduced Sharia punishment for certain types of criminal offences. The code
17816-420: Was "moving forward to conclude contracts for constructing renewable energy power plants to provide one-third of our electricity demand by 2030". In addition, Iraq will plant 5 million trees across the country and will create green belts around cities to act as windbreaks against dust storms. In the same year, Iraq and TotalEnergies signed a $ 27 billion energy deal that aims to increase oil production and boost
17952-550: Was acceded to the presidency and chairmanship of the supreme executive body in July 1979. Following months of cross-border raids with Iran, Saddam declared war on Iran in September 1980, initiating the Iran–Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War). Taking advantage of the post- Iranian Revolution chaos in Iran, Iraq captured some territories in southwest Iran, but Iran recaptured all of the lost territories within two years, and for
18088-411: Was developed from 1942 to replace the existing 1000 lb GP (General Purpose) bomb. Initially using most of the components of the 1000 lb GP it was decided to give it a new tail and it was built with a half-inch-thick wall. Fillings could be Amatex , Amatol , Minol , RDX and others. Actual weight was around 1,020 lb (460 kg). It was introduced to service in 1943 and about a quarter of
18224-501: Was impacted by numerous coup attempts. He died in a motor accident in 1939, passing the throne to his young son, Faisal II , who ascended to the throne at just 3 years old. Faisal II’s uncle, Crown Prince Abdullah , assumed regency until the young king came of age. On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and installed a pro-German and pro-Italian government. During
18360-469: Was not considered an explosive for the purposes of manufacture and storage. The German armed forces adopted it as a filling for artillery shells in 1902. TNT-filled armour-piercing shells would explode after they had penetrated the armour of British capital ships , whereas the British Lyddite -filled shells tended to explode upon striking armour, thus expending much of their energy outside
18496-586: Was not the first instance of such devices. As early as World War II , the Luftwaffe was using extended-nose fuzes on bombs dropped by Stuka dive-bombers and other aircraft for exactly the same reason. A blast several feet above the ground is many times more effective and has a far greater radius than one that is delayed until the bomb is below the surface.) GP bombs are commonly used as the warheads for more sophisticated precision-guided munitions. Using various types of seeker and electrically controlled fins turns
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